History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Pond

2021-04-12T13:41:40Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Basin]], [[Bridge]], [[Lake]]

==History==

[[File:0323.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, “View from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylvna the residence of Mr W. Birch,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 81, pl. 20.]]

The terms pond, [[lake]], and, to a lesser extent, “pool,” were used to describe still-water features in garden settings in American landscape writing. Distinctions between them were not consistently made in dictionaries, treatises, or usage examples, and several of these sources used them synonymously. [[William Bartram]], for instance, used the terms “[[lake]]” and “pond” interchangeably when describing Lake George, Georgia, in 1791. Nehemiah Cleaveland, in his 1847 guide to Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, was also undecided as to whether the bodies of water of “different size and shape” were either small [[lake]]s or ponds. [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) suggested that the terminology differed from British usage because of the abundance and scale of America’s natural waterways: “many a beautiful, limpid, natural expanse which in England would be thought a charming [[lake]], is here simply a pond.” The first American edition of the ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) stated flatly that “A pool and a pond are the same.” [[Noah Webster]] (1828) was clear in his distinction between a pond and a [[lake]], with the latter being larger, and between a pond and a pool, but even Webster noted that the term “pool” was “used by writers with more latitude.” He also defined pool as “a small collection of water in a hollow place, supplied by a spring, and discharging its surplus water by an outlet. It is smaller than a [[lake]], and in New England is never confounded with pond or [[lake]]. It signifies with us, a spring with a small [[bason]] or reservoir on the surface of the earth.”<ref>Noah Webster, “Pool” entry, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), 2:n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1321.jpg|thumb|450 px|Fig. 2, [[J. C. Loudon]], “Ponds or large [[basin]]s” and “Tanks or cisterns,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 339, figs. 286–88.]]

Despite this ambiguity, it is clear that ponds were a common element in the American landscape throughout the colonies in the period under discussion. Their construction method was determined more by setting and function than by chronological or regional patterns. Garden ponds were created by damming streams, capturing natural springs, or capitalizing on existing ponds [Fig. 1]. George William Johnson's ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) detailed the method of “puddling” ponds with clay to improve their retention of water, and [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826) illustrated several methods of constructing ponds or cisterns [Fig. 2].<ref>A cistern generally referred to a receptacle built to collect and retain water, either from a stream, spring, or rainfall. Similar receptacles that collected ground water were called wells. Both cisterns and wells, ubiquitous features, were sometimes incorporated into landscape designs by placing them at intersections of walks or by ornamenting them with well heads, plantings, or other decorative treatments. </ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] lengthy discussion about the “Treatment of Water” went into detail about the excavation of a “piece of artificial water,” the placement of islands, and the planting and arrangement of banks.<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 347–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> In one of the few examples where artificial materials are specified in the description of a site, a Charleston property was advertised in 1768 with two fish ponds “neatly bricked in.”

[[File:0006.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Harriet De (?), ''The Duck Pond'', c. 1820.]]

Ponds in gardens were used for a variety of practical uses, ranging from ice harvesting to stocking fish and waterfowl, from irrigating gardens to supplying [[fountain]]s, and from fire fighting to wetting dusty roads. The terms “horse pond,” “dam pond,” “mill pond,” “fish pond,” and “ice pond” reflect these functions, but their usage does not preclude the perception that these still-water features were integral to the garden design. At Crowfield, on the Ashley River, [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]] (1743) reported that the fish ponds were disposed to “form a fine [[prospect]] of water from the house.” Ponds were also valued as a source of water for the garden and for creating specialized habitats [Fig. 3]. [[Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1787 that the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] near Philadelphia contained an “artificial pond [with] . . . a good collection of aquatic plants.” Treatise writers and nurserymen such as James E. Teschemacher (1835), [[Robert Buist]] (1841), and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) advocated the same practice of creating ponds to take advantage of the many swamp plants unique to America. In addition, ponds were associated with recreation; they were used for swimming, angling, boating, skating, and even a miniature “Atlantic” for children’s toy schooners, as described by Nehemiah Adams in 1842.

[[File:0117.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.]]

In landscape design theory, the configuration of a pond depended on its context. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] argued that the shape of a pond must conform to its surroundings with [[geometric style|geometric]] shapes suitable for architectural or [[flower garden]]s while irregular lines were recommended in [[picturesque]] or [[modern-style]] gardens.<ref>Downing 1849, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> In keeping with the monumentality and [[geometric style|geometric]] regularity of the city plan, elliptical ponds were proposed for the [[Columbian Institute]] in Washington, DC. Irregular ponds described by H. A. S. Dearborn in 1831 as “small ponds and morasses converted into [[picturesque]] sheets of water” were a major element of the naturalistic design at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] [Fig. 4]. Ponds were recommended particularly for soggy, low areas, although Edward Sayers (1837) and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1851) cautioned strongly against building a pond unless it had a water supply year-round. Treatise writers also suggested ways to enhance existing natural ponds by planting along the banks. Sayers, for example, praised “drooping willows and trees of a pendulous habit for shade” and others admired the effects of lilies and water plants. C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey (1839) offered an example of pond plantings gone awry at the Elias Hasket Derby House in Salem, Massachusetts, where the thirty-year old buckthorn [[hedge]] had grown to an impenetrable eight-foot barrier around the small fish pond. Treatises also suggested the addition of [[bridge]]s in order for the pond or [[lake]] to appear as a river, and even adding elaborate ornaments such as a [[mount]] (as at William Middleton’s Crowfield), a [[fountain]] (as at [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] [[Belfield]]), or a [[grotto]] (as at [[Henry Pratt]]’s [[Lemon Hill]]). [[Jane Loudon]] (1845) argued that a pond’s appeal, like a [[lawn]]’s, lay in its expanse of unbroken space, and she suggested that if any islands were to be added that they should be kept near the shore.

[[File:0851.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Blithewood looking towards [[Montgomery Place]], n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.]]

Bodies of standing water, whether called ponds, [[lake]]s, or pools, provided many of the same visual effects, and writers praised the associations of coolness and the animating quality that water brought to a garden.<ref>Dowing 1849, 348, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> As [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] noted, animation might come from the sparkle of the reflecting sun, the movement of wind on the water, or from the sound of a [[fountain]] or a stream feeding the pond. Water was prized, as Abercrombie (1817) noted, as a natural mirror reflecting the surrounding vegetation or, as at the carefully placed pond at [[Monticello]] and in a painting of an unknown site [Fig. 5], the house itself. Bodies of water not only sustained fish for sport and food, but, as Humphry Repton (1803) advised, they also attracted waterfowl and other animals and thus enhanced visual and aural interest of the garden. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1847) praised the effect of contrasting water features, such as the rush of the waterfall at [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson, juxtaposed with the still waters of the [[lake]], “so full of the spirit of repose.”

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Anonymous, July 28, 1733, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“A [[Plantation]] about two Miles above ''Goose-Creek'' Bridge. . . [having] a Garden of each Side of the House, with Posts, Rails and Pails of the best Stuff, all plained & painted, & brick’d underneath, a Fish-'''pond''' well stored with Perch, Roach, Pike, Eels and Cat-fish. . . a Spring within 3 Stones throw of the House, intended for a Cold Bath, and House over it, 3 large Dam-'''ponds''', whose Banks with some small Repairs, may drown upwards of 100 Acres of Land, which being very plentifully stored with Game all the Winter Season, affords great Diversion.”

*[[Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“come to the bottom of this charming spott where is a large fish pond with a mount rising out of the middle—the top of which is level with the dwelling house and upon it is a roman [[temple]]. On each side of this are other large fish ponds properly disposed which form a fine prospect of water from the house.”

*Kalm, Pehr, November 12, 1748, describing the springs in Pennsylvania (1937: 1:161)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Not only people of rank but even others that had some possessions, frequently had fish '''ponds''' in the country near their homes.”

*Murray, John, June 18, 1753, describing Murraywhaite, home of John Murray, Charleston, SC (Scottish Record Office, Murraywhaithe Collection, GO219/284/5)

:“By all means mention the fine Improvements of your garden & the fine [[avenue]]s you’ve raised near the spot where you’r to build your new house. I hope you’ll raise it in the English Taste. . . You’ll certainly dig a Fish '''pond''' & another for geese & Ducks & one Swan. . .”

*Drowne, Samuel, June 23, 1767, describing Malbone Hall, country seat of Godfrey Malbone, Newport, RI (Brown University, John Hay Library, Drowne Family Papers, typescript)

:“I went up to Colonel Molbones House or the ruins of His House there was a fine garden and [[Summer House]]. There His House was Built of Stone and marvel had Six Chimneys and in His garden was a fish '''pond''' and a Duck '''pond''' the water was Drawn out of the fish '''pond''' when His House was Burnt.”

*Anonymous, December 12, 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina and American General Gazette'' a property in the vicinity of Charleston, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“For Sale, by private Contract, A LOT of LAND on White-Point. . . on which there is a. . . brick [[summer-house]], with two fish '''ponds''' neatly bricked in, and several other convenience.”

*Quincy, Josiah, May 3, 1773, describing the country [[seat]] of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“This worthy and arch-politician. . . here enjoys ''otium cum dignitate'' as much as any man. Take into consideration the antique look of his house, his gardens, [[green-house]], [[bathing-house]], [[grotto]], study, fish-'''pond''', fields, [[meadow]]s, [[vista]], through which is distant [[prospect]] of Delaware River.”

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|252 px|Fig. 6, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.]]
[[File:0722.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, “Barrell Farm,” Pleasant Hill, 1817. A “fish pond” is situated near the Poplar [[Grove]].]]
*Anonymous, February 23, 1786, describing in the ''State Gazette'' a [[pleasure garden]] in Charleston, SC (quoted in Briggs 1951: 103)<ref>Loutrel Winslow Briggs, ''Charleston Gardens'' (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/A3NA59DZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“An enclosure of about 20 acres in this [[plat]], adjoining the marsh, and in full view of Wallace’s ferry, is set apart for a [[PLEASURE GARDEN]]; about seven or eight acres of this, including three [[canal]]s or fish-'''ponds''' are already laid out and improved in a taste no where exceeded in this State. The [[canal]]s abound with fish.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:273)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It [the garden] is finely situated, as it partakes of every kind of soil, has a fine stream of water, and an artificial '''pond''', where he has a good collection of aquatic plants.” [Fig. 6]

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. A young [[grove]] is growing in the back ground, in the middle of which is a '''pond''', decorated with four ships at anchor, & a marble figure in the centre.” [Fig. 7]

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Gardens were large, and laid out in the [[English style]]—a Creek wound thro’ the largest, upon its banks grew native [[shrubbery]]; in this Garden were several [[Alcove]]s, [[Summer House]]s, a [[hothouse]]—an Octagon [[summer house]] high and a Gardener’s tool house beneath—a fish'''pond''', communicating with the Creek, both producing abundance of fish.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing improvements for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 157)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a fish '''pond''' to be visible from the house.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], March 15, 27, 29, 1814, in a letter to his sons, Benjamin Franklin Peale and Titian Ramsey Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:239)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“when my leasure and I can spare a man to hall dirt I will raise the water in the fish '''Pond''' which will encrease its surfaces considerably raising the water to the stone [[wall]] at the head of the '''Pond''', deeper, and more water, will be better for fish & will raise the get [[[jet]]] at the [[fountain]] considerably.”

*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, in a report describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C. 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“An elliptical '''pond''' had been formed 144 feet for the transverse and 100 feet for the conjugate diameter, with an island in the middle 114 feet by 85 feet.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:382)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Having a good spring-house the water from it supplied a small fish-'''pond''', in which he put many cat-fish brought from the [[Schuylkill River|Schulkill]] and although they lived and perhaps might be breed there yet being petts never was served at his table.”

*Wailes, Benjamin L. C., December 29, 1829, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Moore 1954: 359)<ref>John Hebron Moore, “A View of Philadelphia in 1829: Selections from the Journal of B. L. C. Wailes of Natchez,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 78 (July 1954): 353–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z9IBV7A4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“But the most enchanting [[prospect]] is towards the grand [[pleasure garden|pleasure grove]] & [[green house]] of a [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Prat[t]]], a gentleman of fortune, and to this we next proceeded by a circutous [''sic''] rout, passing in [[view]] of the fish '''ponds''', [[bower]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] retreats, [[summer house]]s, [[fountain]]s, [[grotto]], &c., &c. . . . Next is a round fish '''pond''' with a small [[fountain]] playing in the '''pond'''. An Oval & several oblong fish '''ponds''' of larger size follow, & between the two last is an artificial [[cascade]]. Several [[summerhouse|summer houses]] in [[rustic style]] are made by nailing bark on the outside & thaching the roof. There is also a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]] built in the branches of a tree, & to which a flight of steps ascend. In one of the [[summer house]]s is a Spring with [[seat]]s around it. The houses are all embelished [''sic''] with marble busts of Venus, Appollo, Diana and a Bacanti. One sits on an Island on the fish '''pond'''. All the '''ponds''' filled with handsome coloured fish.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There are some pretty [[bower]]s, [[summer house]]s, [[grotto]]s and fish '''ponds''' in this garden—the latter well stored with gold and silver fish.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 48)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[nurseries]] may be established, the departments for culinary vegetables, fruit, and ornamental trees, [[shrub]]s and flowers, laid out and planted, a [[green house]] built, hot-[[bed]]s formed, the small '''ponds''' and morasses converted into [[picturesque]] sheets of water, and their margins diversified by [[clump]]s and belts of our most splendid native flowering trees, and [[shrub]]s, requiring a soil thus constituted for their successful cultivation, while their surface may be spangled with the brilliant blossoms of Nymphae, and the other beautiful tribes of aquatic plants.”

[[File:1035.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Garden Pond,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), 85.]]
*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 80)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The upper Garden [[Pond]] has been excavated, to a sufficient depth to afford a constant sheet of water, with a fall at the outlet of three feet, and being embanked, [[avenue]]s with a [[border]] of six feet, for [[shrub]]s and flowers, have been made all round it. . .
:“Arrangements have been made for excavating, to a greater depth, Forest and Consecration-Dell '''Ponds''', and surrounding them by embellished pathways, like those of Garden-'''Pond''', and for cleaning the eastern portion of Garden and of [[Meadow]] '''Ponds''', of bushes and weeds; all which will be done during the winter, that season being the most favorable for such work.” [Fig. 8]

*Forman, Martha Ogle, 17 December 1833, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 329)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814-1845'' (Wilmington, Del.: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The fish '''pond''' dam broke. A tremendous storm wind and rain.”

*Anonymous, 1839, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (''Picturesque Pocket Companion'' 1839: Appendix, 41)<ref>Anonymous, ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitor’s Guide through Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Otis, Broader, 1839), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TFW4IVDB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The streams, and parcels of bog and meadowland may be easily converted into '''ponds''', and variously formed sheets of water, which will furnish appropriate positions for aquatic plants, while their [[border]]s may be planted with Rhododendrons, Azaleas, several species of the superb Magnolia, and other plants, which require a constantly humid soil, and decayed vegetable matter, for their nourishment.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 411)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the centre of the garden is a small oval '''pond''', containing gold fish: this '''pond''' is hedged round with the buckthorn, which has now been planted over thirty years! It is not over eight feet high, and is thickly set with branches and foliage from the top to bottom, and perfectly impenetrable.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 19–20)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[Boston Common|Common]] is adorned by a '''pond''' of fresh water. . .
:“This '''pond''' of water has had, and will continue to have, a powerful influence on the rising generations of this city. With the little child. . . it is his Atlantic, as a place of danger and adventure. . . There are as many clearances and arrivals of boats, sloops and schooners, from its rock-bound shores, during the year, as from most of our sea ports. . . When winter comes, the '''pond''' is the scene of as great interest and excitement as in the summer. Its frozen surface is cut by innumerable skates.”

*W., February 1842, describing Lowell Cemetery, Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly [[slope]] towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large '''ponds''' for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private [[walk]]. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a '''pond''', & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the '''pond''' is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” describing the residence of John Robert Murray, Mount Morris, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 18)<ref>P. B., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82/q/Progress%20of%20Horticulture%20in%20Rochester view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the rear of the dwelling is a deep ravine, in which there are two fish '''ponds''', with a good supply of trout; from these water is conveyed to the house by means of a forcing pump.”

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, NY (1847: vi)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To preserve, at all times, the supply and the transparency of the smaller '''ponds'''—to facilitate the sprinkling of the roads, and the irrigation of the grounds during periods of drought and dust— and especially to enrich the scenery, already so lovely, with a perfecting charm, the unfailing water of Sylvan Lake has been lifted into an elevated reservoir. Distributing pipes have been laid, and the visiter of the coming season will be refreshed by the sparkling beauty and gentle murmur of [[fountain]] and stream.”

[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9,John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', 1848.]]
*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The only piece of water I have considered desirable, is at the debouch of the water into the culvert at the [[canal]]; this would be easily dammed by a retaining [[wall]] (some twenty or thirty feet from the [[canal]] as the line may be) built of sufficient height to dam the water to the desired breadth of '''pond'''—this is to be recommended also as a regulator to the emission of the waters of the main run, rendering it placid in its [[bed]], which once cut to the desired size and shape, will be without the trouble and expense of alteration.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-[[yard]] which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this [[yard]], are the wash-house and the pump and '''pond''' from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This '''pond''' is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the [[yard]] for drying clothes in fine weather.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing a residence in Cambridge, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 462)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 461–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/599Z2NAK/q/notes%20on%20gardens%20and%20nurseries view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The sailing '''pond''', with the exception of the [[walk]]s around the [[border]], and the planting of a few trees on the island in the centre, have been completed since last year, and a fine boat-house, to combine a [[bathing-house]], &c., was now just being finished.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the public grounds of Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''5th: [[Fountain]] [[Park]]'''
:“This [[Park]] would be chiefly remarkable for its water features. The [[Fountain]] would be chiefly supplied from a [[basin]] in the Capitol. The '''pond''' or [[lake]] might either be formed from the overflow of this [[fountain]], or from a filtering drain from the [[canal]]. The earth that would be excavated to form this '''pond''' is needed to fill up low places now existing in this portion of the grounds.”

===Citations===
*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[vol. 1] FISH-'''POND'''. ''n.s.'' [''fish'' and ''pond''] A small pool for fish. . .
:“[vol. 2] '''POND''', ''n.s.'' [supposed to be the same with pound, ''piñoan'', Sax. to shut up.] A small pool or [[lake]] of water; a [[bason]]; water not running or emitting any stream.”

*Hale, Thomas, 1758, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1758: 2:104–8)<ref>Thomas Hale, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry Containing Rules for Performing, in the Most Profitable Manner, the Whole Business of the Farmer and Country Gentleman'', 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: T. Osborne, 1758), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKU9TFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Of the advantages of fish '''ponds'''''. . .
:“It is not only his [the husbandman’s] interest to put a stock of fish into '''ponds''', when he has them; but it may be often worth his while to make '''ponds''' for this purpose [of natural advantages]. . .
:“When the ground is fixed upon for making a fish '''pond''', let the undertaker consider, whether there be springs to feed it, or it must depend on the rains: this makes a different management necessary. '''Ponds''' that have springs will be safe from drying on an entire flat: but there should be a descent to those which are to support themselves by rains. . .
:“''Of the making of fish '''ponds'''''.
:“He who would make considerable advantage from fish '''ponds''', must have several: some to receive the fish, while others are cleaning; and some for one kind, and others for another. If he put his fish of prey and his others together, he would find a very sorry account.
:“Different '''ponds''' also are intended for different uses. Some are for breeding, and others for feeding of the fish. . .
:“The size of the '''ponds''', that must be proportioned to the nature of the ground or the quantity of fish.”

*Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 222)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''POND''', a collection of still water.—A mill'''pond''' is so called, though it gradually receives water in one part, and discharges it in another: So that it is not perfectly still.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542, 554)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Narrow rivulets, if they have a constant stream, and are judiciously led about a garden, have a better effect than many of the large stagnating '''ponds''' or [[canal]]s so frequently made in large gardens. . .
:“All inland water is either ''running'' or ''stagnated''. when stagnated, it forms a ''[[lake]]'' or a ''pool'', which differ only in extent; and a ''pool'' and a '''''pond''''' are the same.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 466)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Water is a natural MIRROR. . . The inverted images near the banks—the softened brilliancy of the lower sky—the incessant playfulness of atoms, and streams of reflected light, combine to render an ordinary surface of water capable of supplying a mass of picture, more in contrast with the density and immobility of ground than any other object, and yet in perfect harmony with every outline and every tone of colour that the face of earthly things can present. This can be said for the '''''pond''''' or ''[[lake]]'', without any reference to the shape of the bank, or inquiry whether that be [[picturesque]] or not.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 339, 1009-1010)<ref> J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1719. '''''Ponds''' or large [[basin]]s''. . . are reservoirs formed in excavations, either in soils retentive of water, or rendered so by the use of clay. . .
:“1722. ''Collecting and preserving ice, rearing bees'', &c. however, unsuitable or discordant it may appear, it has long been the custom to delegate to the care of the gardener. In some cases also he has the care of the [[dovecote|dove-house]], fish-'''ponds''', [[aviary]], a menagerie of wild beasts, and places for snails, frogs, dormice, rabbits, &c. but we shall only consider the [[ice-house]], [[apiary]], and aviary, as legitimately belonging to gardening, leaving the others to the care of the gamekeeper, or to constitute a particular department in domestic or rural economy. . .
:"7216. ''Water'' is a material of so captivating and interesting a description in the different characters in which it does not compose a feature. It forms a part of every garden in the [[Ancient style|ancient style]] in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong [[canal]]s, '''ponds''', [[basin]]s, [[cascade]]s, and [[jet|''jeux-d’eau'']] ''(fig. 694)'' ;"
:“7219. '''''Ponds''''' in different levels, seen in the same [[view]], are very objectionable on this principle. The little beauty they display as spots, ill compensates for the want of propriety; and the leading idea which they suggest, is a question between their present situation and their non-existence. The choice, therefore, as to the situation of water, must ever depend more on natural circumstances than proximity to the mansion. Is then all water to be excluded that is not in the lower grounds? We have no hesitation in answering this question in the affirmative, so far as respects the principal [[view]]s, and when a lower level than that in which the water is proposed to be placed is seen in the same [[view]]. But in respect to recluse scenes, which Addison compares to episodes to the general design, we would admit, and even copy the ''ponds'' on the sides or even tops of hills, which may be designated accidental beauties of nature. In confined spots they are often a very great ornament. . . as a proof of which, we have only to observe some of the suburban villas round the metropolis, where a small piece of water often comes in between the house and the public road with the happiest effect.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''FISH-POND''', ''n''. A '''pond''' in which fishes are bred and kept. . .
:“[[LAKE]], ''n''. [G. ''lache'', a puddle; Fr. ''lac''; L. ''lacus''; Sp. It. ''lago''; Sax. ''luh''; Scot. ''loch''; Ir. ''lough''; Ice. ''laugh''. A [[lake]] is a stand of water, from the root of lay. Hence L. ''lagena'', Eng. ''flagon'', and Sp. ''laguna'', lagoon.]
:“1. A large and extensive collection of water contained in a cavity or hollow of the earth. It differs from a '''''pond''''' in size, the latter being a collection of small extent; but sometimes a collection of water is called a '''pond''' or a [[lake]] indifferently. . .
:“'''POND''', ''n''. [Sp. Port. It. ''pantano'', a pool of stagnant water, also in Sp. hinderance, obstacle, difficulty. The name imports standing water, from setting or confining. It may be allied to L. ''pono''; Sax. ''pyndan'', to pound, to pen, to restrain, and L. ''pontus'', the sea, may be of the same family.]
:“1. A body of stagnant water without an outlet, larger than a puddle, and smaller than a [[lake]]; or a like body of water with a small outlet. In the United States, we give this name to collections of water in the interior country, which are fed by springs, and from which issues a small stream. These '''ponds''' are often a mile or two or even more in length, and the current issuing from them is used to drive the wheels of mills and furnaces.
:“2. A collection of water raised in a river by a dam, for the purpose of propelling mill-wheels. These artificial '''ponds''' are called ''mill-'''ponds'''''.”

