John Bartram

John Bartram (March 23, 1699 – September 22, 1777), an American-born botanist, horticulturalist, and explorer, established the Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery near Philadelphia. He made significant contributions to the collection, study, and international dissemination of North American flora and fauna, and was a pioneer in the importation and cultivation of non-native plants.

History

The son of a Quaker farmer in rural Pennsylvania, John Bartram possessed from an early age a “great inclination to botany & natural history,” which he pursued through exploration and independent study. In his late twenties, Bartram purchased farm land on the banks of the lower Schuylkill River a few miles from Philadelphia, reserving a half dozen acres for a botanic garden. He explored the surrounding countryside, Bartram foraged for local plants for his garden and for his friends Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Breintnall (d. 1746), who in the early 1730s were creating a comprehensive set of nature prints documenting leaves, ferns, and grasses indigenous to Philadelphia. Breintnell sent a set of the prints in 1733 to Peter Collinson, an enterprising merchant and Fellow of the Royal Society in London. Around the same time Breintnell recommended Bartram as “a very proper person” to furnish Collinson with actual seeds and plants from North America. “Being a native of Pensilvania with a numerous Family,” Breitnall observed, “The profits ariseing from Gathering Seeds would enable him to support it.” With that, Bartram and Collinson embarked on a 35-year exchange of botanical materials that forever altered the vegetation of Britain and America.

In addition to coaching Bartram in techniques for collecting and preserving plants, insects, and animals, Collison fostered his knowledge of taxonomy, requesting early in 1735 that Bartram ship duplicate specimens so that he could “gett them named by our most knowing Botanists and return them again — which will improve thee more than Books.” In May 1737 Collinson returned 208 specimens to Bartram, with identifications made by Johann Jacob Dillenius (1684-1747), curator of the Oxford University Botanic Garden. Working through Collinson's connections, Bartram began supplying plants, seeds, roots, and tubers to eminent members of the European scientific community, including Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), president of the Royal Society and patron of the Chelsea Physic Garden in London; Philip Miller, director of the Chelsea Physic Garden; and Carolus Linnaeus, professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala University in Sweden. He also filled requests from wealthy estate owners ornamenting their gardens with American trees and shrubs, chief among them Collinson's friend Robert James Petre, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742), who preserved some of Bartram's specimens in an herbarium. As demand grew, Bartram began to standardize his practice, assembling boxes containing 100 specimens, mostly of trees and shrubs, that were distributed to British subscribers recruited by Collinson. In years to come, Bartram would supply North American seeds and live plants to correspondents in France, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Scotland, while also meeting a burgeoning market in the American colonies for exotic specimens from around the globe.

The seeds and plants Bartram received in exchange for those he sent abroad allowed him to create a garden of encyclopedic range. He expanded his knowledge of botany by carrying out plant dissections and experiments with the aid of magnifying lenses he devised in consultation with James Logan, an authority on optics. Tinkering with artificial pollination in 1839 at the request of "some ingenious botanists in Leyden," he obtained "curious mixed colours in flowers never known before," which he considered "A gate into A very bare field of experimental knowledge which if Judiciously improved may be A Considerable Addition to ye beauty of ye florists gardens." Bartram’s correspondents frequently rewarded his efforts with books, enabling him to further his education while building a valuable natural history reference library. For his services to Dillenius, he received the first volume of Phillip Miller's Gardener's Dictionary in 1737, with the supplement arriving two years later, the gift of Lord Petre. Bartram entered into a more complicated arrangement with the English botanist Mark Catesby, whose magisterial two-volume Natural History contained several Bartram-supplied plants from Peter Collinson's garden. Beginning in 1740, Catesby sent annual installments of his book to Bartram in exchange for American plants — several of which then appeared in the final supplement to the Natural History. From the late 1730s Bartram had been mulling the idea of forming a society or academy of "ingenious & Curious men" to share knowledge of the "natural secrets arts & scyences." At his prompting, Benjamin Franklin circulated a proposal that led to the establishment in 1743 of the American Philosophical Society, loosely modeled on the Royal Society in England.