*Cook, Zebedee, Jr., 1830, ''An Address, Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1830: 21)<ref>Zebedee Cook Jr., ''An Address, Pronounced before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: Isaac R. Butts, 1830), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RJ7KE496 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It is not to be denied that large sums have been injudiciously expended in the construction of some of our rural retreats, and more especially in the erection of the house, the preparation of gravel-[[walk]]s, the construction of observatories, artificial caverns, fish-'''ponds''', etc.”

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 161)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I shall not at present touch on the choice of ornamental [[shrub]]s, and also merely hint now that if the spot possess the enviable qualification of a stream or even a '''pond''' (from the former the latter could easily be formed), the cultivation of the beautiful aquatic and swamp plants of this and other countries would create very considerable additional interest and beauty.”

*Sayers, Edward, November 1, 1837, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 410)<ref>Edward Sayers, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (November 1, 1837): 409–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KQDKZWXV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In laying out grounds and ornamental gardens, many pleasing appendages may be very appropriately placed, to give a good effect, and appear to have a real meaning: as [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[arbor]]s, ornamental [[seat]]s, ornamental water, [[rockwork|rockeries]], and the like additional appendages, which, when properly placed and managed, give a finish to the grounds, and have the most pleasing effect, but when badly done, their absence is better than their presence; for, in such cases, they have the appearance of a feeble effort to accomplish the intended purpose of the design,—for instance, where a '''pond''' is made in such a location, that it is nearly all the summer ''dry''; or a ''tumble-down'' [[bridge]] over a [[canal]] or stream of water; a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor]] exposed to the ''burning rays of the sun'', finished in too much mechanical order, are incongruities altogether inconsistent to the purpose.
:“A '''pond''' or sheet of water has a beautiful effect in low ground, where the observer at once discovers that a low, unsightly and unhealthy piece of ground has been converted into a useful and ornamental purpose.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 131)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the Native American [[Flower Garden]]. . . the margin of the '''pond''' should be planted with drooping willows and trees of a pendulous habit for shade, under which a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]] might be properly placed for the accommodation of those who desire to view the sporting fishes, and other interesting objects by which they are surrounded. Attached to the '''pond''' or streams, I recommend a well arranged grass [[plot]], with a few figures cut therein, which should be planted with native herbaceous plants, and dwarf [[shrub]]s.”

*[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 10–11)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“if access to a spring can be obtained, it will prove a desideratum in completing the whole: it can be available for a fish-'''pond''' or an acquarium, or can be converted into a swamp for the cultivation of many of our most beautiful and interesting native plants.”

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 413)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Water as an element of landscape scenery, is exhibited in small gardens either in '''ponds''' or [[basin]]s, of regular [[geometric style|geometrical]] or architectural forms; or in '''ponds''' or small [[lake]]s of irregular forms in imitation of the shapes seen in natural landscape. . .
:“Water in imitation of nature should be in '''ponds''' or [[basin]]s of irregular shape; but always so contrived as to display one main feature or breadth of water. A '''pond''', however large it may be, if equally broken throughout by islands, or by projections from the shores, can have no pictorial beauty; because it is without effect and does not form a whole. The general extent and outline of a piece of water being fixed on, the interior of the '''pond''' or [[lake]] is to be treated entirely as a [[lawn]]. If small, it will require no islands; but if so large as to require some, they must be distributed towards the sides, so as to vary the outline and to harmonize the '''pond''' with the surrounding scenery, and yet to preserve one broad expanse of water; exactly in the same manner as in varying a [[lawn]] with [[shrub]]s and flowers, landscape gardeners preserve one broad expanse of turf.”

[[File:1846.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, George William Johnson, “Pond,” in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), 474, fig. 137.]]

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 474)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''PONDS''', are reservoirs of water dug out of the soil, and made retentive by puddling with clay their bottoms and sides.
:“Puddling is necessary in almost all instances and the mode of proceeding is thus detailed by Mr. Marnock, in the ''United Gardeners’ Journal''. . . The sides may slope rapidly, or the reverse: if the [[slope]] be considerable, sand or gravel to give a clean appearance will be the more likely to be retained upon the facing; plants can be more easily fixed and cultivated; gold-fish also find in these shallow gravelly parts under the leaves of the plants suitable places to deposit their spawn, and without this they are seldom found to breed. '''Ponds''' made in this way may be of any convenient size, from a couple of yards upwards to as many acres. The following [Fig. 137.] is the section of a '''pond''' thus formed: ''a'' indicates the surface of the ground at the edge of the water; ''b'', the puddle; ''c'', the facing to preserve the puddle from injury; ''d'', the water; ''e'', the surface of the latter; and ''f'', the ordinary bottom. When a small '''pond''' of this kind is to be made, and the extent of the surface is determine upon and marked out, it will then be necessary to form a second or outer mark, indicating the space required for the [[wall]] or side puddle, and about three feet is the proper space to allow for this—the puddle requiring about two feet, and the facing which requires to be laid upon the puddle ought to be about a foot more, making together three feet. '''Ponds''' may be made very ornamental, and for suitable suggestions on this point, see ''Water''.” [Fig. 9]

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181–82)<ref>Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Water is always desirable, in the distance and at hand. In very many situations, a spring, or a small stream, will supply the evaporation of a pretty sized '''pond''', in which the lilies and water plants will thrive. The deeper it can be made, the better.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991:349–51)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When, however, a number of perpetual springs cluster together, or a rill, rivulet, or brook, runs through an estate in such a manner as easily to be improved or developed into an elegant expanse of water in any part of the grounds, we should not hesitate to take advantage of so fortunate a circumstance. Besides the additional beauty . . . the proprietor may also derive an inducement from its utility; for the possession of a small [[lake]], well stocked with carp, trout, pickerel, or any other of the excellent '''pond''' fish, which thrive and propagate extremely well in clear fresh water, is a real advantage which no one will undervalue.
:“There is no department of [[Landscape Gardening]] which appears to have been less understood in this country than the management of water. . . the occasional efforts that have been put forth in various parts of the country, in the shape of [[square]], circular, and oblong pools of water, indicate a state of knowledge extremely meagre, in the art of [[Landscape Gardening]]. The highest scale to which these pieces of water rise in our estimation is that of respectable horse-'''ponds''';—beautiful objects they certainly are not. They are generally round or [[square]], with perfectly smooth, flat banks on every side, and resemble in tameness and insipidity, a huge basin set down in the middle of a green [[lawn]].”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1851, “Domestic Notices: Making Fish Ponds” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 54)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Domestic Notices: Making Fish Ponds,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 1 (January 1851): 53–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BURUEFPI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many persons have a fancy for making '''ponds''' as ornamental features in country places. This should never be done, unless it is first ascertained that there is not only an abundance of water to keep the '''pond''' full in the dryest seasons, but also to preserve it clear and fresh. A large '''pond''', covered with weeds and half stagnant, may be useful—but it is far from ornamental. Nothing but a constant overflow—made by a stream running continually into and out of a '''pond''', will keep it so clear and bright as to be really ornamental.”

*L., R. B., June 1851, “On Artificial Rockeries” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 279)<ref>R. B. L., “On Artificial Rockeries,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 6 (June 1851): 276–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K4A8SS87/q/on%20artificial%20Rockeries view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Both [[rockwork]] and artificial '''ponds''' are, in our estimation, dangerous features in ornamental gardens, for any one to meddle with who has not a great deal of taste, or a lively feeling of natural beauty and fitness. We quite agree with our correspondent, that they should occupy secluded spots in the grounds, and that they are never so successful as when they may be wholly mistaken for nature’s own work. A little round '''pond''', like a soup [[basin]], set in an open, smooth [[lawn]], and a pile of rocks heaped up upon a formal [[mound]], as we have sometimes seen them, in the midst of high artificial flower garden scenery, are equally offensive to good sense and good taste. Nature puts her small pools of water, and her ledge of rocks filled with mosses and ferns, in the depths of some secluded dell, or under the shelter of some dark leafy bank of verdure.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1405.jpg|Anonymous, ''Hunting Scene with a '''Pond''''', 18th century.

Image:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. "Well-'''Pond''' field." inscribed in top right quadrant.

Image:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728. '''Pond''' is indicated twice in the upper right quadrant, on the right and on the left hand side.

Image:0480.jpg|Francis Dewing after John Bonner, ''A New Plan of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

Image:0994.jpg|Anonymous, “Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton,” c. 1781.

Image:0994_detail.jpg|Anonymous, "Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton" [detail], c. 1781.

Image:2255.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793.

Image:1295.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sketch of the Estate of Henry Banks Esqr. on York River'', March 1797. “Mill '''Pond''' 3 Miles long” describes the pond at the top of the image.

Image:0728.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Plan of Springland'', c. 1800, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 206, fig. 117. “Fish '''pond'''” is indicated twice along the stream of water across the plan.

Image:0733.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''The Elysian Bower'', c. 1800, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 213, fig. 124.

Image:0722.jpg|Anonymous, “Barrell Farm,” Pleasant Hill, 1817. A “fish '''pond'''” is situated near the Poplar [[Grove]].

Image:0721.jpg|Abel Bowen, “Boston and Environs,” in Caleb H. Snow, ''A History of Boston'' (1825), opp. 388.

Image:1321.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “'''Ponds''' or large [[basin]]s” and “Tanks or cisterns,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 339, figs. 286–88.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1033.jpg|Anonymous, “Forest '''Pond''',” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 171.

Image:1035.jpg|Anonymous, “Garden '''Pond''',” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 85.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844. The '''pond''' is located between Cannon's Borough and Radcliffe's Borough.

Image:1846.jpg|George William Johnson, “'''Pond''',” in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), 474, fig. 137.

Image:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure Ground]]s and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280. The '''pond''' is labelled as "15".

Image:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848. "UPPER '''POND'''" is inscribed on the top left corner of the image, and a "S.M. '''POND'''" on the top right corner."

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25. ". . . a handsome '''pond''', or small [[lake]], ''f''. . ."

Image:0567.jpg|Sam A. Gilbert, ''A Plan of the City of Charleston'', 1849.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Forest '''Pond''', [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 94.

Image:0067.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “[[View]] of the Forest '''Pond''', [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]" in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'', (1850 [1847]), opp. 94.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Perch '''Pond''' (42)."

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

File:0323.jpg|William Russell Birch, “View from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylvna the residence of Mr W. Birch,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (2009), 81, pl. 20.

File:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the [[ancient style]], in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1009, fig. 694.

File:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836): 234. The [[walk]] wraps alongside the '''pond''' in the center of the image.

File:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto).

File:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

File:1135.jpg|John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', 1848.

File:1972.jpg|James Smillie, “[[View]] of the Consecration Dell, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 100.

File:0851.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Blithewood]] looking towards [[Montgomery Place]], n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0068.jpg|John Bonner, ''The Town of Boston in New England'', 1722.

File:0546.jpg| William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793. Pond at middle ground on right.

File:0507.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another [[View]] of the Same'' (Ashley Hall), 1803.

File:0714.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Daniel Ma–'', c. 1810.

File:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton, (Baltimore, MD) [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

File:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck '''Pond''''', c. 1820.

File:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “[[View]] of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

File:0432.jpg|Attributed to Reuben Rowley, ''Dr. John Safford and Family'', c. 1830.

File:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''McAran’s Garden'', 1840.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

Orchard

2021-04-12T13:40:39Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Hort-yard) {{break}}
See also: [[Yard]]

==History==
[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.]]
[[File:1292.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Orchards in Alternate Rows, or Quincunx Order,” ''Horticultural Register'' 1 (January 1, 1835): 37.]]
The definitions of orchard found in both English and American garden treatises describe an enclosed space devoted to the growth of fruit trees.<ref>When J. C. Loudon listed works on gardening published in North America, he cited three texts that were concerned with trees and orchards, including Humphrey Marshall’s ''Arbustrum Americanum'' (1785), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJU57ISS view on Zotero], and William Coxe’s ''A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, with the Management of Orchards and Cider'' (1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7EB8GM2K view on Zotero]. The citations gathered here come primarily from treatises devoted to ornamental landscape design, as opposed to that of husbandry. Agricultural aspects of orchards, therefore, are not addressed fully here. Nonetheless, a substantial amount of literature on this latter topic was produced in the period c. 1600–1850.</ref> [[Noah Webster]], in his 1828 definition of the term, differentiated between British usage—as a department of the garden appropriated to fruit trees (chiefly apple)—and American usage—as any piece of land set with only apple trees. [[Noah Webster|Webster's]] focus on one species reflected the popularity of this fruit in early 19th-century America.<ref>See Gordon P. De Wolf Jr., “Andrew Jackson Downing and Pomology,” in ''Prophet with Honor: The Career of Andrew Jackson Downing, 1815–1852'' (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989), 125–52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9M4TXDMU/ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0592.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, George Kendall, “View of Whitewater,” OH [detail], 1835.]]

Some British treatises distinguished between a fruit garden and an orchard. For example, according to Jean de La Quintinie (translated by John Evelyn in 1693), fruit gardens (like [[kitchen garden]]s) were generally walled and thus could sustain espaliered fruit trees. In contrast, orchards typically were enclosed with natural barriers, such as [[hedge]]s and ditches, and were planted with standard fruit trees. [[Thomas Jefferson]], for example, indicated the use of thorn [[hedge]]s surrounding his orchard [Fig. 1]. In American garden literature, the term “fruit garden” occurs in a few instances, as when George Washington referred to the space behind his stables laid out with closely set fruit trees.<ref>For George Washington’s description of this fruit garden, see the diary entries in George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, vol. 4 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), 274, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero]. Dennis Pogue, “Archaeological Investigations at the ‘Vineyard Inclosure’ Mount Vernon Plantation, Mount Vernon, Virginia,” File Report 3 (Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, Mount Vernon, VA, March 1992), 45–49, contains an analysis of the archaeological remains of Washington’s fruit garden.</ref> The term also appeared in Thomas Green Fessenden’s ''New American Gardener'' (1833), but this may have been due more to the practice of emulation in treatise writing than to the circulation of the term in America. (Fessenden, in fact, borrowed heavily from his British predecessors.) More common to American culture was the term “orchard,” which appeared very early in accounts of the American designed landscape.

[[File:0022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Clarissa Deming, “Map of Deming Orchard,” after 1798.]]

Although the American orchard was not considered a subgroup of a larger garden complex to the same degree as it was in the British [[flower garden]], it was nevertheless recognized as part of the broader designed landscape associated with a residence or [[plantation]]. Like many other features of the American design landscape, such as [[canal]], [[meadow]], or [[wood]], the orchard was both utilitarian and aesthetic. It united, in the words of [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]], “[t]he agreeable with the useful” (1826). The primary function of orchards was growing fruit, and apples and peaches seem to have been the fruit of choice for many colonial and federalist landowners in New England and in the mid-Atlantic states. The orchard ground, as a cultivated area of land, also could be used for growing grass or hay under the trees. This practice was somewhat controversial, as indicated by the lengthy commentary on the subject by treatise writers. John Abercrombie (1817) suggested trimming the lower branches of trees to prevent damage by cattle.

Like the planting of grasses in orchards, the arrangement of trees was disputed by treatise writers. John Smith’s 1629 account mentions the arrangement of fruit trees into rows, a practice recommended by numerous treatise writers. Another possibility, found in several treatises, was to arrange trees in a quincunx formation, where trees would be planted in a manner resembling the plan of a five-face on a die [Fig. 2]. Debate also focused on the spaces between trees that were aligned in rows and also on the distance between rows.

[[File:0285.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.]]

[[File:0072.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of an orchard at [[Monticello]], c. 1778.]]

Images reveal much information about the arrangement of trees in American orchards. Orchards typically were represented as [[square]] or rectangular [[plot]]s placed adjacent to or situated near houses, and they often were bounded by [[fence]]s, ditches, or [[hedge]]s [Fig. 3]. Most [[plot]]s contained regularly arranged trees, as in Clarissa Deming’s orchard plan, after 1798 [Fig. 4]. The frequency, however, with which regularized arrangements of trees appear in images suggests that many images may have been governed by a visual convention dictating that orchards be represented with straight rows of trees. This convention is apparent in a 1757 view of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania [Fig. 5]. Nonetheless, a few plans imply that orchard trees could be arranged in patterns other than linear rows. A 1778 sketch by [[Thomas Jefferson]] of the orchard at [[Monticello]] depicts a pinwheel-like arrangement of fruit trees that included apple, peach, quince, pear, apricot, and plum [Fig. 6].

[[File:0098.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.]]

With the development of the so-called “[[Natural_style|natural]]” style in America in the early 19th century, orchards became more varied in character. The 1847 plan of [[Point Breeze]] in Bordentown, New Jersey, represents the orchard as an irregularly shaped piece of land located at a distance from the mansion and sited within [[wood|woodlands]] [Fig. 7]. In [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing's]] 1849 plan for a “[[picturesque]] orchard,” he broke with the convention of rigidly arranging trees in straight lines and presented them loosely clumped in groups “for the sake of effect.”

In travelers’ accounts of America, the term “orchard” figures prominently in descriptions of the settled countryside. In these texts, as well as in treatises and descriptions of specific estates, orchards were imbued with both utilitarian and aesthetic values. (The practical associations of husbandry with orchards distinguished them from [[grove]]s, which except for citrus [[grove]]s, were generally discussed in only aesthetic terms.) Orchards signaled planning for the needs of the future, since trees took many years to mature. William Penn, in his 1685 advertisement for potential colonialists, characterized an orchard as a property improvement and investment. Orchards also exemplified the careful grooming of the countryside by American settlers, who transformed uncultivated [[wood]]s and fields into ordered [[plantation]]s of fruit trees. [[Timothy Dwight]], in particular, offered myriad orchard descriptions in order to conjure up his early 19th-century vision of America as a highly cultivated, prosperous nation. That very prosperity, however, eventually seemed to threaten the existence of orchards. According to Edward Sayers (1835), the expansion of America’s transportation network of railroads, [[canal]]s, and roads promised to eradicate orchards as trees were cut down and not replaced. Yet 16 years later, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that railroads and steamboats had, in fact, brought about a boom in orchards as farmers could then easily transport their produce by rail and thus capitalize upon such markets.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1629, describing the Charles River in Massachusetts (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, eds., ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“in the maine you may shape your '''Orchards''', Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, [[Walkes]], [[Parkes]], and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s, one adjoyning to another, leaving every of them invironed with two, three, foure, or six, or so many rowes of well growne trees as you will, ready growne to your hands, to defend them from ill weather.”

*Donck, Adriaen van der, 1655, describing New York, NY (quoted in Hedrick 1988: 55)<ref name="Hedrick">U. P. Hedrick, ''A History of Horticulture in America to 1860; with an Addendum of Books Published 1861–1920 by Elisabeth Woodburn'' (1950; Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7ZAW9D6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Netherlands settlers, who are lovers of fruit, on observing that the climate was suitable to the production of fruit trees, have brought over and planted various kinds of apple and pear trees which thrive well. . . The English have brought over the first quinces, and we have also brought over stocks and seeds which thrive well and produce large '''orchards'''.”

*Anonymous, 1667, describing a proposed orchard in Somerset County, MD (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 247)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[The planter stipulated in his will that his executors were] to make an '''orchard''' of 200 trees the one halfe winter fruite the other summer leaving sufficient fencing on it & aboute itt.”

*Glover, Thomas, 1676, describing fruits on [[plantation]]s in his ''Account of Virginia'' (quoted in Martin 1991: 18)<ref name="Martin 1991">Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . few planters but that have fair and large '''orchards''', some whereof have 1200 trees and upward bearing all sorts of English apples. . . of which they make great store of cider. . . likewise great peach-'''orchards''', which bear such an infinite quantity of peaches.”

*Penn, William, October 12, 1685, in a letter to Richard Blome, describing Pennsylvania (quoted in Blome 1687: 127–28)<ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“3. . . . Say I have five thousand Acres, I will settle ten Families upon them in way of Village. . . they shall continue seven years, or more, at half increase, being bound to leave the Houses in repair, and a Garden and '''Orchard''', I paying for the Trees, and at least twenty Acres of Land within [[Fence]], and improved to Corn and Grass. The charge will come to about sixty pounds English each Family; at the seven years end, the improvement will be worth, as things go now, one hundred and twenty pounds, besides the value of the encrease of the Stock.”

*Thomas, Gabriel, 1698, describing Pennsylvania (quoted in Hedrick 1988: 77)<ref name="Hedrick"></ref>
:“There are many Fair and Great Brick Houses on the outside of the Town which the Gentry have built for their Countrey Houses. . . having a very fine and delightful ''Garden'' and '''''Orchard''''' adjoyning it, wherein is variety of ''Fruits'', ''Herbs'', and ''Flowers''.”

*Byrd, William, II, January 3, 1712 and July 13, 1720, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd II, on the James River, VA (Wright and Tinling, eds., 1972: 428, 464)<ref>Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling, eds., ''The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709–1712'' (New York: Arno Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7CA6T8T2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I walked into the '''orchard''' and ate so many plums that I could not sleep.”
:“In the afternoon I set my razor and then went to prune the trees in the young '''orchard''' and then I took a walk about the [[plantation]] and my wife and Mrs. Dunn came to walk with me.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1724, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Hedrick 1988: 110)<ref name="Hedrick"></ref>
:“. . . a magnificent structure, built at publick Expense, finished and beautified with [[Gate]]s, fine Gardens, Offices, [[Walk]]s, a fine [[Canal]], '''Orchards'''.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1733, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“A [[Plantation]] about two Miles above ''Goose-Creek'' [[Bridge]]. . . [having] an '''Orchard''' of very good Apple and Peach Trees.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, letter regarding property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letterbook)
:“The young Peach '''orchard''' must be made up new all round, as Substantial, Close, Strong, and high, as I have made part of it already: and they must take up out of the old Peach '''orchard''', what trees may be wanting to fill up that piece of Tobacco Ground in the young Peach '''orchard'''. And I would have all the rest of the Peach trees in the old '''orchard''' Cut down; and that Ground laid into the Little Pasture. This mowing of the trees must be in a proper time next Spring. . .
:“The Peach '''orchard''' must be how’d up, and after that Chopt over, once, or twice, to kill the Broom grass, else the Grass will kill the trees.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1742, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]], Charleston, SC (1972: 35)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“O! I had like to forget the last thing I have done a great while. I have planted a large figg '''orchard''' with design to dry and export them. I have reckoned my expence and the prophets to arise from these figgs, but was I to tell you how great an Estate I am to make this way, and how ’tis to be laid out you would think me far gone in romance.”

*Anonymous, February 1, 1746, describing in property for sale near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“Whereas Thomas Wright intending to settle in ''Charles Town'', there will be sold at his [[Plantation]] in the Parish of ''St. James’s Goosecreek''. . .
:“N. B. The said [[plantation]] [has]. . . An '''Orchard''' with several apple, Pear and Peach Trees under [[Fence]], with a long [[Walk]] in the Middle.”

*Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'')
:“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper. . . a good '''Orchard''', containing about 200 Apple Trees, and may be extended at Pleasure.”

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)
:“He next showed me his '''orchard''', formerly planted on a barren, sandy soil, but long since converted into one of the richest spots in that vicinage.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, April 3, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 121)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . as I look from my Window & see [[Grove]]s of Peach Trees on the Banks of Nomini; (for the '''orchards''' here are very Large) and other Fruit Trees in Blossom.”

*Anburey, Thomas, May 20, 1778, describing Mystic, CT, and Lancaster County, PA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:215–16, 285–86)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'', 2 vols. (1789; repr., New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The trees are now in full blossom, and as every house has an '''orchard''' adjoining, the country looks quite beautiful; upon enquiry of the inhabitants, I find most of the European fruits have degenerated in New England, except the apple, which it is said, if it has not improved, it has multiplied exceedingly.”
:“Their [the Dumplers sect] little city [Euphrates] is built in the form of a triangle, and bordered with mulberry and apple-trees, very regularly planted. In the center of the town is a large '''orchard''', and between the '''orchard''' and the ranges of trees that are planted round the [[border]]s, are their houses, which are built of wood, and three stories high.”

*Stuart, John Ferdinand Smyth (J .F. D. Smyth), 1784, describing Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:53)<ref name="Lockwood">Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“These are called [[plantation]]s and are generally from one to four or five miles distant from each other, having a dwelling house in the middle. . . at some little distance there are always large peach and apple '''orchards'''.”

*Giannini, Antonio, 1786, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 100)
:“The apples in the '''orchard''' below the garden are producing abundantly. All the varieties of cherry trees are growing well. The ‘Magnum bonum plumbs’ are turning out marvelously and so are the green gages. The apricots are growing satisfactorily. . . The almonds are still alive but are not improving. The peaches are all doing well. . . Has grafted many trees of the kinds TJ requested; but no one had told him about grafting the royal white, yellow, and red peaches. This will be done at once. They have not yet finished planting the apples of the north '''orchards''', but the ones planted are doing well and will have a full crop next autumn.” [See Fig. 6]

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1798, describing Boston, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:26–27)<ref name="Lockwood"></ref>
:“Boston enjoys a superiority to all other great towns on this continent. . . The soil is generally fertile, the agriculture neat, and productive; the gardening superior to what is found in most other places; the '''orchards''', [[grove]]s, and forests, numerous and thrifty.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing South Hadley, MA (1822: 3:262)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Major White, a respectable inhabitant of South-Hadley, had an '''orchard''', which stood on the North-Western declivity of a hill, of so rapid a descent, that every tree was entirely brushed by the winds from that [[quarter]]. The spot lay about four miles direcly South-Eastward from the gap between Mount Tom, and Mount Holyoke. Through this gap these winds blow, as you will suppose, with peculiar strength. Accordingly they swept the dew from this '''orchard''' so effectually, that its blossoms regularly escaped the injuries of such late frosts in the spring, as destroy those of the surrounding country. So remarkable was the exemption, that the inhabitants of South-Hadley proverbially styled such a frost ''Major White’s harvest''; because his '''orchard''' yielded a great quantity of cider, which in such years commanded a very high price.”

*Parkinson, Richard, 1798–1800, describing the vicinity of Baltimore, MD (1805: 2:612–13)<ref>Richard Parkinson, ''A Tour in America, 1798, 1799, and 1800: Exhibiting Sketches of Society and Manners, and a Particular Account of the American System of Agriculture, with Its Recent Improvements'', 2 vols. (London: J. Harding, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8PV5PS4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . from my own experience, what is the general custom of the people in regard to the '''orchards''' and fruit planted in fields in America, as it is not at all unusual to plant fields with fruit to the extent of from four to twenty acres: —my '''orchard''' [at Orange Hill] contained about six acres, three of which were planted with apples, the other three with peaches of various sorts. . . it being at some distance from the house, (which is the usual manner of planting them the first year).”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing the garden of the recitation room and Inspector’s study, Nazareth, PA (1800: 46)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Pedagogium and town are seen from this place. In the rear is an '''orchard''' defended by a [[grove]].”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (''Federal Gazette'')
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail [[fence]], divided and laid off into grass lots, '''orchards''', garden, &c. . . The garden and '''orchard''' abounds with the greatest variety of the choicest fruit trees, [[shrub]]s, flowers, &c collected from the best [[nurseries]] in America and from Europe, all in perfection and full bearing.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, describing an orchard in St. Anastasia, FL (1805: 349)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains, in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines. . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is fifty years since the seeds of this species [sweet orange] were brought from India, and given to an inhabitant of this island [Sant Anastasia], who has increased them so much as to have made an '''orchard''' of them of forty acres. I had an opportunity of seeing this fine [[plantation]] when I was in Florida, in 1788.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1987: 2:57)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the right [of the house] is an '''orchard''', consisting principally of large cherry and peach trees. At the bottom of this '''orchard''', and nearly opposite the eastern end of the house, is the venerable tomb, which contains the remains of the great Washington.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing improvements for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 157)<ref name="Martin 1991"></ref>
:“. . . all the farm grounds of [[Monticello]] had better be turned into '''orchard''' grounds of cyder [''sic''] apple & peach trees, & '''orchard''' grass cultivated under them.”

*Anonymous, August 9, 1805, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Stafford County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“FOR LEASE, A Lot of Land. . . Also, on the above lot there is. . . a considerable '''Orchard''' of young Apple trees of choice fruit, now in a bearing state.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1806: 58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[kitchen garden|<u>kitchen</u> garden]] & '''Hort. yard'''/<u>'''Orchyard'''</u>, which I did not see, are, I suppose behind the Stables, & adjacent.”

*Flint, Timothy, 1816, describing his journey from Frankfort to Louisville, KY (quoted in Jones 1957: 10)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Travelling through the village in this fertile region, where the roads are perfectly good, and where every elevation brings you in view of a noble farm-house, in the midst of its '''orchards''', and sheltered by its fine [[grove]]s of forest and sugar-maple trees, you would scarcely realize that the first settlers of the country, and they men of mature age when they settled it, were, some of them, still living.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, describing Long Island, NY (Cobbett 1819: 12)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Orchards''' constitute a feature of great beauty. Every farm has its '''orchard''', and, in general, of cherries as well as of apples and pears.”

*S., J. W., February 1832, describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 72)<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In short, this establishment is well worthy of notice as one of the few examples in the neighbourhood of New York, of the art of laying out a garden so as to combine the principles of [[landscape-gardening]] with the conveniences of the [[nursery]] or '''orchard'''.”

*Anonymous, October 15, 1830, “Trespassers in Orchards” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 101)<ref>Anonymous, “Trespassers in Orchards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 13 (October 15, 1830): 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4FTF8W7M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''The following is an abstract of the Statute 1818, Cap. 3d. for the prevention of trespasses in '''Orchards''', and Gardens, &c.''
:“Sec. 1. If any person ''enter'' upon any grassland, '''orchard''', or garden, without permission, ''with intent'' to cut, destroy, take, or carry away, any grass, hay fruit, or vegetables, with intent to injure or defraud the owner: such person shall, on conviction, before a justice of the peace, forfeit and pay, for every such offence, a sum not less than two, nor more than ten dollars; and be also liable in damages to the party injured.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the southeastern and northeastern [[border]]s of the tract can be arranged the [[nurseries]], and portions selected for the culture of fruit-trees and esculent vegetables, on an extensive scale; there may be arranged the [[Arboretum]], the '''Orchard''', the Culinarium, Floral departments, Melon grounds, and Strawberry beds, and [[Green house]]s.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, February 26, 1834, in a letter to his brother, John Howard Bryant, describing Putnam County, IL (1975: 394)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“You talk in your letter to my wife of planting an '''orchard''' and eating the fruit of it if you live to be old. Why do you not graft your crab apple trees with scions produced from the older settlements of your state? You would then have apples in a very few years. Did you ever think of this?”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Northampton, MA (1838: 2:83)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The stage was stopped by a gentleman who asked for me. It was Mr. Bancroft, the historian, then a resident of Northhampton. He cordially welcomed us as his guests, and ordered the stage up the hill to his house; such a house! It stood on a lofty [[terrace]], and its balcony overlooked first the garden, then the '''orchard''' stretching down the [[slope]], then the delicious village, and the river with its meadows, while opposite rose Mount Holyoke.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 24, 1843, describing St. Anastasia, FL, in ''A Tour in the Old South'' (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:161)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In another part of the same island, which we visited afterward, is a dwelling-house situated amid orange-[[grove]]s. Closely planted rows of the sour orange, the native tree of the country, intersect and shelter '''orchards''' of the sweet orange, the lemon, and the lime.”

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” describing residence of John Robert Murray, Mount Morris, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 18)<ref>B. P., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''orchard''' contains between thirty and forty varieties of well selected pears, an equal number of peach of which over one hundred and fifty trees have borne the past season; among them are five seedlings, raised by J.R. Murray, Esq., senior, said to be superior fruit; ten varieties of plum, eight of cherry, five of apricot and five of nectarine; in all six or eight acres devoted to the culture of fruits.”

*O’Conner, Rachel, 1844, in a letter to William F. Weeks, describing Evergreen Plantation, estate of Rachel O’Connor, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 495)<ref>Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Iberia, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[24 February] I have my '''orchard''' planted with better than four hundred young fruit trees. I did not think I had so many friends. The people sent me trees from all [[quarter]]s untill [''sic''] the ground was filled. It adds much to the beauty of the place. . .
:“[23 March] My new '''orchard''' is my idol. I am afraid I think too much of it, & that God will punish me for letting my heart cling to earthly treasures. I am not afraid to love the little black children. Christ suffered on the cross for us all.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1845, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing the garden of H. N. Langworthy, near Rochester, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 14: 529–30)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 7 (July 1846): 241–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S9UVTJM3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“One '''orchard''' planted with alternate rows of the Early York and Early Crawford, had this year just begun to bear, producing specimens of the latter, which quickly sold at five dollars per bushel; the Early York is a very early and profitable peach; the trees vigorous, healthy and abundant bearers: this is the Early York, figured in our Fruits of America, with serrate leaves. The ground is manured and ploughed the first year after the trees are planted; the next year, it is sown to clover, which is turned in as a green crop; this, with a light application of manure, is repeated every year. The trees are thus kept in a vigorous growing condition, and we saw no evidence of a yellow peach tree in the whole '''orchard'''.
:“The apple '''orchards''', with one or two exceptions, are cultivated in the same manner, that is, manure and a crop of clover every year: pursuing this system, the trees make an exceedingly vigorous growth, and when they begin to bear, are loaded with finest specimens of fruit.”

[[File:0378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. Downing notes that “At ''e'', is a [[picturesque]] orchard.”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing a suburban villa residence in Burlington, NJ (1849; repr., 1991: 117–18)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house, ''a'', stands quite near the bank of the river, while one front commands fine water [[view]]s, and the other looks into the [[lawn]] or [[pleasure ground]]s, ''b''. On one side of the area is the [[kitchen garden]], ''c'', separated and concealed from the [[lawn]] by thick groups of evergreen and deciduous trees. At ''e'', is a [[picturesque]] '''orchard''', in which the fruit trees are planted in groups instead of straight lines, for the sake of effect.” [Fig. 8]

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . and to the right of the [[lawn]], as you entered, was an extensive '''orchard''' of the finest fruit, with the stables between, at the corner and on the road. The mansion. . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar—the most admired of all trees in the palmy days of old Virginia—and this row reached to another double row or [[avenue]] which skirted one side of the [[lawn]], dividing it from the '''orchard''' and stables.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary '''orchard''' some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbour]]s, [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort.”

===Citations===
*Lawson, William, 1618, ''A New Orchard and Garden'' (1618; repr., 1982: 11, 13)<ref>William Lawson, ''A New Orchard and Garden. . . with the Country Housewifes Garden'' (1618; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IEF2TJD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The goodnesse of the Soyle, and Site, are necessarie to the well being of an '''Orchard''' simplie, but the forme is so far necessarie, as the owner shall think meets for that kinde of forme wherewith every particular man is delighted, we leave it to himselfe, ''fuumcuig pulchrum''. The forme that men like in generall is a [[square]], for although roundnes, be ''forma perfectissima'', yet y principle is good where necessitie by art hath not force forme other forme. And for as much as one principall end of '''Orchards''' is recreation by [[walk]]s, and universallie [[walk]]s are streight, it followes that the best forme must be [[square]], as best agreeing with streight [[walk]]s: yet if any man be rather delighted with some other forme, or if the ground will not beare a [[square]], I risceommend not any forme, so it be formall. . .
:“All your labour past and to come about an '''Orchard''' is lost, unlesse you [[fence]] well. It that grieve you much to see your young lets rubble ofe at the rootes, the barke pilld, the boughs and twigs cropt, your fruit stolne, your trees broke, and all your many yeares Labours and hopes destroyed, for want of [[fence]]s.”

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 535–37)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And first, I hold that an '''Orchard''' which is, or should bee of some reasonable large extent, should be so placed, that the house should have the [[flower garden|Garden of flowers]] just before it open upon the South, and the [[Kitchen Garden]] on the one side thereof, should also have the '''Orchard''' on the other side of the [[pleasure garden|Garden of Pleasure]], for many good reasons: First, for that the fruit trees being grown great and tall, will be a great shelter from the North and East windes, which may offend your chiefest Garden, and although that your '''Orchard''' stand a little bleake upon the windes, yet trees rather endure these strong bitter blasts, then other smaller and more tender [[shrub]]s and herbes can doe. Secondly, if your '''Orchard''' should stand behinde your [[flower garden|Garden of flowers]] more Southward, it would shadow too much of the Garden, and besides, would so binde in the North and East, and North and West windes upon the Garden, that it would spoile many tender things therein, and so much abate the edge of your pleasure thereof, that you would willingly wish to have no '''Orchard''', rather then that it should so much annoy you by the so ill standing thereof. Thirdly, the falling leaves being still blowne with the winde so aboundantly into the Garden, would either spoile many things, or have one daily and continuall attending thereon, to cleanse and sweepe them away. Or else to avoide these great inconveniences, appoint out an '''Orchard''' the farther off, and set a greater distance of ground betweene. . .
:“According to the situation of mens grounds, so must the [[plantation]] of them of necessitie be also; and if the ground be in forme, you shall have a formall '''Orchard''': if otherwise, it can have little grace or forme. And indeed in the elder ages there was small care or heede taken for the formality; for every tree for the most part was planted without order, even where the master or keeper found a vacant place to plant them in, so that oftentimes the ill placing of trees without sufficient space betweene them, and negligence in not looking to uphold them, procured more waste and spoile of fruit, then any accident of winde or weather could doe. '''Orchards''' in most places have not bricke or stone wals to secure them, because the extent thereof being larger then of a Garden, would require more cost, which every one cannot undergoe; and therefore mud [[Wall|wals]], or at the best a quicke set [[hedge]], is the ordinary and most usuall defence it findeth almost in all places: but with those that are of ability to compasse it with bricke or stone [[Wall|wals]], the gaining of ground, and profit of the fruit trees, planted there against, will in short time recompense that charge. . . Having an '''Orchard''' containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large [[walk]]e betweene the [[wall]] and it, . . . and by compassing your '''Orchard''' on the inside with a [[hedge]] (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low [[shrub]]s or bushes . . .) therefore to describe you the modell of an '''Orchard''', both rare for comelinesse in the proportion, and pleasing for the profitablenesse in the use, and also durable for continuance, regard this figure is here placed for your direction, where you must observe, that your trees are here set in such an equall distance one from another every way, & as is fittest for them, that when they are grown great, the greater branches shall not gall or rubbe one against another; for which purpose twenty or sixteene foot is the least to be allowed for the distance every way of your trees, & being set in rowes every one in the middle distance, will be the most graceful for the [[plantation]], and besides, give you way sufficient to passe through them, to pruine, loppe, or dresse them, as need shall require, and may also bee brought (if you please) to that grace-full delight, that every [[alley]] or distance may be formed like an [[arch]], the branches of either side meeting to be enterlaced together.”

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Gardens'' are choice inclosed pieces of Ground planted with Edible Plants, Fruit-Trees, and Flowers, and differ from '''Orchards''', which are commonly planted with Standard Fruit-Trees, and are seldom walled, or so curiously inclosed as Gardens. . .
:“'''''Orchards''''', or ''Hort-yards Ort-yards'', are inclosed pieces of Ground planted chiefly with ''Standards Fruit-Trees'', and more often fenced with ''[[Hedge]]s'', or ''Ditches'', and other [[fence]]s than with [[Wall]]s.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3: 27)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical. . . '', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are two Ways of Planting an '''Orchard'''; the one to make it entirely for Fruit, the other to plant the Trees at such distances as to admit of an Under-crop. I must confess, was I to make an '''Orchard''' to please my self, I would first divide the Ground into parcels, allowing handsome [[Walk]]s between them, which should some of them be fenced on the Sides with [[Espalier]]s of Fruit, others left open with [[Border]]s only on their Sides, adorn’d with Rows of ''Standard-Apples''. . .
:“In these several [[Quarter]]s plant your Trees at about sixteen Foot distance, if you design a close '''Orchard''', or near thirty Foot asunder if the Ground is design’d for Beans, Peas, or such like Under-crops.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD''', a seminary or [[plantation]] of fruit trees, chiefly apples and pears. See FRUIT-''tree''.
:“It is a rule among gardeners, that those '''''orchards''''', caeteris paribus, thrive best, which lie open to the south, south-west, and south-east; and are screened from the north: the soil dry, and deep. See EXPOSURE.
:“'''''Orchards''''' are stocked by transplantation; seldom by semination.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 977–78)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD'''. In planting of an '''Orchard''', great Care should be had of the Nature of the Soil, that such Sorts of Fruit as are adapted to grow upon the Ground intended to be planted, may be chosen. . .
:“As to the Position of the '''Orchard''' (if you are at full Liberty to choose), a rising Ground, open to the South-east is to be preferr’d. . . where the Rise [of a hill] is gentle, it is of great Advantage to the Trees by admitting the Sun and Air between them better than it can upon an intire [''sic''] Level. . .
:“You should also have a great regard to the Distance of planting the Trees, which is what few People have rightly consider’d; for if you plant them too close, they will be liable to Blights; and the Air hereby pent in amongst them, will cause the Fruit to be ill-tasted. . .
:“Wherefore I can’t but recommend the Method which has been lately practised by some particular Gentlemen with very good Success; and that is, to plant the Trees fourscore Feet asunder, but not in regular Rows. The Ground between the Trees they plow and sow with Wheat, and other Crops, in the same manner as if it were clear from Trees; and they observe their Crops to be full as good as those quite exposed.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''O’RCHARD'''. ''n.s''. [either ''hortyard'' or ''wortyard'', says ''Skinner'' . . . Saxon. Junius.] A garden of fruit-trees.”

*Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.)<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD'''. . .
:“for a family only, it is hardly worth while to plant an '''orchard'''; since a [[kitchen-garden]] well planted with [[espalier]]s will afford more fruit than can be eaten while good, especially if the [[kitchen-garden]] be proportioned to the largeness of the family: and if cyder be required, there may be a large avenue of apple-trees extended cross a neighbouring field, which will render it pleasant, and produce a great quantity of fruit; or there may be some single rows of trees planted to surround the fields, &c. which will fully answer the same purpose, and be less liable to the fire-blasts before-mentioned.”

*Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 188–89, 197–98)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[NURSERY]]. . .
:“In this situation they are to grow till they are transplanted into '''orchards''', &c. . . Trees to be transplanted into forests, may be cultivated in a [[nursery]] in the same manner as fruit trees. . .
:“'''ORCHARD''', a [[plantation]] of fruit-trees, not again to be removed.
:“An '''orchard''' may consist wholly of pear-trees; or of quince, peach, plum, &c. or it may be a mixture of various kinds of trees. But '''orchards''' of apple-trees are almost the only ones in this country. Other fruit-trees are commonly planted in the [[border]]s of fields, or gardens; because only a small number of them is desired. . .
:“Plains, hollows, or high summits, are not so good situations for '''orchards''', as land gently sloping: And a south-eastern exposure is generally the best. . .
:“Concerning the right distance of the trees, there are a variety of opinions. But the coldness and wetness of the climate, an argument used in England for placing them far asunder, does not apply in this country. It should be considered at the time of planting, to what size the trees are likely to grow: And they should be set so far asunder, that their limbs will not be likely to interfere with each other when they arrive to their full growth. . . Twenty five feet may be the right distance in some soils; but thirty five feet will not be too much in the best, or even forty. . .
:“An '''orchard''' must be constantly well fenced, to keep out cattle. It should be enclosed by itself. . .
:“After an '''orchard''' is planted, it is best to keep the land continually in tillage, till the trees have nearly got their full growth. The trees will grow faster, and be more fruitful.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 13:471–72)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD''', a garden-department, configured entirely to the growth of standard fruit trees, for furnishing a large supply of the most useful kinds of fruit.
:“In the '''orchard''' you may have, as standards, all sorts of apple-trees, most sorts of pears and plums, and all sorts of cherries. . . . But to have a complete '''orchard''' you may also have quinces, medlars, mulberries; service trees, filberts, Spanish nuts, berberries; likewise walnuts and chesnuts; which two latter are particularly applicable for the boundaries of '''orchards''', to screen the other trees from the insults of impetuous winds and cold blasts. All the trees ought to be arranged in rows from 20 to 30 feet distance, as hereafter directed. . .
:“A general '''orchard''', however composed of all the beforementioned fruit-trees, should consist of a double portion of apple-trees or more, because they are considerably the most useful fruit, and may be continued for use the year round.
:“The utility of a general '''orchard''', both for private use and profit, stored with the various sorts of fruit-trees, must be very great, as well as afford infinite pleasure from the delightful appearance it makes from early spring till late in autumn: In spring the various trees in blossom are highly ornamental; in summer, the pleasure is heightened by observing the various fruits advancing to perfection; and as the season advances, the mature growth of the different species arriving to perfection in regular succession, from May or June, until the end of October, must afford exceding delight, as well as great profit. . .
:“With respect to the situation and aspect for an '''orchard''', we may observe very thriving '''orchards''' both in low and high situations, and on declivities and plains, in various aspects or exposures, provided the natural soil is good; we should, however, avoid very low damp situations as much as the nature of the place will admit.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:43–45)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“AN '''ORCHARD''' may be spoken of here; i. e. a spot to plant ''standard trees'' in, which are forbidden a place in the garden; but it must not be a small spot. . .
:“The trees being planted, at proper distances, the ground may be kept under some sort of crops, for several years to come, with proper dressing. . .
:“On this subject, it may not be amiss to give the instructions of one of our best gardeners.
:“It is an error (says he) to let ''turf'' cover the surface of the ground in an '''orchard'''. The trees should be at such distances, that a ''plough'' may go between them, and in that case the trees thrive every way better.”