With the exception of a four-year hiatus from 1746 to 1749, Bartram traveled up and down the East Coast virtually every year from 1735 through 1766, foraging for unusual plants and touring gardens from New England to Florida. Bartram's attention to the natural habitats of plants shaped his understanding of botany and his approach to the botanic garden and nursery he was developing at his Schuylkill River farm. Armed with Collinson's suggested itinerary, pocket magnifying glass, and letters of introduction, he trekked through Maryland and Virginia in the autumn of 1738, where he was disappointed to find the gardens "poorly furnished with Curiosities." Even those of the wealthy planter William Byrd and the botanist John Clayton lacked the variety of Philadelphia's gardens, enriched by importations from England, France, Holland, and Germany. Bartram frequently visited New Jersey and New York, and while exploring the Catskill mountains in 1842, he made the first of several visits to the Irish-born physician and botanist Cadwallader Colden and his daughter Jane, with whom he carried on a lengthy correspondence. In the spring of 1754, they introduced him to Dr. Alexander Garden of Charleston, who rejoined Bartram in Philadelphia a few months later, spending several days exploring the surrounding countryside in his company. Bartram returned Garden's visit in 1760 on his first trip to North and South Carolina. In Charleston he met Elizabeth and Thomas Lamboll, who became reliable correspondents and suppliers of tropical specimens. A brief encounter with the Charleston horticulturalist Martha Daniell Logan, author of the Gardeners Kalender, initiated a mutually beneficial exchange of seeds, roots, and bulbs — several of which Logan obtained from the gardens of her Charleston neighbors. Bartram reported to his cousin Humphry Marshall in September 1760, "My garden now makes A glorious appearance with ye virginia & Carolina flowers."

In 1745 Collinson's campaigning on Bartram's behalf resulted in the naming of a genera of mosses "Bartramia" by an international group of naturalists led by Linnaeus.

Collinson boosted Bartram’s business by repeatedly publishing his seed catalogue in The Gentleman’s Magazine of London during the 1750s, touting it as “the largest Collection that has ever before been imported into this Kingdom.” By the 1760s Bartram was weary of the seemingly insatiable demand for novel curiosities. He complained to Collinson in 1761: “Do they think I can make new ones[?] I have sent them seeds of almost every tree & shrub from Nova scotia to Carolina... very few is wanting & from ye sea across ye continent to ye lakes... & if I die A martyr to Botany Gods will be done.” In the mid 1760s Bartram began collecting seeds for a new botanic garden in Edinburgh at the request of Dr. John Hope (1725-1786), King's Botanist for Scotland and professor of botany at the University of Edinburgh — a venture that resulted in Bartram's receiving a gold medal for meritorious service in 1772. Many seeds and specimens gathered by Bartram found their way to the royal gardens at Kew, and in September 1764 Bartram assembled a box of "new discovered specimens" of plants for George III. The king retained Bartram's services the following April at an annual stipend of £50, with the expectation that he would explore Britain's new Florida provinces and report back to London — an arrangement that owed much to the lobbying efforts of Collinson and Benjamin Franklin. The king's offer trumped that of Lord Adam Gordon, who simultaneously offered to fund Bartram on expeditions to Quebec and Pensacola, where he hoped to invest in land. Bartram fulfilled his royal commission in February 1766, having spent eight weeks exploring the St. John's River in Florida with his son William. Bartram's report was published in the second edition of Dr. William Stork's A Description of East-Florida, with a Journal Kept by John Bartram of Philadelphia, Botanist to His Majesty for the Floridas; upon A Journey from St. Augustine up the River to St. John's as far as the Lakes (1766).

Texts

• July 18, 1739, Bartram, John, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd II, on the James River, Va. (1992: 121)

“Col Byrd is very prodigal in Gates roads walks hedges & seeders [cedars] trimed finely & A little green house with 2 or 3 [orange] trees . . .”