*Bordley, J. B., 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75)<ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ''homestead'' includes this [[yard]]; together with its [[stackyard]], the garden, [[nursery]], '''orchard''', and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 38)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''Orchard''' is a department consigned entirely to the growth of standard fruit-trees, for furnishing a large supply of the most useful kinds of fruit; in which you may have as standards, apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, quince, almond, and nectarine trees. . .
:“But sometimes, '''Orchards''' consist entirely of apple trees. . .
:“The utility of a general '''Orchard''', or '''Orchards''', both for private use and profit, stored with the various sorts of fruit-trees, must be very great; as well as afford infinite pleasure from the delightful appearance it makes from early spring, until late in autumn.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed. 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD''', a [[plantation]] of fruit-trees. In planting an '''orchard''' great care should be taken that the soil is suitable to the trees planted in it; and that they are procured from a soil nearly of the same kind, or rather poorer than that laid out for an '''orchard'''. As to the situation, an easy rising ground, open to the south-east, is to be preferred. Mr. Miller recommends planting the trees fourscore feet asunder, but not in regular rows and would have the ground between the trees plowed and sown with wheat and other crops, in the same manner as if it was clear from trees; by which means the trees will be more vigorous and healthy, will abide much longer, and produce better fruit.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 180)<ref> John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“AN '''orchard''' is a [[plantation]] of standard fruit-trees which in general have stems high enough to keep the boughs, leaves, and fruit, from the reach of cattle; but where cattle are excluded, dwarf and half-standards may occupy two rows next to the sunny side.”

*Coxe, William, 1817, ''A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider'' (1817: 30, 33–34)<ref>William Coxe, ''A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider'' (Philadelphia: M. Careyard, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7EB8GM2K view on Zotero].</ref>
:“ON THE SITUATION OF '''ORCHARDS'''.
:“A south east aspect, which admits the influence of the early morning Sun, and is protected from the pernicious effects of northerly winds, will be found the best site for an '''orchard'''. The situation should be neither too high nor too low. . .
:“ON THE PLANTING AND CULTIVATION OF '''ORCHARDS'''.
:“The first thing to be determined upon in the planting of an '''orchard''', is the proper distance of the trees: if a mere fruit [[plantation]] be the object, the distance may be small—if the cultivation of grain and grass be in [[view]], the space between the trees must be wider: at thirty feet apart, an acre will contain forty-eight trees. . . it will probably be found, that forty feet is the most eligible distance for a farm '''orchard'''.—It will admit sufficient sun and air, in our dry and warm climate; and until the trees shall be fully grown, will allow of a profitable application of the ground to the cultivation of grain and grass.”

*Thacher, James, 1822, ''The American Orchardist'' (1822: 10–11)<ref>James Thacher, ''The American Orchardist; Or, A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Management of Apple and Other Fruit Trees. . .'' (Boston: Joseph W. Ingraham, 1822), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CK7XAFB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It must be confessed, as a notorious truth, that an '''orchard''', planted and cultivated in the most advantageous manner in point of beauty, profit, and convenience, is scarcely to be found in the sphere of our observation. The most palpable neglect prevails in respect of proper pruning, cleaning, and manuring round the roots of trees, and of perpetuating choice fruit, by engrafting from it on other stocks. Old '''orchards''' are, in general, in a state of rapid decay; and it is not uncommon to see valuable and thrifty trees exposed to the depredations of cattle and sheep, and their foliage annoyed by caterpillars and other destructive insects. In fact, we know of no branch of agriculture so unaccountably and so culpably disregarded. . . It may, with propriety, be affirmed, that a judiciously-cultivated '''orchard''' of select fruit, if situated at a convenient distance from a large town or village, would yield an annual profit equal to any production of the industrious husbandman. . .
:“In every rural establishment, a fruit '''orchard''' should be considered an indispensable appendage, as a source of real emolument, and as contributing to health, pleasure, and recreation. It will be conceded, that, in the whole department of rural economy, there is not a more noble, interesting, and beautiful exhibition, than a fruit '''orchard''', systematically arranged, while clothed with nature’s foliage, and decorated with variegated blossoms perfuming the air, or when bending under a load of ripe fruit of many varieties. It is among the excellences of a fruit '''orchard''', that it affords a salubrious ''beverage'', an adequate supply of which would have a happy tendency to diminish, if not supersede, the consumption of ardent spirits, so destructive to the health and moral character of our citizens.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 105, 451, 482)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero]. </ref>
:“482. . .
:“''The first work after a settlement'' [in North America] is to plant a peach and apple '''orchard''', placing the trees alternately. The peach, being short-lived, is soon removed, and its place covered by the branches of the apple-trees. . .
:“2355. ''To unite the agreeable with the useful'' is an object common to all the departments of gardening. The [[kitchen-garden]], the '''orchard''', the [[nursery]], and the forest, are all intended as scenes of recreation and visual enjoyment, as well as of useful culture; and enjoyment is the avowed object of the [[flower-garden]], [[shrubbery]], and [[pleasure-ground]]. . .
:“2527. ''An '''orchard''', or separate [[plantation]] of the hardier fruit-trees'' is a common appendage to the [[kitchen-garden]], where that department is small, or does not contain an adequate number of fruit-trees to supply the contemplated demand of the family. Sometimes this scene adjoins the garden, and forms a part of the slip; at other times it forms a detached, and, perhaps, distant enclosure, and not unfrequently, in countries where the soil is propitious to fruit-trees, they are distributed in the [[lawn]], or in a scene, or field kept in pasture. Sometimes the same object is effected by mixing fruit-trees in the [[plantation]]s near the garden and house.”

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The apple-tree alone, on account of its horizontal branches, should be confined to the '''orchard''', where its useful products are ornamental and valuable.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]. </ref>
:“'''OR’CHARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''ortgeard''; Goth. ''aurtigards''; Dan. ''urtegaard''; Sw. ''ortegard''; that is, ''wort-yard'', a yard for herbs. The Germans call it ''baumgarten'', tree-garden, and the Dutch ''boomgaard'', tree-[[yard]]. See ''[[Yard]]''.]
:“An inclosure for fruit trees. In Great Britain, a department of the garden appropriated to fruit trees of all kinds, but chiefly to apples trees. In America, any piece of land set with apple trees, is called an '''orchard'''; and '''orchards''' are usually cultivated land, being either grounds for mowing or tillage. In some parts of the country, a piece of ground planted with peach trees is called a peach-'''orchard'''. But in most cases, I believe the '''orchard''' in both countries is distinct from the garden.”

*Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 220–22)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ORCHARD'''.—''Soil''.—Any soil is suitable for an '''orchard''', which produces good crops of grain, grass, or garden vegetables; but a good, deep, sandy loam, not too dry, nor very moist, is to be preferred. In the stiffest part of the ground, you may plant pear-trees; in the lighter, apples, plums, and cherries; and, in the lightest, peach, nectarine, and apricots.
:“''Aspect''.—A south-eastern aspect is generally recommended; but, when this exposes the trees to the sea winds, a south-western may be better. Some recommend a northern aspect, and planting trees the north side of a [[wall]], to prevent them from budding and blowing so early in the spring as to expose them to frosts. . .
:“''Distance of trees in an '''orchard'''''.—‘It should be considered, at the time of planting, to what size the trees are likely to grow. And they should be set so far asunder, that their limbs will not be likely to interfere with each other, when they arrive at full growth. In a soil that suits them best they will become largest. Twenty-five feet may be the right distance in some soils; but thirty-five feet will not be too much in the best, or even forty.’—Deane.
:“''Cropping''.—‘It is proper to crop the ground among new-planted '''orchard'''-trees, for a few years, in order to defray the expense of hoeing and cultivating it; which should be done until the temporary plants are removed, and the whole be sown down to grass. But it is by no means advisable to carry the system of cropping with vegetables to such an excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of cultivating the ground, and the rent, be paid, by such cropping, it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to produce fruit, begin also to relinquish cropping. When by their productions they defray all expenses, crop no longer. I consider these as being wholesome rules, both for the trees and their owners.’—''Loudon''
:“'''Orchards''' which are laid down to grass last longest; but it is necessary to keep the ground clear of weeds and grass, for some little distance from the roots.”

*Anonymous, December 17, 1834, “Orchards Around Farm Houses” (''New England Farmer'' 13: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Orchards Around Farm Houses,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 13, no. 23 (December 17, 1834): 181, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3JFCJVZC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is expedient that every farm should have some portion of '''orchard''' ground attached to it. The most convenient and guarded situation for it is immediately behind the house, so that the back kitchen door may open into it. . . The most profitable kind of '''orchard''' is that which contains all kinds of hardy fruit trees and bushes, and where the land is solely appropriated to that purpose. This kind resembles gardening more than farming, and is therefore unsuitable to large farms, but quite applicable to small ones, to which an acre of '''orchard''', requiring no horse labor, would be of essential benefit. In such '''orchards''', half standard apples are planted in rows eighteen feet from each other, the trees being twelve feet apart. In the same line with the apple trees are planted either gooseberries or currant bushes, or what sometimes pay equally well, filberts.”

*Sayers, Edward, September 1835, “The Apple Orchard” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 330)<ref>Edward Sayers, “The Apple Orchard,” ''The American Gardeners’ Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 9 (September 1835): 329–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E5MDFK77 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The constructing of rail-roads, [[canal]]s and public thoroughfares, also deter, in a measure, the formation of the apple '''orchard''' in almost all parts of the country, which will be seen by observation. Many trees are also cut down, owing to old age, and many for fire-wood and other purposes of domestic use; but few young trees are planted at the present day, to fill up the deficiency of those decaying, and yearly dwindling away, which, in time, must prove, that scarcity will be the result in general, especially if the crops are light.”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 11, 279)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“When put in an '''orchard''' they should be 6 or 7 feet high; 30 feet each way is the proper distance apart in the '''orchard'''. The mode should be thus, [illus.] or quincunx form which is best for close room. . .
:“'''ORCHARD'''. '''Orchards''' are the parts of a farm appropriated to the growth of standard fruit trees. They may be reckoned among the permanent improvements of a farm, and should be kept in [[view]] in its first management and laying out.”

[[File:0377.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Natural_style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25. The “orchard” is indicated at “''e''.”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 115–17)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., 1991: Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Figure'' 25 is the plan of an American mansion of considerable extent, only part of the farm lands, l, being here delineated. In this residence, as there is no extensive view worth preserving beyond the bounds of the estate, the [[pleasure ground]]s are surrounded by an irregular and [[picturesque]] belt of [[wood]]. . . The small arabesque beds near the house are filled with masses of choice flowering [[shrub]]s and plants; the [[kitchen garden]] is shown at ''d'', and the '''orchard''' at ''e''.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], July 1851, “A Few Words on Fruit Culture” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 297–98)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Few Words on Fruit Culture,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): 297–301, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVNVBUPB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Within the last five years, the planting of '''orchards''' has, in the United States, been carried to an extent never known before. In the northern half of the Union, apple trees, in '''orchards''', have been planted by thousands and hundreds of thousands, in almost every state. The rapid communication established by means of railroads and steamboats in all parts of the country, has operated most favorably on all the lighter branches of agriculture, and so many farmers have found their '''orchards''' the most profitable, because least expensive part of their farms, that '''orchard'''ing has become in some parts of the west, almost an absolute distinct species of husbandry.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0599.jpg|George Washington, A Plan of My Farm on Little Huntg. Creek & Potomk R., 1766.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:2255.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797. The '''orchard''' is labeled "D".

File:1295.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sketch of the Estate of Henry Banks Esqr. on York River'', March 1797. “'''Orchard'''” is seen twice, in the lower canter and to the left.

File:0874.jpg|J. B. Bordley, ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I. The '''orchard''' is labelled at the top of the plan.

File:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

File:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806. "'''Orchard'''" inscribed at top right.

File:0601.jpg|Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers live in the state of Ohio, November 7, 1807. '''Orchard''' inscribed on left bottom quadrant at center.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:1292.jpg|Anonymous, “'''Orchards''' in Alternate Rows, or Quincunx Order,” ''Horticultural Register'' 1 (January 1, 1835): 37.

File:0592.jpg|George Kendall, “[[View]] of Whitewater,” Ohio [detail], 1835.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and '''Orchard''' of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Gardens]] of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

File:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

File:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848. '''Orchard''' is inscribed in the center of the image.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Natural_style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25. The “'''orchard'''” is indicated at “''e''.”

File:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. Downing notes that “At ''e'', is a [[picturesque]] '''orchard'''.”

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. The “'''orchard''' at ''i''”.

File:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “View of a [[Picturesque]] farm (''[[Ferme_ornée|ferme ornée]]''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27. ". . . and the '''orchard''' at ''f''."

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. ". . . Semicircular Road (41), passing along the margin of a fine '''orchard'''. . ."

File:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington, c. 1859. "14. '''Orchard'''."
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0072.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Monticello]]: '''orchard''' and vineyard (plat), c. 1778.

File:1176.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''[[View]] of the [[seat]] of Edmund Quincy Esqr.'', 1822.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0187.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], [[Mount]] Clare, south façade and garden, 1775.

File:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697. Orchards are indicated by peach trees along right side of drawing.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, ''Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''[[Mount]] Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. '''Orchards''' are seen at top, left of center and middle, right.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, ''Map of Deming '''Orchard''''', after 1798.

File:0165_2.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''[[View]] of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

File:0594.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Section of the northern course of the [[canal]] from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp'', 1803. Orchard on top right of basin.

File:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, ''A [[view]] of Col. Lincoln’s [[Seat]], Casnovia [sic]'', c. 1821.

File:0608.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, In., 1832.

File:0607.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, Pa., 1833.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many [[Fence]]s'', c. 1847.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''[[View]] of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Meadow

2021-04-12T13:39:21Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Lawn]]

==History==
[[File:0601.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers lived in the state of Ohio, November 7, 1807. “Meadow” is noted in the center between the [[woods]] and cornfield.]]
According to lexicographer [[Noah Webster]] (1828), meadow referred “to the low ground on the banks of rivers. . . whether grassland, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land,” or low-lying lands that were particularly “appropriated to the culture of grass.” Both definitions of the term “meadow” were used in the American context.

[[File:0676.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, Garden Plan of “Newington” in Allegheny County, PA, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.]]
Maps of 18th-century New York and Boston show “salt meadows” along rivers. Like [[kitchen garden]]s or [[orchard]]s, meadows played a key role in early American husbandry, and descriptive accounts of productive farms and estates often mention meadows, particularly when they gave the landscape a rich or well-cultivated appearance. Meadows ranged in size from the 12-acre meadow noted in a 1747 newspaper advertisement to the estimated 50 acres of meadow attached to an estate in Pennsylvania. In an 1807 plan of South Union, Ohio, a meadow was located in close proximity to the residences and between areas designated as [[wood]]s and a cornfield [Fig. 1]. Since meadows were largely covered with grass, they could provide sustenance for cattle. Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], in describing the benefits of [[park]]s, frequently instructed homeowners to regard them as meadows where their cattle could graze. The cultivation of grass rendered “meadow” synonymous with “pasture,” which Webster defined as grounds covered with grass appropriated for the food of cattle, and hence these terms frequently were used interchangeably.

Although meadows were primarily associated with agricultural production, they were often part of a consciously designed landscape, as at “Newington,” Pennsylvania [Fig. 2]. They were also included in plans for [[plantation]]s and ornamental farms (see [[Ferme ornée]]). 18th-century British gardening treatises, for example, endorsed the incorporation of agricultural features into ornamental contexts: Batty Langley (1728) recommended “Little [[Walk]]s by purling streams in Meadows” as “delightful Entertainments.”

[[File:2255.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793. The designation of “60 acres of Meadow” is noted at “j,” in the four [[square]]s below the hemicycle.]]
In many instances, meadows accomplished the same aesthetic results as [[lawn]]s, including framing desired objects or [[view]]s. At the 18th-century estate of Westover on the James River in Virginia, for example, meadows watered by [[canal]]s lined the road leading to the mansion and signaled one’s arrival to the “improved grounds” surrounding the house. According to François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt (1799), Dr. Baron of Charleston, South Carolina, wanted to buy an area of flat land between his garden and the river to convert it to a meadow that could frame views of the distant [[prospect]]. [[Pierre Pharoux]], in his plan for Baron von Steuben’s estate in Mohawk Valley, New York, likewise used meadows carved out of [[wood]]s to ensure visual access to the [[prospect]] [Fig. 3].

Meadows were closely related to [[park]]s and [[lawn]]s; [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] on occasion referred to “meadow parks” and “meadow-[[lawn]]s”. Nevertheless, in at least one article in the ''Horticulturist'', he distinguished between [[lawn]]s and meadows, arguing that [[lawn]]s were composed of firm, close, and short grass, while coarser (and presumably taller) grasses with meadow flowers made up meadows. Moreover, [[lawn]]s were often trimmed and rolled to maintain their appearance, while the primary method of maintaining meadows was to allow animals to graze.

Like [[lawn]]s and [[bowling green]]s, the open grassy areas of meadows also provided space for sports and other leisure entertainments, as mentioned by a teacher in Salem, North Carolina, in 1817, who observed children playing round ball in the meadow of a tavern.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'')
:“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper. . . containing about 90 Acres, including a piece of English '''Meadow''' about 12 Acres, and more may be made, about 40 Acres being clear, the remainder [[Wood]]-Land.”

*Kalm, Pehr, October 4, 1748, describing his journey from Philadelphia to Wilmington, DE (1937: 1:81–82)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I rode now through [[wood]]s of several sorts of trees and now over pieces of land which had been cleared of the [[wood]] and which at present were grain fields, '''meadows''' and pastures. The farmhouses stood single, sometimes near the roads, and sometimes at a little distance from them, so that the space between the road and the houses was taken up with small cultivated tracts and '''meadows'''. . . The fields bore partly buckwheat, which was cut, partly corn, and partly wheat.”

*Brook, Elizabeth, 1756, describing Doughoregan Manor, seat of Charles Carroll (of Annapolis), Howard County, MD (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)
:“This place. . . is greatly improved, a fine, flourishing [[orchard]] with a variety of choice fruit, the garden inlarged and a stone [[wall]] built around it, 2 fine '''meadows'''.”

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)
:“The whole store of nature’s kind luxuriance seemed to have been exhausted on these beautiful '''meadows'''; he made me count the amazing number of cattle and horses now feeding on solid bottoms, which but a few years before had been covered with water.”

*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“You pass thro’ two [[gate]]s, and from the second, which leads you into the improved grounds, may be seen a village of [[quarter]]s as they are called for negroes. The road you get into upon opening this gate is spacious and very level bounded on either side by a handsome ditch & [[fence]] which divide the road from fine '''meadows''' whose extent is greater than the eye can reach; and on one side you see the river through trees of different sorts. These '''meadows''' well watered with [[canal]]s, which communicate with each other across the road give occasion every 50 yards for a [[bridge]]; and between every two [[bridge]]s are two gates one on each side the road.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, May 6, 1795, describing Pottsgrove, PA (1800: 1:35)<ref name="Liancourt">François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The landscape is beautiful along this road, abounding with a great variety of fine [[view]]s, wonderfully enlivened by the verdure of the cornfields and '''meadows'''. . . If agriculture were better understood in these parts; if the fields were well mowed and well fenced; and if some trees had been left standing in the middle or on the [[border]]s of the '''meadows''', the most beautiful parts of Europe could not be more pleasing.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing an estate in Pennsylvania (1800: 1:101)<ref name="Liancourt"></ref>
:“The cultivated ground amounts in the whole to one hundred and twenty acres, fifty of which are laid out in artificial '''meadows''', and thirty-six in [[orchard]]s for apple and peach-trees. The '''meadows''' are beautiful, and the fields in good order.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New England (1821: 1:18, 2:335)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[vol. 1]. . . A succession of New-England villages, composed of neat houses, surrounding neat school-houses and churches, adorned with gardens, '''meadows''' and [[orchard]]s, and exhibiting the universally easy circumstances of the inhabitants, is, at least in my own opinon, one of the most delightful [[prospect]]s, which this world can afford. . .
:“[vol. 2] New England villages. . . are built in the following manner. . .
:“The lot, on which the house stands, universally styled the home lot, is almost of course a '''meadow''', richly cultivated, covered during the pleasant season with verdure, and containing generally a thrifty [[orchard]]. It is hardly necessary to observe, that these appendages spread a singular cheerfulness, and beauty, over a New-England village; or that they contribute largely to render the house a delightful residence.”

*Parkinson, Richard, 1798–1800, describing Orange Hill, near Baltimore, MD (1805: 1:163–64)<ref>Richard Parkinson, ''A Tour in America, 1798, 1799, and 1800: Exhibiting Sketches of Society and Manners, and a Particular Account of the American System of Agriculture, with Its Recent Improvements'', 2 vols. (London: J. Harding, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8PV5PS4/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My first work on the farm was to dress the '''meadows'''; which were called fine; though the greater part of them in England would not have been thought worthy of being called '''meadows''' at all, being overrun with briars and weeds of different description. Their state indeed was such, that when I mowed them, I sometimes in making hay did not know whether it was worth putting together, or not.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1799, describing Fitterasso, estate of Dr. Baron, Charleston, SC (1800: 2:435–36)<ref name="Liancourt"></ref>
:“This small [[plantation]], named Fitterasso, consists of four hundred acres, and cost him four thousand two hundred and eighty dollars; it is situated on a small [[eminence]] near the river. The site for the house, for none has hitherto been built, is the most pleasant spot which could be chosen in this flat, level country, where the tedious sameness of the [[wood]]s is scarcely variegated by some houses, thinly scattered, and where it is hardly possible to meet with a pleasant landscape. His garden is separated from the river by a morass, nearly drained; the whole extent of the northern bank of the river is nearly of the same description. Dr. Baron intends to purchase this intervening space, and to convert it into '''meadow'''-ground. This alteration will improve the [[prospect]], without rendering it a charming [[vista]].”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 13)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The variety of [[walk]]s, rows of trees, and the plenty with which the gardens and '''meadows''' were stored, displayed taste, industry and economy.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, 1809, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum">Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“‘Next, I visited a [[flower garden]] belonging to the female department. . . But it is situated on a hill, the East end of which is high & abrupt. . .
:“‘From the extremity of this place descended in different directions, two rows of steps, & joined again at the bottom, of the hill, where was a beautiful spring, from which issued a brisk current, winding in a serpentine course through a handsome '''meadow''', ’til it reached a brook about a quarter of a mile distant. This place was designed for literary repast, & evening amusement—is certainly well adapted for either or both.’”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing Belfield, estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 42)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I am often pleased with the solemn [[grove]]s skirting my '''meadows''' in mahestic [''sic''] silence and cool appearance.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (quoted in Miller and Ward 1991: fig. 87)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In this [[view]] imagine that you see a beautiful '''Meadow''' on the right. . . The [[Common]] water course is on the edge of the '''Meadow''' on the right and the doted [''sic''] line is a ditch to which I have a flood-[[gate]] to let water on the '''Meadow''' at Pleasure.” [Fig. 4]

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing the plants of North America (1814: 1:v)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Her [America] forests produce an endless variety of useful and stately timber trees; her [[wood]]s and [[hedge]]s the most ornamental flowering [[shrub]]s, so much admired in our [[pleasure ground]]s; and her fields and '''meadows''' a number of exceedingly handsome and singular flowers (many of them possessing valuable medicinal virtues), different from those of other countries.”

*Teacher at Moravian Boys School, 1817, describing Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 52)<ref name="Bynum"></ref>
:“This afternoon I went with the children. . . I took them to the tavern '''meadow''', where they played a little ''round ball''.”

*du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, July 21, 1837, describing her visit to a meadow (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 178)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie Du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823–1833'' (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K view on Zotero].</ref>
:“They were making hay in the undulating '''meadow''', which added to the [[picturesque]] effect of the scenery [''sic''] There is here a very convenient chaise a ''porteur'' in which I am carried, or the ''blackies'' here express it, ''toted'', from one place to another—”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, September 22, 1845, describing Boston, MA (1849: 1:30)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The extreme heat of summer does not allow of the green '''meadows''' and verdant [[lawn]]s of England, but there are some well-kept gardens here—a costly luxury where the wages of labor are so high.”

[[File:0363.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “View in the Meadow Park at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, describing Geneseo, seat of James S. Wadsworth, Genesee River Valley, NY (''Horticulturist'' 3: 163–65)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Meadow Park in Geneseo,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 163–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G6VXPK69/q/Geneseo view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The great agricultural estate of the WADSWORTH family, is the pride and centre of this precious family. That magnificent tract, of thousands of acres of the finest land, which surpasses in extent and value many principalities of the old world; those broad '''meadows''', where herds of the finest cattle crop the richest herbage, or rest under the deep shade of giant trees. . .
:“And what a [[prospect]]! The whole of that part of the valley embraced by the eye-say a thousand acres—is a [[park]], full of the finest oaks,—and such oaks as you may have dreamed of, (if you love trees,) or, perhaps, have seen in pictures by CLAUDE LORRAINE, or our own DURAND; but not in the least like those which you meet every day in your [[wood]]land [[walk]]s through the country at large. Or rather, there are thousands of such as you may have seen half a dozen examples of in your own country. . .
:“No underwood, no bushes, no [[thicket]]s; nothing but single specimens or groups of giant old oaks, (mingled with, here and there, an elm,) with level glades of broad '''meadow''' beneath them! An Englishman will hardly be convinced that it is not a [[park]], planted by the skilful hand of man hundreds of years ago.
:“This great '''meadow''' [[park]] is filled with herds of the finest cattle—the pride of the home—farm.” [Fig. 5]

[[File:1001.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Mount Fordham—the Country Seat of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” describing Mount Fordham, seat of Lewis G. Morris, New York, NY (''Horticulturist'' 6: 372)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 372–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RVU7GZDK/q/the%20annual%20cattle%20sale view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Around the house at Mount Fordham, extends on all sides a kind of '''meadow'''-[[lawn]], enclosed and divided by pretty wire [[fence]]s of various patterns. This [[lawn]] is kept short by the grazing of improved dairy stock, and we were glad to see successfully practiced what we have been commending so strongly of late to our readers, as the most available point of English country places, that we saw on the other side of the Atlantic—that is the maintenance of a neat and handsome [[lawn]] about a country house, not only without the expense of mowing, but with united profit and beauty—the profit of grazing the grass and the beauty—the real pastoral beauty—of fine cattle, soft turf, and pleasant groups of trees, as the home landscape of our country places generally. By adopting this course, the ''hay-field'' aspect of many so-called gentlemen’s country-[[seat]]s, would disappear, and a more complete and satisfactory [[lawn]] or [[park]] be acquired, with no loss of money, and the attainment of a higher species of keeping to one’s country home.” [Fig. 6]

===Citations===
*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“General DIRECTIONS, &c. . .
:“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to; and in the first are entertain’d with a pretty Fruit-Garden, or Paradice-Stocks. . . from which you are insensibly led through the pleasant Meanders of a shady delightful [[Plantation]]; first, into an oven [''sic''] Plain environ’d with lofty Pines. . . secondly, into a [[Flower-Garden]]. . . and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, or small '''Meadows'''. . .
:“XXVIII. Distant Hills in [[Park]]s, &c. are beautiful Objects, when planted with little [[Wood]]s; as also are Valleys, when intermix’d with Water, and large Plains; and a rude [[Coppice]] in the Middle of a fine ''Meadow'', is a delightful Object.
:“XXIX. Little [[Walk]]s by purling streams in '''Meadows''', and through Corn-Fields, [[Thicket]]s, &c. are delightful Entertainments.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers,'' 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“MEAD. ''n.s.'' [meade, Sax.] Ground somewhat watery, not plowed, but covered with grass and flowers.
:“'''ME’ADOW'''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 645, 651)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''meadow''' and its [[hedge]] excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the [[hedge]] lost the very vegetable character. . .
:“Let us lead such as still prefer it [[[geometric style|geometric]] flower [[bed]]s] to more free dispositions, into a May '''meadow''', full of the common weedy flowers of that healthy season, and terminated by a hawthorn [[hedge]] in bloom. . .”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Under the general title of '''Meadow''', is commonly comprehended all Pasture land, or at least all Grass Land, which is mown for Hay; but I choose rather to distinguish such land only by this Apellation, which is so low, as to be too moist for Cattle to graze upon them in winter, being too wet to admit heavy cattle, without poaching & spoiling the Sward, and those grass lands which I shall distinguish by the title of pasture.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''MEADOW''', med’-do. s. A rich pasture ground, from which hay is made.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“MEAD, '''MEADOW''', ''n. meed'', ''med’o''. [Sax. ''moede'', ''moedewe''; G. ''matte'', a mat, and a '''meadow'''; Ir. ''madh''. The sense is extended or flat depressed land. It is supposed that this word enters into the name ''Mediolanum'', now ''Milan'', in Italy; that is, ''mead-land''.]
:“A tract of low land. In America, the word is applied particularly to the low ground on the banks of rivers, consisting of a rich mold or an alluvial soil, whether grass land, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land; as the '''''meadows''''' on the banks of the Connecticut. The word with us does not necessarily imply wet land. This species of land is called, in the western states, ''bottoms'', or ''bottom land''. The word is also used for other low or flat lands, particularly lands appropriated to the culture of grass.
:“The word is said to be applied in Great Britain to land somewhat watery, but covered with grass. ''Johnson''.
:“'''Meadow''' means pasture or grass land, annually mown for hay; but more particularly, land too moist for cattle to graze on in winter, without spoiling the sward. ''Encyc. Cyc''.
:“[''Mead'' is used chiefly in poetry.]”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, “A Chapter on Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no 5. (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN/q/chapter%20on%20lawns view on Zotero].</ref>
:“After your [[lawn]] is once fairly established, there are but two secrets in keeping it perfect— frequent mowing and rolling. Without the first, it will soon degenerate into a coarse '''meadow'''; the latter will render it firmer, closer, shorter, and finer every time it is repeated.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1851, “The Management of Large Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 106)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Management of Large Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 105–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HKQH76RW/q/management%20of%20large%20country view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Considerable familiarity with the country-[[seat]]s on the Hudson, enables us to state that for the most part, few persons keep up a fine country place. . .
:“The remedy for this unsatisfactory condition of the large country places is, we think, a very simple one—that of turning a large part of their areas into park '''meadow''', and ''feeding'' it, instead of mowing and cultivating it.
:“The great and distinguishing beauty of England, as every one knows, is its [[park]]s. And yet the English parks are only very large '''meadows''', studded with great oaks and elms—and grazed—''profitably grazed'', by deer, cattle and sheep.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760.

File:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, ''PLAN of the CITY of NEW YORK'', c. 1767. "Sall '''Meadows'''" is at right hand side of map.

File:2255.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793. The “60 acres of '''Meadow'''” is indicated at “j” in the four [[square]]s below the hemicycle.

File:0601.jpg|Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers live in the state of Ohio, Nov. 7, 1807. “'''Meadow'''” is noted in the center between the [[woods]] and cornfield.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0676.jpg|Anonymous, Garden Plan of "Newington" in Allegheny County, Pa, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.

File:0572.jpg|Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, ''Plan of Fort Niagara'', in ''Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale'' (1826).

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Believers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National [[Park]] Service.

File:0363.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the '''Meadow''' [[Park]] at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.

File:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848. '''Meadow''' is inscribed between the word "PAST" "URE" on the right hand corner.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "This open girt of '''meadow''' (7)"; "'''Meadow''' Girt (35)."
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0607.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, Pa., 1833

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “[[View]] of the [[Seat]] of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp. 648.

File:0263.jpg|John Brewster, ''Mother with Son (Lucy Knapp Mygatt and George Mygatt)'', 1799

File:0202.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall, Slave [[Quarter]]s with Field Hands at Work'', c. 1805.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, ''[[View]] of The [[Belvedere]] Club House, 1794'', 1828.

File:0608.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, In., 1832.

File:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of [[Landscape Gardening]]'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Eminence

2021-04-12T13:38:36Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

==History==

[[File:0550.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.]]
The term eminence, indicating an elevated rise or hill, functioned in landscape design as a site for monuments, dwellings, and other structures, and as a topographic feature in the landscape. While the terms [[mound]] and [[mount]] were also used to describe a raised portion of a garden, an eminence generally denoted a natural feature that was larger in scale.

[[File:0260.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Joseph Steward, ''The Reverend Eleazar Wheelock (1711—1779), 1st President of Dartmouth College (1769—1779)'', 1793—1796.]]
As a building platform for a dwelling or a garden structure, an eminence created the opportunity to [[view]] the surrounding landscape from the garden. This raised feature also enhanced the prominence of any structure on it, thus making it visible from a distance (see [[Prospect]] and [[View]]). Both effects were noted by visitors to [[Mount Vernon]], which William Russell Birch in 1808 described as “founded upon a rocky eminence, a digniﬁed height on the Potomac” [Fig. 1]. Garden structures, such as the tower (proposed in 1831) at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the rustic [[pavilion]] recommended by [[A. J. Downing]] (1848), and the fanciful building depicted in the 1790s by Joseph Steward at Dartmouth College [Fig. 2], were placed on eminences to provide a retreat in which to enjoy the [[prospect]].

In addition to their enhanced visual and, by extension, social status, properties built on eminences were more easily defensible in America’s frontier settings and took advantage of cooling breezes in warmer climates. Structures on eminences also offered visual command of an estate, as noted in the 1817 advertisement of a farm in Culpeper County, Virginia. Such surveillance was a vital part of maintaining the [[plantation]] labor system of large slave populations. In urban settings, town planners sited key monuments on eminences, making them focal points in the townscape and thus accentuating [[seat]]s of power. For example, Francis Nicholson in 1694 placed the Anglican church and the colonial Capitol on eminences in his town plan of Annapolis, Maryland, and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|Pierre-Charles L’Enfant's]] plan for Washington, DC, was predicated upon an elevated setting for the capitol building.

[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]

As a topographical landscape feature, the eminence served as a focal point, a viewing platform, and a backdrop, like the “parklike eminences” in Cincinnati, Ohio, described by Harriet Martineau in 1835. At [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn Cemetery]], the eminence rising 125 feet above the Charles River was described in 1831 by H. A. S. Dearborn as “a prominent and imposing feature in the landscape, of which it becomes the centre.” An eminence, such as the one described by the Rev. Manasseh Cutler at Gray’s Tavern in Philadelphia in 1787, also offered a gradual [[slope]] against which to plant a variety of ﬂowers and [[shrub]]s. An eminence was also signiﬁcant in American gardens for establishing the relationship of the garden to the surrounding landscape and for capitalizing on [[view]]s of broad rivers, valleys, and other features of the “New World” setting. Sites on riverbank eminences, such as that at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia depicted in 1838, were particularly valued for their [[view]]s of water [Fig. 3].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], June 30, 1787, describing the estate of Charles Wyllys Elliott, near Hartford, CT (1987: 1:211)<ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I also called on my classmate, Colonel Hezekiah Wyllys. He lives with his father, Colonel Wyllys, the Secretary of the State, in an elegant [[seat]] just outside the city, situated on a high '''eminence''' which overlooks the city and commands a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the river, meandering through rich [[meadow]]s and fertile ﬁelds, for ten or ﬁfteen miles. The landscape from this [[seat]] far exceeds any I have ever seen in any part of the country.”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing Gray’s Tavern, Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:276)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>

:“We at length came to a considerable '''eminence''', which was adorned with an inﬁnite variety of [[bed]]s of ﬂowers and artiﬁcial [[grove]]s of ﬂowering [[shrub]]s.”

*Enys, Lt. John, February 12, 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 246)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From hence is one of the most delightfull [[Prospect]]s I ever beheld. It had the Command of a [[View]] each way of some Miles up and down the River
: Potowmack whch [''sic''] is here about two Miles broad On which during the Summer there are constantly ships moving. The Hills arrownd it are coverd with [[plantation]]s some of which have Elegant houses standing on them all of which being situated on '''Eminences''' form very beautifull Objects for each other.”

*Anonymous, October 2, 1798, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“The improvements on it are, a comfortable dwelling house, with all necessary out houses, situated on a beautiful '''eminence''', commanding a [[view]] of the greater part of the lower ground.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1799, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: B3)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“You pass the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] at Gray’s-Ferry, the road to which runs below [[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the seat of Mr. [[William Hamilton]]: it stands high, and is seen upon an '''eminence''' from the opposite side of the river.”

*Anonymous, March 27, 1803, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“FOR SALE, the Tract of Land, whereon I reside. . . stand on an '''eminence''', commanding a beautiful and extensive [[view]] of the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers.”

*Birch, William Russell, 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (n.p.)<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, PA: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[MOUNT VERNON]],
:“This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky '''eminence''', a digniﬁed height on the Potomac. . . The additions of a [[piazza]] to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General’s taste.”

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest '''eminence''', on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic [[shrub]]s, filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a [[view]] of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The [[Summerhouse|summer-house]] is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the [[view]]. . . A few feet below the [[Summerhouse|sum-mer-house]] the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a [[vista]]."

*Anonymous, December 24, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Culpeper County, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“For sale. . . the dwelling house stands on an '''eminence''', having in [[view]] the whole farm.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, in a letter to his wife, Frances F. Bryant, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He took me to the seat of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled walk, by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] '''eminence''' in the midst of which was a Chinese [[temple]].”

[[File:1994.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the [[Schuylkill River]]'', c. 1824–26.]]
*Sheldon, John P., 10 December 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'', 84 (1988), 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The celebrated works on the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], by which the water of the river is raised to the top of an '''eminence''' which is elevated far above any house in the city, are beyond all praise.” [Fig. 4]

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Baltimore, MD, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 1:290)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1932), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MBMCV4N6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The noble column erected to the memory of Washington, and the Catholic Cathedral, with its beautiful dome, being built on a commanding '''eminence''', are seen at a great distance.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 46)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It has been ascertained that the most lofty '''eminence''' is one hundred and twenty-ﬁve feet above Charles river, which gracefully sweeps round its gently sloping base; and, when crowned by the proposed tower, will become a most interesting place of resort, as commanding an extensive panoramic [[view]] of that richly variegated region of magniﬁcent scenery, embraced within the far distant heights which encircle the metropolis, and the waves of the ocean, while it will present a prominent and imposing feature in the landscape, of which it becomes the centre.”

*Hawthorne, Elizabeth Manning and Hawthorne, Nathaniel describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834: 9)<ref>Cemetery of Mount Auburn, in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8EK3TUJQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:. . . The inner portion, which is set apart for the purposes of a [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], is covered, throughout most of its extent, with a vigorous growth of forest trees, many of the of large size, and comprising an unusual variety of kinds. This tract is beautifully undulating in its surface, containing a number of bold '''eminences''', steep acclivities, and deep shadowy valleys. A remarkable natural ridge with a level surface runs through the ground from south-east to north-west, and has for many years been known as a secluded and favorite [[walk]]. The principal '''eminence''', called [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], in the plan, which has been published, is 125 feet above the level of Charles river, and commands from its summit one of the finest [[prospect]]s which can be obtained in the environs of Boston.

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing a garden in Cincinnati, OH, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'' (1838: 2:51)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KEG83GHS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a [[terrace]] which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most parklike '''eminences''' form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, describing Landscape Gardening (''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3: 130)<ref>Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine, edited by Joseph Breck, (April 1, 1837), 130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/S2AHUAIF view on Zotero].</ref>
:"Few are able to devote much ground or much expense in extensive ornamental [[plantation]]; but all may decorate the immediate vicinity of their residencies. The house should be situated at some distance from the road, which distance should be greater or less according as the house is large or small, and it should be on a moderate rise of ground. There should be a spacious open [[lawn]] or grass ground in front, which should be unoccupied by any objects except an occasional small groups of trees. . . If it is situated on an '''eminence''', the back as well as front view may be exhibited to great advantage. . ."

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an '''eminence''' which commands a ﬁne [[view]] of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad [[avenue]]s of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol.”

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Harrisburg, PA, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (1843: 232)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The public buildings belonging to the State occupy a commanding position on an '''eminence''' in the northern part of the town.”

[[File:1970.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, James Smillie and E.G. Dunnel (engraver), “[[View]] from Mount Auburn, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 112.]]
*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847: 112)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE highest '''eminence''' of the [[cemetery]] ground is denominated ''Mount'' Auburn; and from this elevation the [[view]] has been drawn which appears in the present work. In the summer-season, when the thick trees have put on their full array, and appear in all their beauty, the panorama is nearly lost to the [[view]] of the spectator; but in the autumn of the year, a scene is presented from this high land, which is worthy of the poet or the painter.” [Fig. 5]

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1850: 331)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“849. ''Monticello'', the seat of Jefferson, is situated on the summit of an '''eminence''' commanding extensive [[prospect]]s on all sides.”

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston,” describing Oakley Place, seat of William Pratt, Boston, MA (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The mansion house is approached by a noble [[avenue]] of trees, and stands on the brow of an '''eminence''' overlooking the whole country around.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the residence of Edward Shippen, Philadelphia, PA, ''Annals of Philadelphia'' (1857: 1:368)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It was for many years after its construction beautifully situated, and surrounded with rural beauty, being originally on a small '''eminence''', with a row of tall yellow pines in its rear, a full orchard of best fruit trees close by, overlooking the rising city beyond the Dock creek, and having on its front [[view]] a beautiful green [[lawn]], gently sloping to the then pleasant Dock creek and Drawbridge, and the whole [[prospect]] unobstructed to the Delaware and the Jersey shore.”

===Citations===

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''E’MINENCE'''. ''n.s.'' [''eminentia'', Latin.]
:“E’MINENCY.
:“1. Loftiness; height. . .
:“4. A place where one is exposed to general notice.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . . '' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In other parts are sometimes discovered '''eminences''', or rising grounds, as a high [[terrace]], [[mount]], steep declivity, or other '''eminence''', ornamented with curious trees and [[shrub]]s, with [[walk]]s leading under the shade of trees, by easy ascents to the summit, where is presented to the [[view]], an extensive [[prospect]] of the adjacent ﬁelds, buildings, hamlets, and country around, and likewise affording a fresh and cooling air in summer.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, “The Art of Landscape Gardening” (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 186)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“If the house is placed on an '''eminence''' or side-hill, the [[prospect]] will be much more beautiful if you can enjoy the [[view]] of water.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''EM’INENCE, EM’INENCY'', ''n''. [L. ''eminentia'', from ''eminens'', ''emineo'', to stand or show itself above; ''e'' and ''minor'', to threaten, that is, to stand or push forward. . .]
:“1. Elevation, highth [''sic''], in a literal sense; but usually, a rising ground; a hill of moderate elevation above the adjacent ground.
:“The [[temple]] of honor ought to be seated on an '''''eminence'''. Burke.''”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1,1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In forming ascents to rising grounds, where [[prospect]]s are to be enjoyed, there is some art required to make the attainment of the elevation easy; this is done by cutting low steps at considerable intervals, say ten or twenty feet, according to the nature of the ground. . . Such paths to '''eminences''' are preferable when they wind round and gradually reach the summit.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129–30)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. [[Seat]]s and [[arbor]]s should be placed at points affording interesting [[view]]s, [[alcove]]s and rotundas on '''eminences''', and [[hermitage]]s in secluded places. . .
:“If it [the house] is situated on an '''eminence''', the back as well as front [[view]] may be exhibited to great advantage, and the effect will be heightened if a [[view]] of water can be then enjoyed. Limited [[prospect]]s and neighboring buildings not worthy of notice, may be concealed by [[plantation]]s of trees. The appearance of distance may be increased by planting trees of dark green and large dense foliage on the foreground, and those of light and airy foliage in the distance; this will produce the same effect as shades in a landscape picture.”

[[File:1810.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “An octagonal [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Pavilion]] for an eminence,” one of four “Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 2.]]
*Watterston, George, May 1844, “Landscape Gardening” (''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10: 310)<ref>George Watterston, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10 (May) (1844), 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Repton conceives that the difference between painting and gardening consists in the following particulars:
:“‘''Thirdly''. The [[view]] from an '''eminence''' down a steep hill is not to be represented in painting, although it is often one of the most pleasing circumstances of natural landscape.’”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 364)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“As a contribution to the stock of ideas of the novice in [[rustic style|rustic work]], we have offered a few sketches in our Frontispiece of this month—all of which may be improved upon by the adept in [[rustic style|rustic]] buildings.
:“''Fig''. 2, is an octagonal [[rustic style|RUSTIC]] [[PAVILION]] for an '''eminence'''.” [Fig. 6]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 52, fig. 2. “''B, a circular '''eminence''' . . .C, a [[square]] [[terrace]] or '''eminence'''''.”

Image:0314.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[Mount Vernon]], Virginia, the [[Seat]] of the late Genl. G. Washington,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 55, pl. 7.

Image:1810.jpg|Anonymous, “An octagonal [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Pavilion]] for an '''eminence''',” one of four “Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 2.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. ". . . the gentle '''eminence''' on our right are the Eden Hills (34)."

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from A Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the [[Schuylkill River]]'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0937.jpg|Unknown, "Plan for Planting Grounds in Front of Country Dwelling," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'', vol. III, (April 1, 1837), 129.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

Image:1080.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E.G. Dunnel (engraver), “[[view|VIEW]] FROM MOUNT AUBURN, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'',” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr. 1850), opp. 112.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0260.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''The Reverend Eleazar Wheelock (1711–1779), 1st President of Dartmouth College (1769–1779)'', 1793–96.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace/Slope|Terraces]], 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), 80.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:2248.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808. Corcoran Collection (Museum Purchase through a gift of Philip Alexius de Laszlo), [https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.184908.html National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C].

Image:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]
[[Category: Vision]]

View/Vista

2021-04-12T13:37:26Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

==History==
[[File:0755.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.]]
Travelers’ accounts of their journeys through the early American colonies contain many descriptions of extensive views and fine prospects. The frequent repetition of these and the related terms vista, “[[eminence]],” and by the mid-19th century, “panorama,” suggests the importance of views and view-making in the perception, design, and representation of American landscapes.<ref>For an example of the significance of the construction of views in landscape perception see Peter M. Briggs, “Timothy Dwight ‘Composes’ a Landscape for New England,” ''American Quarterly'' 40 (September 1988): 359–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J9CTDWUA view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the links between optics, monumental architecture and landscapes, and social control, see Jerry D. Moore, ''Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98–101 and 168–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFCPC58F view on Zotero].</ref> The significance of composing a view in the landscape is echoed in the visual record of American gardens. Among the most common images of gardens are those framing the façade of the house and those taking a view from the house out toward the landscape.