• September 25, 1748, Kalm, Peter [Pehr], Travels into North America (1770, 1: 112-13)

"Mr. John Bartram is an Englishman, who lives in the country about four miles from Philadelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for these sciences.... He has in several successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts of North America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or fresh roots to England. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce plants, which he first found, and which were never known before."

• November 4, 1754, Garden, Alexander to Cadwallader Colden (quoted in Colden, 1920: 471-72).

"I have met wt very Little new in the Botanic way unless Your acquaintance Bartram, who is what he is & whose acquaintance alone makes amends for other disappointments in that way.... One Day he Dragged me out of town & Entertain'd me so agreably with some Elevated Botanicall thoughts, on oaks, Firns, Rocks & c that I forgot I was hungry till we Landed in his house about four Miles from Town....

"His garden is a perfect portraiture of himself, here you meet wt a row of rare plants almost covered over wt weeds, here with a Beautiful Shrub, even Luxuriant Amongst Briars, and in another corner an Elegant & Lofty tree lost in common thicket — on our way from town to his house he carried me to severall rocks & Dens where he shewed me some of his rare plants, which he had brought from the Mountains &c. In a word he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania [sic] & Every den is an Arbour, Every run of water, a Canal, & every small level Spot a Parterre, where he nurses up some of his Idol Flowers & cultivates his darling productions. He had many plants whose names he did not know, most or all of which I had seen & knew them — On the other hand he had several I had not seen & some I never heard of."

• June 24, 1760, Bartram, John, in a letter to Peter Collinson, describing his plans for the Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery, vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Darlington 1849: 224)

“Dear friend, I am going to build a greenhouse. Stone is got; and hope as soon as harvest is over to begin to build it, to put some pretty flowering winter shrubs, and plants for winter’s diversion; not to be crowded with orange trees, or those natural to the Torrid Zone, but such as will do, being protected from frost.”

• December 3, 1762, Bartram, John, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Darlington 1849: 242–43)

“I can’t find, in our country, that south walls are much protection against our cold, for if we cover so close as to keep out the frost, they are suffocated.”

• c. 1770, Mr. Iw--n Al--z (quoted in St. John de Crèvecœur, J. Hector, Letters from an American Farmer, 1783: 248, 254)

"Let us... pay a visit to Mr. John Bertram [sic], the first botanist, in this new hemisphere.... It is to this simple man that America is indebted for several useful discoveries, and the knowledge of many new plants....

"His house is small, but decent: there was something peculiar in its first appearance, which seemed to distinguish it from those of his neighbours: a small tower in the middle of it, not only helped to strengthen it but afforded convenient room for a staircase. Every disposition of the fields, fences, and trees, seemed to bear the marks of perfect order and regularity, which in rural affairs, always indicate a prosperous industry...

"From his study we went into the garden, which contained a great variety of curious plants and shrubs; some grew in a green-house, over the door of which were written these lines,

" Slave to no sect, who takes no private road,

" But looks through nature, up to nature's God!"

• Darlington, William, 1849, describing Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery, vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 18–19)

“He [John Bartram] was, perhaps, the first Anglo-American who conceived the idea of establishing a BOTANIC GARDEN for the reception and cultivation of the various vegetables, natives of the country, as well as exotics, and of travelling for the discovery and acquisition of them.

“The BARTRAM BOTANIC GARDEN, (established in or about the year 1730,) is most eligibly and beautifully situated, on the right bank of the river Schuylkill, a short distance below the city of Philadelphia. Being the oldest establishment of the kind in this western world, and exceedingly interesting, from its history and associations, — one might almost hope, even in this utilitarian age, that, if no motive more commendable could avail, a feeling of state or city pride, would be sufficient to ensure its preservation, in its original character, and for the sake of its original objects. But, alas! there seems to be too much reason to apprehend that it will scarcely survive the immediate family of its noble-hearted founder, — and that even the present generation may live to see the accumulated treasures of a century laid waste—with all the once gay parterres and lovely borders converted into lumberyards and coal-landings.”

Images

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  John or William Bartram, "A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River," 1758.