[[File:0297.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald Robertson, ''Hobuck'', 1808.]]
[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
As Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville noted in 1712, one aspect of a “good situation, is, the View and Prospect of a fine Country,” and American property owners often sited their houses with this advice in mind. Planters situated their houses along well-traveled rivers and overlooking harbors, both capturing water views and creating highly visible architectural statements of their status and wealth [Figs. 1 and 2]. As at Monte Video [Fig. 3], houses were often sited on [[eminence]]s to benefit from the natural topography. Gardens built around such houses took full advantage of their natural settings, and treatise writers such as [[A. J. Downing]] (1850) admonished gardeners to “study the character of the place” so as not to “shut out and obstruct the beauty of prospect which nature has placed before your eyes.” The frequent use of the words “command” and “commanding” by visitors recording their impressions indicates the assertion of ownership and control that was so clearly an aspect of the visual presentation of these estates. Water, topographic relief, a variety of rock formations, and vegetal and geological diversity were all prized components of views. Distance was also a measure of merit, not only contributing to the beauty of the scene, but also claiming the breadth of “command” over the countryside.

The term “vista,” while less commonly used than the related terms “prospect” and “view,” was similar in its designation of views created within the garden or looking out of the garden into the surrounding landscape. The term “vista” also carried the more particular connotation, as Thomas Sheridan noted in 1789 and [[Noah Webster]] in 1850, of the sight lines that created a view, whether made by an [[avenue]], a [[meadow]], or a space between trees. A vista within the garden was generally terminated by a focal point, such as the Chinese [[temple]] at Judge [[William Peters|William Peters's]] [[Belmont Mansion]], near Philadelphia. Even more common are descriptions of vistas from the garden to the world beyond. John Parke Custis (1717), [[Hannah Callender Sansom]] (1762), George Washington (1785), and [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1804) all used the term to describe framed views created by land cleared of trees (see Prospect).

[[File:0955.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.]]
[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[[Montgomery Place]]—Shore Seat'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.]]
[[File:0509.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.]]
Views were carefully planned and manipulated by a variety of techniques. The architecture of the dwelling often included exterior viewing platforms such as [[porch]]es, [[piazza]]s, [[portico]]s, and [[veranda]]s [Fig. 4]. Views of the house often were choreographed by carefully designed approaches, which allowed a visitor to catch glimpses of the house as he or she arrived and departed. As an 1837 article in the ''Horticultural Register'' noted, the view should be “so divided into different scenes or compartments” by various types of vegetation. Garden buildings or [[seat]]s, such as those seen at [[Montgomery Place]] [Fig. 5], and those placed under a cluster of trees in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser's]] painting of Rice Hope [Fig. 6], punctuated the landscape with invitations to pause and to admire the vista. Distant views were framed by plantings or by pruned trees, as at [[The Woodlands]] and at Springland [Fig. 7]. Their composition was also influenced by elevated mounts, such as those flanking the front [[gate]]s of [[Mount Vernon]]; or by openings in [[hedge]]s, trees, and [[wall]]s [Fig. 8].
[[File:0326.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Russell Birch, “The View from Springland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.]]

Another element of view-making was the use of barriers (such as [[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, and [[hedge]]s) to screen less [[picturesque]] elements of a [[plantation]]. This technique was reported in 1790 in a description of the Elias Hasket Derby Farm in Peabody, Mass. John Trumbull’s 1793 plan for Yale College included instructions for a similar barrier that would provide a screen for the nose as well as the eyes. Inscribed on the plan is the directive that “The Temples of Cloacina [or priveys] (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously), I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels, &c.”<ref>John Trumbull describing his plan for Yale College, New Haven, Connecticut. Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48-A-46, box 1, folder 2.</ref>
[[File:0727.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.]]

In urban settings, where lot size and the proximity of buildings limited sightlines into the distance, gardens often reflected treatises’ instructions to enhance views with smaller property. Such structures as [[temple]]s or [[summerhouse]]s were placed in gardens to serve as both focal points and viewing platforms (see [[Belvedere]]). These effects could also be achieved without building; in 1758 Theophilus Hardenbrook advertised designs for “Niche’s eyetraps ''trompe l’oeil'', to represent a building, terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable object” in the New York Gazette. Treatises also suggested enhancing small gardens by laying out [[walk]]s or [[terrace]]s with converging (rather than parallel) sides to create the impression of greater depth. Similarly, such features as alleys or [[avenue]]s with dimensions that appeared to converge created the illusion of distance from the viewer.

Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe has commented that in England the importance of the creation of views and prospects “became apparent when the enclosed medieval walled garden gradually expanded into walled gardens of more than one compartment—preparing the way for a unity of design in the 17th c.”<ref>Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe, “Vista,” in ''Oxford Companion to Gardens'', ed. Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 590, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> In England the importance of views into the countryside increased as a principle of garden design and as an aspect of changing land use and property-holding practices.<ref>For an example of the design practices used in creating views and prospects in eighteenth-century English gardens, see Douglas Chambers, “Prospects and the Natural Beauties of Places: Joseph Spence,” in ''The Planters of the English Landscape Garden'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 164–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S3BW6ZQK view on Zotero]. For a discussion of changing land-use practices and their implications on the organization of sight in landscape gardening, see Denis E. Cosgrove, ''Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 189–222, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZTXKTCT view on Zotero]; Raymond Williams, ''The Country and the City'' (London: Palladin, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TR28NC32 view on Zotero]; Simon Pugh, ed., ''Reading Landscape: Country, City, Capital'' (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9T4DIAXW view on Zotero], including the essay by John Barrell, “The Public Prospect and the Private View: the Politics of Taste in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” 19–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF29TKTA view on Zotero].</ref> For historians of American gardens, understanding the visual organization of space is equally important not only because it was a fundamental principle of imported garden design, but also because it was a key factor in the design of gardens in America’s unique political, economic, and social setting. Abigail Adams’s poetic rendering of the view from Richmond Hill, New York, in 1789 evokes not only a romantic view of nature but also a vision of American estates as villas, linking the new nation to a past era of republican ideals.<ref>For a fuller discussion of the villa in the New World, see James Ackerman, ''The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EC879QB view on Zotero].</ref> In 1824, Benjamin Silliman described Monte Video in Connecticut as poised between a [[wilderness]] of “rocks and forest” and a “vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants.” His evocative description expresses the landscape’s capacity to inspire both a sense of quiet contemplation and a connection to the industry and “frolicks” of village life.

Understanding the visual logic of American gardens has been particularly important in deciphering gardens as social commentary. For example, the reconstruction of specific viewing platforms, focal points, and openings in the visual barriers of a garden ([[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, rows of trees) provides valuable information about the ways in which people were intended to circulate in a garden.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero], and Kryder-Reid, “Sites of Power and the Power of Sight: Vision in the California Mission Landscape,” in Dianne Harris and D. Fairchild Ruggles, ''Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), 181–212, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8SGWDUKH view on Zotero].</ref> At Fairmount Park in Philadelphia, for instance, the stairs and viewing [[pavilion]]s created an explicit route through the grounds with carefully orchestrated views that are apparent in myriad illustrations and descriptions of the site. In another example, the triangular terraced garden built by Charles Carroll of Carrollton in Annapolis during the 1770s created very different visual effects depending upon where the viewer stood. A passerby on Spa Creek saw [[terrace]]s that elevated and accentuated an impressive Georgian brick house. A visitor permitted to stroll to the top [[terrace]] was treated to a sweeping view of the creek and countryside beyond, an effect enhanced by the foreshortening of the [[terrace]]s and [[Fall/Falling_garden|falls]], the placement of [[pavilion]]s at the ends of the sea [[wall]], and the spreading angle of the brick [[wall]] marking the garden’s hypotenuse. Only those permitted into the house, with its privileged views overlooking the [[terrace]]s, gained the vantage point to appreciate the garden geometry with its 3–4–5 proportions and [[parterre]] planting patterns.

The organization of vision may also provide information regarding the social hierarchy that is encoded in gardens. For instance, Dell Upton has argued that the terraced gardens of such [[plantation]]s as John Tayloe II’s Mount Airy in Richmond County inscribed the status of Virginia’s whites and blacks into the topography. The landscape design of [[gate]]s, ramps, [[terrace]]s, and [[walk]]s created a series of physical and social hurdles that each individual had to navigate differently, depending on his or her social standing in colonial society.<ref>Dell Upton, ''Holy Things and Profane: Anglican Parish Churches in Colonial Virginia'' (New York: Architectural History Foundation and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76MUH9HK view on Zotero], and “White and Black Landscapes in Eighteenth-Century Virginia,” in ''Material Culture in America, 1600–1860'', ed. Robert Blair St. George (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), 357–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N9BT889P view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usages===
*Custis, John Parke, April 1717, describing Gov. Alexander Spotswood’s improvements to the gardens of the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 38)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I happened to be at the Governors, and he was pleased to ask my consent, to cut down some trees that grew on my Land to make an opening, I think he called it a '''visto''', and told me would cut nothing but what was only fitt [''sic''] for the fire. . . As to the clearing his '''visto''', he cut down all before him such a wideness as he thought fitt [''sic''].”

*Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the dwelling house of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“From the house ''Ashley'' and ''Cooper'' rivers are seen, and all around are '''visto’s''' and pleasant prospects.”

*Ball, Joseph, September 8, 1758, describing property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letterbook)

:“I have a Strang Hankering after a bit of Land upon Linhaven Creek. I would have it on the West or South side where it is Saved already. I want no more than fifty Acres. It must be bounding upon the Creek side; nigh a good Spring: and where I may have a full '''View''' of the Sea.”

*[[Hannah_Callender_Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . from these Windows down a '''Wisto''' terminated by an [[Obelisk]]. . . we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into '''Visto’s''', in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[Summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 17)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre [[walk]] is terminated by a small green mount, close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive '''view''' of the bay, and the adjacent county. . . there are but few mansions in the most rich and cultivated parts of England, which are adorned with such splendid and romantic scenery.”

*Jefferson, Thomas, 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“open a '''vista''' to the millpond, river, road, etc. qu, if a '''view''' to the neighboring town would have a good effect?”

*Anonymous, January 28, 1771, describing the [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (''New York Gazette'')

:“The Commodious house and large gardens, in the out-ward of this city, known by the name of [[Vauxhall Garden|VAUX-HALL]]; the situation extremely pleasant, having a very extensive '''view''' both up and down the North-River.”

*Anburey, Thomas, September 2, 1781, describing the Moravian community in Bethlehem, PA (1781; repr., 1969: 2:513)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'', 2 vols. (1789; repr., New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house of the single men is upon the same principle as that of the women; upon the roof of which is a Belvidere, from whence you have not only a most delightful [[prospect]], but a distinct '''view''' of the whole settlement.”

*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Imagine then a room of 20 feet [[square]]. . . and commanding a '''view''' of a prettily falling grass [[plat]]. . . about 300 by 100 yards in extent an extensive [[prospect]] of James River and of all the Country and some Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s on the other side.”

*Washington, George, March 15, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:103)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Began to open '''Vistos''' throw the Pine [[grove]] on the Banks of H. Hole.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 1, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref name="Cometti">Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After Dinner we took a walk on the [[Mall]]. . . From hence we went to Beacon Hill from whence we had a Charming '''View''' of the town and harbour.”

*Enys, Lt. John, January 26, 1788, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (Cometti, ed., 1976: 235)<ref name="Cometti"></ref>

:“there are some very Charming [[prospect]]s from some of the Hills, among the rest from the [[Seat]] of Colol. Howard which is situated on an [[eminence]] but is well coverd by trees from all the cold winds, has a charming '''View''' of a Water fall at a Mill, a long Rapid below it, a full '''View''' of the town of Baltimore and the Point with the shipping in the harbour, the Bason and all the Small craft, with a very distant [[prospect]] down the river towards the Chasapeak Bay. The whole terminated by the surrounding Hills forms a fine Picture.”

*G., L., June 15, [1788], describing [[The Woodlands]], home of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1989: 19)<ref>Karen Madsen, “To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” ''Arnoldia'' 49 (1989): 14–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K567H4M4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[The [[walk]]s were] planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a '''view''' of some fine trees or beautiful [[prospect]] beyond, & in others, shaded by arbours of the wild grape, or [[clump]]s of large trees under which are placed [[seat]]s where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air.”

*Adams, Abigail, 1789, describing Richmond Hill, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 179)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In front of the house the noble Hudson rolls, his majestic waves bearing upon his bosom innumerable small vessels which are constantly carrying the rich products of the neighboring soil to the busy hand of a more extensive commerce. Beyond the Hudson rises to our '''view''' the fertile country of the Jerseys, covered with a golden harvest and pouring forth plenty like the cornucopia of Ceres. On the right hand an extensive plain presents us with a '''view''' of fields covered with verdure and pastures full of cattle; on the left, the city opens upon us, intercepted only by [[clump]]s of trees and some rising ground. . . If my days of fancy and romance were not past, I could find here an ample field for indulgence.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing Nassau Hall, Princeton, NJ (1789; repr., 1970: 294)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“Its situation is exceedingly Pleasant and healthful. The '''view''' from the college balcony is extensive and charming.”

*Smith, William Loughton, September 8, 1790, describing a house in Albany, NY (1917: 54)<ref name="Loughton Smith">William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I took a walk to General Schyler’s; his house is a large, [[square]] brick one, with a flat roof; it stands on a rising ground above the river, and enjoys a commanding '''view'''.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[231] 22. . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat [[fence]] painted white, & the [[fence]] white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. We ascend from the house two steps in each division. The passages have no [[gate]]s, only a naked [[arch]] with a key stone frame, of wood painted white above 10 feet high. Going into the Garden they look better than in returning, in the latter '''view''' they appear from the unequal surface to incline towards the Hill. . . Beyond the Garden is a Spot as large as the Garden which would form an admirable [[orchard]] now improved as a [[Kitchen garden]], & has not an ill effect in its present state.”

*[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 72)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a '''view''' of the inlet.”

*Smith, William Loughton, April 23, 1791, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1917: 63)<ref name="Loughton Smith"></ref>

:“the '''view''' extends up and down the river a considerable distance, the river is about two miles wide, and the opposite shore is beautiful, as is the country along the river. . . embracing the magnificence of the river with the vessels sailing about; the verdant fields, [[wood]]s, and [[park]]s.”

*Spooner, Rev. John Jones, 1793, describing May-cox Plantation, estate of David Meade, Prince George’s County, VA (1923: 8)<ref>John Jones Spooner, “A Topographical Description of the County of Prince George in Virginia, 1793,” ''Tyler’s Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 5 (1923): 1–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PE72ZT2X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These grounds contain about twelve acres, laid out on the banks of the James river, in a most beautiful and enchanting manner. Forest and fruit trees are here arranged, as if nature and art had conspired together to strike the eye most agreeably. Beautiful '''vistas''', which open as many pleasing '''views''' of the river; the land thrown into many artificial hollows or gentle swellings, with the pleasing verdure of the turf; and the complete order in which the whole is preserved, altogether tend to form it one of the most delightful rural [[seat]]s that is to be met with in the United States, and do honour to the taste and skill of the proprietor, who was also the architect.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing Pottsgrove, PA (1799: 1:35)<ref> François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. by Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. by H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The landscape is beautiful along this road, abounding with a great variety of fine '''views''', wonderfully enlivened by the verdure of the cornfields and [[meadow]]s. . . If agriculture were better understood in these parts; if the fields were well mowed and well fenced; and if some trees had been left standing in the middle or on the [[border]]s of [[meadow]]s, the most beautiful parts of Europe could not be more pleasing.”

*Twining, Thomas, May 7, 1795, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (1894: 115)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Situated upon the verge of the descent upon which Baltimore stands, its grounds formed a beatiful slant toward the Chesapeak. From the taste with which they were laid out, it would seem that America already possessed a Haverfield or a Repton. The spot, thus indebted to nature and judiciously embellished, was as enchanting within its own proper limits as in the fine '''view''' which extended far beyond them. The foreground presented luxurious shrubberies and sloping [[lawn]]s: the distance, the line of the Patapsco, and the country bordering on Chesapeak Bay.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 58–59)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“One sunny afternoon, I was standing in the door of my house, when I marked a person passing close to the edge of the bank that was in front. . .
:“such figures were seldom seen by me, except on the road or field. This [[lawn]] was only traversed by men whose '''views''' were directed to the pleasures of the [[walk]], or the grandeur of the scenery.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 1798, describing the countryside of Virginia (1977: 473–75)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When you stand upon the summit of a hill, and see an extensive country of [[wood]]s and fields without interruption spread before you, you look at it with pleasure. On the Virginia rivers there are a thousand such positions. But this pleasure is perhaps very much derived from a sort of consciousness of superiority of position to all the monotony below you. But turn yourself so as to include in your '''view''' a wide expanse of Water, contrasting by its cool blue surface, the waving, and many colored carpet of the Earth, your pleasure is immediately doubled, or rather a new and much greater pleasure arises. An historical effect is produced. The trade and the cultivation of the country croud [''sic''] into the mind, the imagination runs up the invisible creeks, and visits the half seen habitations. A thousand circumstances are fancied which are not beheld, and the indications of what probably exists, give the pleasure which its '''view''' would afford. Having satiated your eye with this [[prospect]], retire within the [[Grove]], so that the foreground shall consist of trees, and shadowy earth. The landscape is immediately lightened up with a thousand new beauties, arising from the novelty of the Contrast. This particular effect, of seeing a distant '''view''' glittering among near objects is familiar to every observer. The Landscape is now become a perfect composition.”

*Anonymous, October 2, 1798, describing a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“The improvements on it are, a comfortable dwelling house, with all necessary out houses, situated on a beautiful [[eminence]], commanding a '''view''' of the greater part of the lower ground.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Nazareth, PA (1800: 45)

:“From the top of this house [recitation room and Inspector’s study], we were entertained with picture-like '''views''' in every direction.”

*Thornton, Anna Maria Brodeau, September 22, 1802, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Library of Congress, Papers of Anna Maria Brodeau, 1793–1863)

:“The House is situated on the very summit of the mountain, on a circular level, formed by art, commanding a '''view''' of all the surrounding country, the small town of Charlottesville and a little winding river. . . with a '''view''' of the blue ridge & even more distant mountains form a beautiful scene on the north side of the house.—There is something grand & awful in the situation but far from convenient or in my opinion agreeable—it is a place you wo’d rather look at now & then than live at.”

*Anonymous, February 18, 1803, describing a property for sale in Orange County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“There is a convenient dwelling house and other out houses, fixed on an elevated situation and commands a beautiful '''view''' of the mountains and of the lower country, which added to the health and agreeableness of the neighbourhood, renders the place truly desirable.”

*Jefferson, Thomas, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Jefferson Papers)

:“'''Vistas''' to very interesting objects may be permitted, but in general it is better so to arrange the [[thicket]]s as that they may have the effect of '''vista''' in various directions. . .
:“the ground between the upper & lower roundabouts to be laid out in [[lawn]]s & [[clump]]s of trees, the [[lawn]]s opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.
:“'''Vistas''' from the lower roundabout to good portions of [[prospect]].”

*Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1951: 38–39)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The roofs of the passages, and range of buildings, form an agreeable [[walk]], being flat and floored, and are to have a Chinese railing round them; they rise but a little height above the [[lawn]], that they may not obstruct the '''view'''.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 20, 1809, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
:“If thus far the eye has been pleased from viewing these fine productions of art, how much more will it be gratified when contemplating the [[prospect]] that bursts upon the sight from the Centre of the Saloon! The verdant [[meadow]], the spacious [[lawn]], [the] [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill's]] lucid stream, the floating [[bridge]], the waves here checked by the projecting rock, then overshadowed by inclining trees, until, by meandering in luxuriant folds, the winding waters lead the entranced eye to Delaware’s proud river, on whose swollen bosom rich merchant ships are seen. . . Such are in part, the beauties of this delightful scenery, & had the '''view''' terminated with highlands or some o’er-towering mountain, no [[prospect]] could have been more perfect.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Miller and Ward 1991: 54)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward, eds., ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press for the Smithsonian Institution, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PU8TV8SD/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In this '''view''' imagine that you see a beautiful [[Meadow]] on the right. The Tennants House seems to terminate the lane, from thence it turns up a Gentle declivity to the Mansian, of which you see the Top of a Red roof on the left over the hill. formerly a road went over this hill at the dotted lines.” [Fig. 9]

[[File:0088.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''View to the North from the [[Lawn]] at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.]]
*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1927: 174)<ref name="Elbridge">Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Back of the mansion is a summer house, which commands an elegant '''view''' of the Potomac.” [Fig. 10]

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180–81)<ref name="Elbridge"></ref>

:“A door opens at each end, one into the hall, and opposite, one into the [[terrace]], from whence you have an elegant '''view''' of all the rivers &c.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], November 22, 815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 43)<ref name="Rudnytzky">Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have also painted. . . a tolerable large Landscape almost finished, it is a '''View''' of the Garden and most of the Buildings, as seen from what we call my [[seat]] in the Walk to the mill,—difficult part in it, that is, a representation of the down hill or rather Valley between the point of sight and the Garden—
:“The whole comprehending a tolerable handsome '''View''', including Trees of various folliages— But what must render this Picture more interesting, will be some Portraits setting on the Bench under a Beach Tree, (as yet a Small Tree) but being the nearest object, it must be most distinctly finished, The declining [[Meadow]] will form a charming background for the figures on the Bench. There should also be figures in various parts of the Ground to give animation to the sciene, all of which are yet to be done. I intend it for the Museum when finished to my mind I wish I could have you as one of the figure on the Bench.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], August 4, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 44)<ref name="Rudnytzky"></ref>

:“I have been so long neglecting the '''view''' I am about in [the] garden that the trees & [[shrubbery]] have grown so high that I cannot represent them truly without almost totally hiding the [[walk]]s, therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make them smaller.”

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest [[eminence]], on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic [[shrub]]s, filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a '''view''' of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The [[Summerhouse|summer-house]] is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The '''view''' from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the '''view'''. . . A few feet below the [[Summerhouse|sum-mer-house]] the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a '''vista'''."

*Forman, Martha Ogle, April 29, 1819, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 80)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have never seen Rose Hill look more beautiful. When the cherry trees on the [[lawn]] are in full bloom, and the Apple trees unfolding their lovely blossoms, it forms a most pleasing '''view''' of nature.”

*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12–15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From this place [the summit] you have a '''view''' of the [[lake]], of the boat at anchor on its surface, gay with its streamers and snowy awning: of the white building at the north extremity of the water, and, (rising immediately above it,) of forest trees and bold rocks, intermingled with each other, and surmounted by the Tower. . .
:“Along this road the house, the tower, the [[lake]], &c. occasionally appear and disappear, through the openings in the trees; in some parts of it, all these objects are shut from your '''view'''; and in no part is the distant '''view''' seen, until passing through the last group of [[shrubbery]] near the house, you suddenly find yourself within a few [[yard]]s of the brow of the mountain, and the valey with all its distinct minuteness, immediately below, where every object is as perfectly visible, as if placed upon a map. . .
:“Everything in this '''view''', is calculated to make an impression of the most entire seclusion; for, beyond the water, and the open ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the house, rocks and forests alone meet the eye, and appear to separate you from all the rest of the world. But at the same moment that you are contemplating this picture of the deepest solitude, you may without leaving your place, merely by changing your position, see through one of the long Gothic windows of the same room, which reach to a level with the turf, the glowing western valley, one vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants, and so near, that with the aid only of a common spy-glass, you distinguish the motions of every individual who is abroad in the neighbouring village, even to the frolicks [sic] of the children, and the active industry of the domestic fowls, seeking their food, or watching over, and providing for their young. From the same window also, when the morning mist, shrouding the world below and frequently hiding it completely from '''view''', still leaves the summit of the mountain in clear sunshine, you may hear through the dense medium, the mingled sounds, occasioned by preparation for the rural occupations of the day.
:“The other branch of the path, after leaving the defile, passes to the east side of the northern ridge, and thence you ascend through the [[wood]]s, to its summit, where it terminates at the Tower, standing within a few rods of the edge of the precipice. The tower is a hexagon, of sixteen feet diameter, and fifty-five feet high; the ascent, of about eighty steps, on the inside, is easy, and from the top which is nine hundred and sixty feet above the level of Connecticut river, you have at one '''view''', all those objects which have been seen separately from the different stations below. The diameter of the '''view''' in two directions, is more than ninety miles, extending into the neighbouring states of Massachusetts and New-York, and comprising the spires of more than thirty of the nearest towns and villages.”

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, describing Mount Holyoke, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the top of Mount Holyoke, which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive '''views''' in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into [[parterre]]s.”

*Sheldon, John P., December 10, 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson,“‘The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Delightful [[seat]]s, surrounded by various kinds of trees and [[shrubbery]], with gardens containing summer houses, '''vistas''', embowered [[walk]]s, &c meet your '''view''' in almost every direction, [[wood]]s sloping gently to the river’s edge, by the side of smooth [[lawn]]s, add to the pleasing variety of the scene; and the [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]], with its noble dam and [[bridge]]s serves as a most beautiful finish to the foreground.”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 17, 1828, describing Montpelier, plantation of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1906: 233)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were at first conducted into the Drawing room, which opens on the back [[Portico]] and thus commands a '''view''' through the whole house, which is surrounded with an extensive [[lawn]], as green as in spring; the [[lawn]] is enclosed with fine trees, chiefly forest, but interspersed with weeping willows and other ornamental trees, all of most luxuriant growth and vivid verdure. It was a beautiful scene!”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the [[piazza]], and from the bank on the west side of the house we have a charming '''view''', extending to the opposite side of the river, of the blue summits of the Catskill mountains, and many gentlemen’s [[seat]]s, and cultivated farms.”

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding [[avenue]] through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first '''view''' of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by '''views''' into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Baltimore, MD (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening, new ed., corr. and improved'', (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. ''[[Public Garden]]s''. . .
:“''At Baltimore'', the public [[walk]] is along a fine [[terrace]] belonging to a fort nobly situated on the Patapsco, and commanding the approach from Chesapeake Bay, and a magnificent '''view''' of the city and river. . .” <ref>Loudon 1850, vol. II, 303, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG? view on Zotero].</ref>
{{break}}

===Citations===

*Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 13)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dezallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE fourth Thing required in a good Situation, is, the '''View''' and [[Prospect]] of a fine Country.”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii–xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A Pavillion design’d for Sir ''John Curzon'' for his [[Seat]] near ''Derby''. It is a Cube of 20 feet, adorn’d with three Venetian Windows, circular Niches for Busto’s [''sic''], and an Entablature supported by Rustick Coines. There were two of them to have been built opposite to one another, on each side of a '''Vista''' proposed to be cut through a [[Wood]], and to be terminated with an [[Obelisk]] upon a Hill fronting the House; the execution of which was prevented by Sir ''John’s'' Death.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc.,1728; repr., London: Garland: 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .
:“III. That '''Views''' in Gardens be as extensive as possible.
:“IV. That such [[Walk]]s, whose '''Views''' cannot be extended, terminate in [[Wood]]s, Forests, mishapen Rocks, strange Precipices, Mountains, old Ruins, grand Buildings, ''&c''.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GLADE, in agriculture, gardening, &c.a '''vista''', or open and light passage, made through a thick [[wood]], [[grove]], or the like; by lopping off the branches of trees along the way. See [[AVENUE]], GROVE, ''&c''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 639–41)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE buildings admitted into gardens may be arranged under two general heads; those which are erected as objects in themselves, and those from which [[prospect]]s and other objects are to be viewed. The first are the principal in their nature and purpose: they require elegance, and the eye expects something in them worthy to detain its attention. The places for these in a good garden are to be variously chosen; on [[eminence]]s, or in shadowy scenes: to terminate the '''view''' as objects, or to surprise the unexpecting eye in a recess of contemplation. We have observed that in many places '''views''' are to be closed; as where the nature of the ground requires it; or where an unpleasing [[prospect]] or object is to be shut out: the [[seat]], building, [[temple]], or whatsoever name or rank its form or bigness give it, is to be accommodated to all these considerations. Where the sole intent is to admit a [[prospect]], and give repose after walking, the form may be plain and simple, convenient and unornamented. . .
:“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable '''views''' by clearing away [[wall]]s and [[hedge]]s in the ground; and trees, and sometimes even buildings, when ill-placed, ill-looking and of little value: this is to be done when something pleasing, some '''view''' of elegant, wild nature can be let in; and where that cannot be, some [[pavilion]], such as we have described, or shall describe, must shut out unalterable deformity.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', vu’. s. [[Prospect]]; sight, power of beholding; act of seeing; sight, eye; survey, examination by the eye; intellectual survey; space that may be taken in by the eye, reach of sight; appearance, show; display, exhibition to the sight or mind; [[prospect]] of interest; intention, design.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1:260, 263)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . '', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE [[WALK]], in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the [[walk]] to lead the eye from '''view''' to '''view'''. . .
:“THE direction of the [[walk]] ought to be guided by the ''points of '''view''''' to which it leads. . .
:“[[Seat|SEATS]] have a two-fold use; they are useful as places of rest and conversation, and as guides to the points of '''view''', in which the beauties of the surrounding scene are disclosed. Every point of '''view''' should be marked with a [[seat]], and, speaking generally, no [[seat]], ought to appear, but in some favourable point of '''view'''.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 74 and 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“it is hardly possible to convey an adequate and distinct idea of those numerous objects so wonderfully combined in this extensive '''view'''; the house, the church, the [[lawn]]s, the [[wood]]s, the bold promontory of Beechy Head, and the distant plains bounded by the sea, are all collected in one splendid picture, without being crowded into confusion.
:“This '''view''' is a perfect ''landscape'', while that from the tower is rather a ''[[prospect]]''; it is of such a nature as not to be well represented by painting; because its excellence depends upon a state of atmosphere, which is very hostile to the painter’s art. . .
:“Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding '''views''' in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or [[pavilion]]; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 100)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE Kitchen-garden is a principal district of garden-ground allotted for the culture of all kinds of esculent herbs and roots for culinary purposes, &c. . . .
:“As to the situation of this garden, with respect to the other districts. . . it should generally be placed detached entirely from the pleasure-ground; also as much out of '''view''' of the front of the habitation as possible, at some reasonable distance, either behind it, or towards either side thereof, so as its [[wall]]s or other [[fence]]s may not obstruct any desirable [[prospect]] either of the pleasure-garden, fields, or the adjacent country.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 472)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''view''' FROM the house, and TO the house, cannot always be consulted with mutual improvement. When a high [[terrace]] with ornaments which appear to mark the boundary of the architect’s province, is interposed between the house and the [[lawn]], the '''view''' immediately under the windows cannot certainly be so pleasant as if the house stood in a verdant field:—but let the [[prospect]] be reversed, and every stranger will see more grandeur in the house connected by a [[terrace]] with the garden; and perhaps among the spectators under the influence of cultivated taste, a few may think such a gradation conduces to general harmony.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (1823: 4–5)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to Be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres'' (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1823), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Next to the error of rearing high [[fence]]s, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of [[shrubbery]]. . .
:“from no point can a '''view''' of distant objects be had, without being interrupted by this [[edging]]; which is perplexing to the eye, in a great measure, although the situation of the house may be such as to admit of looking over it.
:“Instead of this formal belt or [[edging]], a few festoons or groups of various dimensions, being hung on the outer [[fence]], with intervening single trees, sometimes pretty close to the groups, and sometimes more detached, so as to form irregular '''vistas''', would be more airy, and also more in character here.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', ''n. vu''. [[Prospect]]; sight; reach of the eye. . .

::“2. The whole extent seen. . .

::“3. Sight; power of seeing, or limit of sight. . .

::“4. Intellectual or mental sight. . .

::“5. Act of seeing. . .

::“6. Sight; eye. . .

::“7. Survey; inspection; . . .

::“9. Appearance; show. . .

::“10. Display; . . .

::“11. [[Prospect]] of interest.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 127–28, 130)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In forming [[plantation]]s of trees and shrubs, so as to produce a pleasing landscape effect, few rules can be given which would apply generally. . .
:“In grounds of any considerable extent, the '''view''' of the whole should never be taken in at once; but it should be so divided into different scenes or compartments, which may be bounded by trees, that only a small part is visible at first to the spectator; but as he advances new and varied [[prospect]]s open upon him, so that he is agreeably surprised to find, that what at first seemed to terminate his view, only served to introduce him to new beauties. . .
:“At favorable points, and those only, should the '''view''' be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The [[walk]] should be so directed as not to exhibit these '''views''' except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a [[walk]] should always exist from some cause either real or apparent. . .
:“If it [the house] is situated on an [[eminence]], the back as well as front '''view''' may be exhibited to great advantage, and the effect will be heightened if a '''view''' of water can be then enjoyed. Limited [[prospect]]s and neighboring buildings not worthy of notice, may be concealed by [[plantation]]s of trees. The appearance of distance may be increased by planting trees of dark green and large dense foliage on the foreground, and those of light and airy foliage in the distance; this will produce the same effect as shades in a landscape picture. Trees and shrubs in front of the house should be planted and pruned so as to present a chaste and neat appearance; imitations, therefore, of the wilder scenes of nature, such as rocks, [[cascade]]s, old trees, and festoons of climbing plants, should be situated back and more remote.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the '''view''', gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel [[walk]]s; i, [[bed]]s, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To command a '''view'''—to have the advantage of shade, and shelter, and water—to have the barn and out-buildings near, yet not conspicuous; to permit of easy drainage from the cellar, if it is necessary; to be easy of access from the highway; these are to be considered.”

[[File:0376.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant views are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 113–14)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a ground plan of the place is given, as it would appear after having been judiciously laid out and planted, with several years’ growth. . . It will be seen here, that one of the largest masses of [[wood]] forms a background to the house, concealing also the outbuildings; while, from the windows of the mansion itself, the trees are arranged so as to group in the most pleasing and effective manner; at the same time broad masses of turf meet the eye, and fine distant views are had through the '''vistas''' in the lines ''e e''.” [Fig. 11]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 1239)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIS’TA''', ''n''. [It., sight; from L. ''visus'', ''video''.]
:“A ''view'' or [[prospect]] through an [[avenue]], as between rows of trees; hence, the trees or other things that form the [[avenue]].
:“The finished garden to the '''view'''
:“Its '''''vistas''''' opens and its [[alley]]s green. ''Thomson''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1850, “How to Arrange Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 396)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Arrange Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 9 (March 1850): 393–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7HNUGQK2/q/how%20to%20arrange view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The first principle in ornamental planting, is to study the ''character of the place'' to be improved, and to plant in accordance with it. If your place has breadth, and simplicity, and fine open '''views''', plant in groups, and rather sparingly, so as to heighten and adorn the landscape, not shut out and obstruct the beauty of [[prospect]] which nature has placed before your eyes.”

[[File:1660.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman's country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.]]
*Robert B. Leuchars, describing a ground plan of conservatory, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850: 94-95) <ref>Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman's country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 94-95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AFVF753S view on Zotero].</ref>
:REFERENCE TO FIG. 32
:''A, A, A, A, A, A'', [[Bed]]s in which the plants are set out and arranged according to their methods of growth, habits, height, &c.
:''B'', Water Tank, with [[jet]] in the centre. This tank is surrounded by [[Rockwork|rock-work]] and characteristic plants.
:''C, C'', [[Seat]]s on each side of the [[jet]], commanding, also, '''views''' of the surrounding grounds.
:''D, D, D, D'', Conduit for the hot-water pipes, for warming the structure. This open conduit passes along the wall the whole length and breadth of the house, and is covered with grating, which serves as a path for watering, and conducting the necessary operations connected with the culture of the plants.
:''E, E, E'', an open Balcony, passing all round the house, and surrounded by a balustrade. This balcony forms a continuation of the [[porch]] on the one side, and runs out upon the ground-level on the other. From this balcony are seen the garden, the [[lake]]s, the [[hot-house]], and the ornamental grounds. The chief purpose of this balcony, however, is to maintain the ground-level of the floor, and to make the [[conservatory]] in harmony with the mansion, without destroying its adaptability as a first-rate plant-house, of that class intended for growing large specimens, planted out in the ground.
:''F'', Steps, leading from the balcony into the [[pleasure-ground]]s.
:''G'', Door opening from the drawing-room.
:''H'', [[Rockwork|Rock-work]] for alpine plants, surrounding the aquarium and [[jet]].

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of '''View''', [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

File:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A '''View''' of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

File:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East '''View''' of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A '''View''' of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0189.jpg|Thomas Coram, '''''View''' in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, '''''View''' in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A '''View''' of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A '''View''' of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

File:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. '''view''' of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' to the North from the [[Lawn]] at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, '''''View''' of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.

File:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, '''''View''' of [[Lemon Hill]]'', c. 1800.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0136.jpg|Anonymous, '''View''' of Annapolis from Strawberry Hill, 1805.

File:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The '''View''' from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.

File:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, '''''View''' from Springland'', c. 1808.

File:0876.jpg|Unknown, '''View''' of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

File:0164.jpg|Joshua H. Hayward, “A '''View''' of the [[Seat]] of Theodore Lyman, Esqr., in Waltham, taken on the principles of perspective,” Mathematical Thesis, 1818.

File:1176.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''View of the seat of Edmund Quincy Esqr.'', 1822. Inscribed on reverse: ''[[View]] / of the [[seat]] of Edmund Quincy Esqr.''

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East '''View''' of Greenvill[e], SC'', possibly 1825.

File:1367.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], In planting with a '''view''' to natural beauty, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1008, fig. 691.

File:1792.jpg|Thomas Cole, '''''View''' of Monte Video, the [[Seat]] of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.'', 1828.

File:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front '''View''' of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, '''''View''' of The [[Belvedere]] Club House 1794'', 1828.

File:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “'''View''' of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836): 234.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A '''View''' of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:1114.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “'''View''' from Ruggle’s House, Newburgh (Hudson River),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 1, pl. 25.

File:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] '''View''' of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

File:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], '''''View''' N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

File:0894.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of '''view''' from J.C. Mallory’s property, 1841–44.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “'''View''' from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “'''View''' in the Grounds at [[Hyde_Park_(on_the_Hudson_River,_NY)|Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant '''views''' are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”

File:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, '''''View''' of Washington'', c. 1850.

File:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E. G. Dunnel (engraver), “[[view|VIEW]] FROM MOUNT AUBURN, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'',” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 112.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "[[Prospect]] Hill (33). . . rises high above the others, and affords extensive '''view'''. . ."

File:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, '''''View''' of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, '''View''' of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.

File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From [[Montgomery_Place|Montgomery Pl.]] looking up river'', n.d.

File:1055.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “Four Designs for Cloisters,” in A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728).

File:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0320.jpg|William Russell Birch, “York-Island, with a '''View''' of the [[Seat]]s of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 17.

File:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania [[Avenue]] from the [[Terrace]] of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

File:0116.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', c. 1820.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, '''''View''' of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]]: With a Sketch of Its History, Buildings, and Organization'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0328.jpg|Anonymous, “Front '''View''' of the Mansion at [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington. . .'' (1847), opp. 14.

File:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. 441.

File:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of [[conservatory]] designed for gentleman’s country [[seat]], in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of [[Hothouse]]s'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: '''View''' of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.

File:1266.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: '''View''' of Gardener’s Cottage and Barns'', 1852.

File:0047.jpg|Anna Peale Sellers, after [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[Belfield]] Farm, Germantown, PA'', Late 19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0844.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[Montgomery Place]]-Shore [[Seat]]'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.

File:1388.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Garden and [[Wilderness]] in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

File:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

File:0271.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Mrs. John Watson'', 1791. This portrait features a view of the sitter’s estate.

File:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753–1824)'', 1792.

File:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793.

File:0522.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''John Phillips (1719–1795), Dartmouth Trustee, 1773–1793'', 1794–96.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:1925.jpg|Alexander Robertson, Cleremont the [[seat]] R. R. Livingston, 1796.

File:0509.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.

File:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805.

File:0297.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald Robertson, ''Hobuck'', 1808.

File:0323.jpg|William Russell Birch, “'''View''' from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylv<sup>a</sup>, the residence of M.<sup>r</sup> W. Birch,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 20.

File:2248.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808.

File:2082.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Eaglesfield from the northeast, May 11th, 1817'', 1817.

File:2104.jpg|Firm of Joseph Stubbs, decoration after Thomas Birch, Soup plate with '''view''' of [[Lemon Hill]], c. 1825

File:1987_1.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Sedgeley Park, 1828–1836.

File:1987_2.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Springland, 1828–1836.

File:1941.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''Residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams'', 1831.

File:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne '''Views''' of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

File:0739.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown,” before 1834.

File:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

File:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

File:0528.jpg|Susan Whitcomb, ''The Residence of Gen. Washington'', 1842.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 17.

File:0438.jpg|Anonymous, ''Leaving the Manor House'', c. 1850-55.

File: 2284.jpg|Middleton Wallace & Co., ''Wilberforce University, Xenia, Ohio. (The colored peoples college)'', c. 1850-60.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Vision]]

Prospect

2021-04-12T13:36:40Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[View]]

==History==
[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England]'', 1743.]]
A prospect, like other keywords such as [[vista]], [[view]], and [[eminence]], was a significant aspect of the visual organization and perception of the American landscape. As Samuel Johnson’s 1755 definitions indicate, the term was used to describe an object in view, the [[view]] itself, or the place that afforded a view. The term also denoted the pictorial representation of a landscape, such as William Burgis’s ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England]'' in New England (1743) [Fig. 1] or “Prospect of Bethabara” in Salem, North Carolina (c. 1759) [Fig. 2].

[[File:0240.jpg|thumb|400 px|Fig. 2, Andreas Anton Lawatsch, “Prospect of Bethabara,” Salem, NC, c. 1759.]]
Prospects were much admired, even by the earliest recorders of American gardens. Travelers, such as William Byrd II in 1733, praised prospects in the natural scenery, and gardeners capitalized whenever possible upon [[view]]s and [[vista]]s in their estate grounds. The prospect encompassed, as J.-P. Brissot de Warville observed in 1788, “the perpetual contrast of savage nature and the efforts of art.” As early as 1685, William Penn requested a prospect to be created through his [[wood]]s at Pennsbury Manor, near Philadelphia. Thomas Hancock in 1736 also lauded the view from his gardens on Beacon Hill in Boston, saying that: “the Kingdom of England don’t afford so Fine a Prospect as I have both of Land and Water.”

The most significant aspect of creating a prospect, as J. Mortimer’s 1708 poem suggests, was the siting of one’s dwelling or garden on elevated ground, such as an [[eminence]] or the bank of a river. Gardeners then took advantage of the natural setting by planting trees, [[clump]]s, [[shrubberies]] and [[hedge]]s to open up and frame distant [[view]]s. The unknown designer of grounds for the Elias Hasket Derby House (c. 1800) in Salem, Massachusetts, instructed the executers of his plan to adapt it, if possible, to the existing [[view]]s by substituting a [[ha-ha]] in the place of a [[thicket]] of trees, if a “prospect that is agreeable. . . [could be seen] from the House.” The [[Ha-ha|sunken fence]] would allow the prospect to continue beyond the [[border]]s of the property.

[[File:0848.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Bank-Side Walk,” Blithewood, 1849.]]
Prospects were enhanced at prominent locations by [[seat]]s, [[pavilion]]s, and garden houses to be used for the enjoyment and repose of those walking through the garden [Fig. 3]. As [[A. J. Downing]] noted in 1849, prospect towers were particularly suitable “where the [[view]] is comparatively limited from the grounds.” Prospects were also created within the garden by placing an object, building, or some other focal point, at a distance from the house or at intervals in the garden. [[James Gibbs|James Gibbs's]] popular architectural pattern book (1728) provided the example of a [[temple]] placed “upon the upper ground of an Amphitheatre,” where trees “render the Prospect of the Building very agreeable.” American examples were rarely implemented on such a grand scale, yet the impetus to create a pleasing object of [[view]] was the same. In 1743, [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]] wrote that fish [[pond]]s created a “fine prospect of water from the house” at William Middleton’s plantation, Crowfield, near Charleston, South Carolina. Similarly, in 1762 [[Hannah Callender Sansom]] described the multiple prospects from the doorway of Judge [[William Peters|William Peters's]] [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont Mansion]], near Philadelphia; in one direction she looked across gravel [[walk]]s to the city, and in the other direction along an [[avenue]] terminated by an [[obelisk]].

While the style of the garden architecture and the composition of the view itself varied, the principle of a prospect remained the same—the extension of the garden through visual sight lines into the surrounding landscape. These views were not only valued as aesthetically pleasing, but were also equated with ownership and control of one’s domain. Recorders of the landscape repeatedly praised “commanding prospects” and “extensive [[view]]s.” [[Bernard M’Mahon]] noted in 1806 the “air of grandeur. . . of a full prospect from and to the mansion.” The “embracing of a [[view]]” signified not only the owners’ knowledge and taste in creating the landscape garden through which the prospects were viewed, but also their enviable situation and extensive properties.<ref>For a discussion of the relation of control of resources and the creation of prospects in the garden, see Denis E. Cosgrove, ''Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZTXKTCT/ view on Zotero], particularly chapters 6 and 7; Raymond Williams, ''The Country and the City'' (1973; repr., London: Hogarth Press, 1985), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TR28NC32 view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V/ view on Zotero]; and Dianne Suzette Harris and D. Fairchild Ruggles, eds., ''Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M99XTZDK view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the links among optics, monumental architecture (including landscapes), and social control, see Jerry D. Moore, ''Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98–101, 168–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFCPC58F view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Penn, William, November 7, 1685, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 46)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Clear a way ye [[wood]] up ye river to open a '''prospect''' upwards as well as downwards.”

*Byrd, William, II, 1733, describing travels in West Virginia (1928: 290)<ref>William Byrd, ''A Journey to the Land of Eden and Other Papers'' (New York: Macy-Masius, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FDMX9XG7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It must have been a great misfortune to them to be obliged to abandon so beautiful a dwelling, where the air is wholesome, and the soil equal in fertility to any in the world. The river is about eighty yards wide, always confined with in its lofty banks, and rolling down its waters, as sweet as milk, and as clear as crystal. There runs a charming level, of more than a mile square, that will bring forth like the lands of Egypt, without being overflowed once a year. There is scarce a shrub in [[view]] to intercept your '''prospect''', but grass as high as a man on horseback. Towards the [[wood]]s there is a gentle ascent, till your sight is intercepted by an [[eminence]], that overlooks the whole landscape.”

*Hancock, Thomas, December 20, 1736, describing the garden of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Hedrick 1988: 49)<ref>U. P. Hedrick, ''A History of Horticulture in America to 1860; with an Addendum of Books Published from 1861–1920'' (Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7ZAW9D6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My Gardens all Lye on the South Side of a hill, with the most Beautifull Assent to the Top & it is Allowed on all hands the Kingdom of England don’t afford So Fine a '''Prospect''' as I have both of Land and water.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . come to the bottom of this charming spott where is a large fish [[pond]] with a mount rising out of the middle—the top of which is level with the dwelling house and upon it is a roman [[temple]]. On each side of this are other large fish [[pond]]s properly disposed which form a fine '''prospect''' of water from the house.”

*Anonymous, July 9, 1748, describing a property for sale near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“. . . a beautiful [[Pond]], supplied with Fish, at the End of the Garden, which is well laid out, and furnished with a variety of Trees as Orange, Laurel, &c. from thence are several delightful '''Prospects''' into ''Cooper'' and ''Ashley-Rivers'', by Visto’s.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a '''prospect''' [of] the length of the garden thro’ a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . .”

*Quincy, Josiah, May 3, 1773, describing the country seat of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings 49: 473)<ref>Josiah Quincy, “Journal of Josiah Quincy,” ''Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings'' 49 (1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTN2KBQC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . his gardens, [[green-house]], bathing-house, [[grotto]], study, fish-[[pond]], fields, [[meadow]]s, [[vista]], through which is a distant '''prospect''' of Delaware River.”

*Adams, John, February 17, 1777, describing Chatsworth, estate of William Lux, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 125)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The seat is named Chatsworth, and an elegant one it is—the large garden enclosed in lime and before the yard two fine rows of large cherry trees which lead out to the public road. There is a fine '''prospect''' about it. Mr. Lux lives like a prince.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, June 30, 1777, describing Stafford County, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 417–18)<ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A little above Falmouth are Mr. Hunter’s Works. . . He is now erecting a Mill for slitting & plating Iron. . .
:“The Steel Manufactory is situated on a high Hill which commands a beautiful & extensive '''Prospect'''.”

[[File:0613.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' (July 1789), pl. 7, opp. 394.]]
*Enys, Lt. John, December 9, 1787, describing Hancock House, seat of his Excellency John Hancock, Boston, MA (Cometti 1976: 205)<ref name="Cometti">Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . there are a number of houses situated on Beacon hill which stand high and command eligant '''prospects''' particularly at high water. That of Governor Hancock stands the most conspicuous just at the top of the common with a full [[view]] of the [[Mall]] before it besides its distant [[view]]s of the harbour and adjacent country.” [Fig. 4]

*Anburey, Thomas, September 2, 1781, describing the Moravian community in Bethlehem, PA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:513)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'', 2 vols. (New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house of the single men is upon the same principle as that of the women; upon the roof of which is a [[Belvedere|Belvidere]], from whence you have not only a most delightful '''prospect''', but a distinct [[view]] of the whole settlement.”

*Hawks, John, July 12, 1783, describing the Governor’s House, New Bern, NC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“It was agreed for the advantage of a '''prospect''' down the river, that the South front should be thrown more to the Eastward which leaves the Gardens not quite so regular as appears in the sketch.”

[[File:0036.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Thomas Lee Shippen, Plan of Westover, 1783.]]
*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 30, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Imagine then a room of 20 feet square. . . and commanding a [[view]] of a prettily falling grass [[plat]]. . . about 300 by 100 yards in extent an extensive '''prospect''' of James River and of all the Country and some Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s on the other side.” [Fig. 5]

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], June 30, 1787, describing the estate of Charles Wyllys Elliott, near Hartford, CT (1987: 1:211)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I also called on my classmate, Colonel Hezekiah Wyllys. He lives with his father, Colonel Wyllys, the Secretary of the State, in an elegant [[seat]] just outside the city, situated on a high [[eminence]] which overlooks the city and commands a most enchanting '''prospect''' of the river, meandering through rich [[meadow]]s and fertile fields, for ten or fifteen miles. The landscape from this seat far exceeds any I have ever seen in any part of the country.”

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1792: 428)<ref name="Warville">J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America, Performed in 1788'', ed. Durand Echeverria, trans. Maro S. Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This house overlooks the Potowmack, enjoys an extensive '''prospect''', has a vast and elevated [[portico]] on the front next the river, and a convenient distribution of the apartments within.”

*Enys, Lt. John, January 26, 1788, describing Belvedere, estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (Cometti 1976: 235)<ref name="Cometti"></ref>
:“. . . there are some very Charming '''prospects''' from some of the Hills, among the rest from the Seat of Colol. Howard which is situated on an [[eminence]] but is well coverd by trees from all the cold winds, has a charming [[View]] of a Water fall at a Mill, a long Rapid below it, a full [[View]] of the town of Baltimore and the Point with the shiping in the harbour, the [[Bason]] and all the Small craft, with a very distant '''prospect''' down the river towards the Chasapeak Bay. The whole terminated by the surrounding Hills forms a fine Picture.”

*G., L., June 15, 1788, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: B2, 19)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''prospect''' from every room is enchanting, as you enter the hall you have a view of a remarkably fine [[lawn]], beyond that, the bridge over which people are constantly passing, the rocky ground opposite to Gray’s, four or five windings of the Schuylkill, the intermediate country & the Delaware terminated by the blue mist of the Jersey shore—on one side you see distinctly the City & the surrounding country, on the opposite end, another [[view]] of the Schuylkill & the [[greenhouse]]—at the back the eye is refreshed with the sight of the most beautiful trees. . .
:“[[[Walk]]s were] planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a [[view]] of some fine trees or beautiful '''prospect''' beyond, & in others, shaded by [[arbour]]s of the wild grape, or [[clump]]s of large trees under which are placed [[seat]]s where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air.”

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston, MA, to New York, NY (1792: 125)<ref name="Warville"></ref>
:“The traveller is well recompensed for the fatigue of this route, by the variety of romantic situations, by the beauty of the '''prospects''' which it offers at each step, by the perpetual contrast of savage nature and the efforts of art.”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suddenly, however, an open plain is outspread before us, and we are presented with a pleasing horizon—but as suddenly, thick trees again intervene, until at the extremity of the [[walk]]s, a mill and a beautiful natural [[cascade]] terminates the '''prospect'''.”

*Bentley, William, September 22, 1790, describing an estate in Haverville, MA (1962: 1:198)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It has about 30 acres of land, an ancient row of Elms, & Buttons, & most engaging '''Prospect''' of the River and adjacent country.”

*Smith, William Loughton, April 23, 1791, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1917: 63)<ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'', ed. Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I hardly remember to have been so struck with a '''prospect'''. . . the [[view]] extends up and down the river a considerable distance, the river is about two miles wide, and the opposite shore is beautiful. . . embracing the magnificence of the river with the vessels sailing about; the verdant fields, [[wood]]s, and [[park]]s.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], 1791 and 1792, describing plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151 and 163)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[June 22, 1791]. . . I next made the distribution regular with streets at right angle ''north-south'' and ''east west'' but afterwards I opened others on various directions as avenues to and from every principal places, wishing by this not merely to contrast with the general regularity nor to afford a greater variety of pleasant [[seat]]s and '''prospect''' as will be obtained from the advantageous ground over the which the [[avenue]]s are mostly directed but principally to connect each part of the city with more efficacy. . .
:“[January 4, 1792 ] ‘I. The positions for the different Grand Edifices, and for the several Grand [[Square]]s or Areas of different shapes as they are laid down, were first determined on the most advantageous ground, commanding the most extensive '''prospects''', and the better susceptible of such improvements as the various intents of the several objects may require.’”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:7)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The contrast between the rocks, which form the banks of this river Schuykill, and the numerous meadows and adjacent corn fields, gives this '''prospect''' a mixture of romantic wildness, and cultivated beauty, which is really delightful.”

[[File:0755.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.]]
*Twining, Thomas, May 7, 1795, describing Belvedere, estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (1894: 115–16)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago: Being Notes and Reminiscences'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HW3M4RTP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Situated upon the verge of the descent upon which Baltimore stands, its grounds formed a beautiful slant towards the Chesapeak. . . The spot, thus indebted to nature and judiciously embellished, was as enchanting within its own proper limits as in the fine [[view]] which extended far beyond them. The foreground presented luxurious shrubberies and sloping [[lawn]]s: the distance, the line of the Patapsco, and the country bordering on Chesapeak Bay. ''Both'' the perfections of the landscape, its near and distant scenery, were united in the [[view]] from the bow-window of the noble room in which breakfast was prepared, with the desire, I believe, of gratifying me with this exquisite '''prospect'''.” [Fig. 6]

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New England (1821: 1:18)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A succession of New-England villages, composed of neat houses, surrounding neat schoolhouses and churches, adorned with gardens, [[meadow]]s and [[orchard]]s, and exhibiting the universally easy circumstances of the inhabitants, is, at least in my own opinon, one of the most delightful '''prospects''', which this world can afford.”

*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1799: 47)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house for the residence of the president stands north-west of the capitol, at the distance of about one mile and a half. It is situated upon a rising ground not far from the Patowmac, and commands a most beautiful '''prospect''' of the river, and of the rich country beyond it.”

*Anonymous, June 6, 1800, describing in the ''Columbian Museum and Savannah Advertiser'' a rental property in Savannah, GA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“TO LET, THAT pleasantly situated HOUSE on the corner of St. Julian and Price Streets, in which are many conveniencies for a family. . . [[piazza]] and a good '''prospect'''.”

*Anonymous, c. 1800, describing a design for Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (Peabody Essex Institute, Phillips Library, Derby Papers)
:“If there is any '''Prospect''' that is agreeable can be seen from the House make a [[Ha-Ha|Ha Ha]] instead of a [[Thicket]].”

*Anonymous, March 2, 1802, describing a property for sale in King George County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')
:“It lies on the Rappahannock river, about three miles from the town of Port Royal, and twenty four from Fredericksburg. . .
:“On an [[eminence]] which commands a beautiful distant '''prospect''', and an entire [[view]] of the low ground belonging to this Tract, I have lately erected a two story dwelling house, and some necessary out houses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Jefferson Papers)
:“. . . the ground between the upper & lower roundabouts to be laid out in lawns & clumps of trees, the lawns opening so as to give advantageous catches of '''prospect''' to the upper roundabout.
:“[[Vista]]s from the lower roundabout to good portions of '''prospect''' [[walk]]s in this style, winding up the mountain.”

*Foster, Sir Augustus John, c. 1807, describing Montpelier, [[plantation]] of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1954: 142)<ref>Sir Augustus John Foster, ''Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–1806–1807 and 1811–1812'', ed. Richard Beale Davis (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7FU8NDF4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ladies, however, whom I have known in Virginia, like those of Italy generally speaking, scarcely even venture out of their houses to walk or to enjoy beautiful scenery. A high situation from whence they can have an extensive '''prospect''' is their delight and in fact the heat is too great in these latitudes to allow of such English tastes to exist in the same degree at least as in the mother country. A [[pleasure ground]], too, to be kept in order, would in fact be very expensive, and all hands are absolutely wanted for the [[plantation]].”

[[File:0716.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.]]
*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1815: 272)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The situation of the house is not elevated; and no part of the highly cultivated grounds affords any '''prospect''' far beyond their limits. However desirable and necessary this '''property''' may be with respect to some situations, the want of it is not materially felt at Mr. Lyman’s. For when there, you behold so much to admire and approve, so much taste and elegance, so great convenience and comfort, that you desire no other '''prospects''', than those before and around you;—you are satisfied with contemplating the improvements of art and refinement upon nature, how they can render her more charming, more instructive, and bring into more full display the wisdom and goodness of nature’s God.” [Fig. 7]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Columbia, SC (1816: 2:185)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The buildings are erected about three quarters of a mile from the Congaree, on a ridge of high land, near 300 feet above the level of the river, from which a delightful '''prospect''' is presented.”

*Anonymous, July 1828, describing the houses of farmers in New England (''New England Farmer'' 6: 397)<ref>Anonymous, “Rural Taste,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 50 (July 4, 1828): 397, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HZUNSID7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The houses of our farmers are of irregular shape, and tho’ their deformities might be somewhat concealed by trees, the proprietor will give up his shade rather than his '''prospect'''.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[avenue]] to the mansion is over a stone bridge, crossing a rapid stream precipitated from the milldams above, and falls in a [[cascade]] below. The winding of the road, the varied surface of the ground, the [[bridge]], and the falling of the water, continually vary the '''prospect''' and render it a never tiring scene.”

*Massachusetts Horticultural Society, October 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (''North American Review'' 1831: 406)
:“The most striking part of this tract is a conical hill of considerable height, which commands an extensive and beautiful '''prospect'''. This is reached by a gentle ascent, which winds like a road round the hill, with valleys on each side, and is so exact in its bearing, that it is difficult to persuade one’sself that man had no agency in forming it.”

*Kemble, Fanny, March 24–28, 1839, describing an estate on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1984: 284–85)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Hamilton struck me very much—I mean the whole appearance of the place; the situation of the house, the noble water '''prospect''' it commanded, the magnificent old oaks near it, a luxuriant vine [[trellis]], and a splendid hedge of ''Yuccas gloriosa'', were all objects of great delight to me.”

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” describing the residence of John Robert Murray, Mount Morris, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17–18)<ref>B. P., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82/q/Progress%20of%20Horticulture%20in%20Rochester view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Murray’s place is comparatively new, but much has already been done. His elegant mansion occupies the most elevated position of the grounds, and has a most commanding '''prospect'''; several beautiful villages, Moscow, Geneseo, &c., are embraced within the [[view]], and a large portion of the valley, with the finely wooded hills that border it, receding far in the distance.”

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 60)
:“It is upon one of the most elevated hills, known in history as the Harlem Heights, and commands a '''prospect''', which for extent, variety, and beauty, is rarely equalled.”

[[File:0363.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “View in the Meadow Park at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, describing Geneseo, [[seat]] of James S. Wadsworth, Genesee River Valley, NY (''Horticulturist'' 3: 164–65)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Meadow Park of Geneseo,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 163–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G6VXPK69/q/geneseo view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And what a '''prospect'''! The whole of that part of the valley embraced by the eye—say a thousand acres—is a ''[[park]]'', full of the finest oaks,—and such oaks as you may have dreamed of, (if you love trees,) or, perhaps, have seen in pictures by CLAUDE LORRAINE, or our own DURAND; but not in the least like those which you meet every day in your woodland [[walk]]s through the country at large. Or rather, there are thousands of such as you may have seen half a dozen examples of in your own country. . . .
:“No underwood, no bushes, no [[thicket]]s; nothing but single specimens or groups of giant old oaks, (mingled with, here and there, an elm) with level glades of broad [[meadow]] beneath them! An Englishman will hardly be convinced that it is not a park, planted by the skilful hand of man hundreds of years ago.
:“This great [[meadow]] [[park]] is filled with herds of the finest cattle—the pride of the home-farm.” [Fig. 8]

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] prospect-[[arbor]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[André Parmentier|André]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 459–60)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those of our readers who may have visited the delightful garden and grounds of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]]. . . will readily remember the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''prospect'''-[[arbor]], or tower, Fig. 87, which was situated at the extremity of his place. It was one of the first pieces of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work of any size, and displaying any ingenuity, that we remember to have seen here; and from its summit, though the garden walks afforded no '''prospect''', a beautiful reach of the neighborhood for many miles was enjoyed.” [Fig. 9]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston,” describing Oakley Place, seat of William Pratt, Boston, MA (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From one point in the garden a splendid birds-eye [[view]] of the surrounding country is obtained, studded with villages, school houses and church spires—constituting the finest '''prospect''' we have seen in the vicinage of Boston.”

===Citations===
*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 1)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . having the fairest buildings of the house facing the garden in this manner before specified, besides the benefit of shelter it shall have from them, the buildings and roomes abutting thereon, shall have reciprocally the beautifull '''prospect''' into it, and have both sight and sent of whatsoever is excellent, and worthy to give content out from it, which is one of the greatest pleasures a garden can yeeld his Master.”

*Mortimer, J., 1708, “The Whole Art of Husbandry” (quoted in Hammond 1982: 33)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>
::“If on thy native Soil thou dost prepare
::T’erect a Villa, thou must place it there
::Where a free '''Prospect''' does itself lend
::Into a Garden, where the sun may lend
::His influence from the East; his radiant heat
::Should on your House thro’ various Windows
:::beat. . .
:“[A garden should have one central [[walk]]] which is to lead from one of the principal or more frequented rooms in your house, and if possible you should cause it to terminate in the best '''prospect''' your situation will afford.”

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718: 2:200)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . .,'' 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If the [[Wood]] is thin, ’tis there one may clear it quite away, and make open Lawns. And if the Wood be an Eminence, then all the small Stuff on the Outside ought to be clear’d away, to open the distant '''Prospect''', if it deserve it; but if it be an unsightly, barren '''Prospect''', then let the [[Wood]] remain to blind it.”

[[File:1718.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[James Gibbs]], “A Circular Building in the Form of a [[Temple]],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.]]
*[[James Gibbs|Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A circular Building in the form of a [[Temple]], 20 feet in Diameter, having a Peristylium round it of the Dorick Order, and adorn’d with a Cupola; erected in his Grace the Duke of ''Bolton’s'' Garden at ''Hackwood'', upon the upper ground of an Amphitheatre, back’d with high Trees that render the '''Prospect''' of the Building very agreeable.” [Fig. 10]

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[vol. 1] [[AVENUE]]. . .
:“All ''avenues'', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a '''prospect'''.—In an ''[[avenue]]'' to an house, whatever the length of the [[walk]] is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better. . .
:“[vol. 2] [[TERRACE]], or TERRAS, a [[walk]], or bank of earth raised in a garden or court, to a due elevation for a '''prospect'''. See [[WALK]]S.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PRO’SPECT'''. ''n.s''. [''prospectus'', Lat.]
:“1. [[View]] of something distant. . .
:“2. Place which affords an extended [[view]]. . .
:“3. Series of objects open to the eye. . .
:“4. Object of [[view]].”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 639–40)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE buildings admitted into gardens may be arranged under two general heads; those which are erected as objects in themselves, and those from which '''prospects''' and other objects are to be viewed. . . Where the sole intent is to admit a '''prospect''', and give repose after walking, the form [of the building] may be plain and simple, convenient and unornamented. Where it serves at once as a place of repose, and as a point from which to view a '''prospect'''; the convenience and the elegance of its form are both to be consulted; and finally, when it serves as an object in some rich part of an extensive garden, it must be larger and more elevated, as well as more decorated.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As to the place of disposition of this garden [ [[kitchen garden]] ]. . . it should generally be placed detached entirely from the [[pleasure-ground]]; also as much out of [[view]] of the habitation as possible, at some reasonable distance, either behind it, or towards either side thereof, so as its [[wall]]s or other fences may not obstruct any desirable '''prospect''' either of the [[pleasure-garden]], [[park]], fields, or the adjacent country.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For the convenience of walking in damp weather, this lawn should be surrounded with a gravel-[[walk]], on the outside of which should be [[border]]s three or four feet wide for flowers: and from the back of these the '''prospect''' will be agreeably terminated by a [[slope]] of ever-green shrubs; which, however, should never be suffered to exclude agreeable '''prospects''', or the view of handsome buildings. These [[walk]]s may lead through the different plantations, gently winding about in an easy natural manner; which will be more agreeable than either those long straight [[walk]]s, too frequently seen in gardens, or those serpentine windings that are twisted about into so many short turns as to render it difficult to walk in them; and as no garden can be pleasing where there is a want of shade and shelter, these [[walk]]s should lead as soon as possible into [[plantation]]s, where persons may walk in private, and be sheltered from the wind.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 56–59)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Therefore, in laying out pleasure-ground, the designer ought to take particular care, that the whole extent be not taken in at one [[view]]; only exhibiting at first a large open [[lawn]], or other spacious open compartment, or grand [[walk]], &c. terminated on each side with [[plantation]]s of curious trees, shrubs and flowers, exhibiting only some opens at intervals. . . so that a spectator will be agreeably surprised to find, that what terminated his '''prospect''', only served as an introduction new beauties and varieties. . .
:“This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], [[wilderness]], &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full '''prospect''' from and to the mansion. . .
:“In other parts are sometimes discovered [[eminence]]s, or rising grounds, as a high [[terrace]], [[mount]], steep declivity, or other eminence, ornamented with curious trees and shrubs, with [[walk]]s leading under the shade of trees, by easy ascents to the summit, where is presented to the [[view]], an extensive '''prospect''' of the adjacent fields, buildings, hamlets, and country around, and likewise affording a fresh and cooling air in summer.”

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185–86)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Limited '''prospects''', and neighbouring houses and buildings not worthy of notice, should be concealed, and the [[view]] left open to those objects which strike the eye of the beholder agreeably. . .
:“If the house is placed on an [[eminence]] or side-hill, the '''prospect''' will be much more beautiful if you can enjoy the [[view]] of water.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PROS’PECT''', ''n''. [L. ''prospectus'', ''prospicio'', to look forward; ''pro'' and ''specio'', to see.]
:“1. [[View]] of things within the reach of the eye.
:“Eden and all the coast in '''''prospect''''' lay. ''Milton''.
:“2. [[View]] of things to come; intellectual sight; expectation. . .
:“3. That which is presented to the eye; the place and the objects seen. There is a noble '''''prospect''''' from the dome of the state house in Boston, a '''''prospect''''' diversified with land and water, and every thing that can please the eye.
:“4. Object of [[view]].
:“Man to himself
:“Is a large '''''prospect'''''. ''Denham''.
:“5. [[View]] delineated or painted; [[picturesque]] representation of a landscape. ''Reynolds''.
:“6. Place which affords an extended view. ''Milton''.
:“7. Position of the front of a building; as a '''''prospect''''' towards the south or north. Ezek. xl.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409–12)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Where larger spaces of ground are to be operated on ornamentally, the first point is to open before the principal front of the house, an extensive [[plot]] of well kept grass interrupted with [[clump]]s of forest trees at considerable distances from each other, so managed as to admit between the intervals, the most interesting points of the surrounding '''prospect''', such as the spire of a meetinghouse, a distant mountain, or a piece of water, the boundaries or which might be purposely hidden by these [[clump]]s so that if the extent of water be small the terminations would not appear. . .
:“In forming ascents to rising grounds, where '''prospects''' are to be enjoyed, there is some art required to make the attainment of the elevation easy; this is done by cutting low steps at considerable intervals, say ten or twenty feet, according to the nature of the ground. . . Such paths to [[eminence]]s are preferable when they wind round and gradually reach the summit.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the Different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 283)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery,” ''American Gardeners’ Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 2, no. 8 (August 1836): 281–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J5HZKZAG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There can scarcely be a more appropriate, agreeable and beautiful residence for a citizen who retires to the country for the summer, than a modern Italian villa, with its ornamented chimneys, its broad ''[[verandah]]'', forming a fine shady promenade, and its cool breezy apartments. Placed where a pleasant '''prospect''' could be enjoyed—a few statues distributed with taste over the well-kept [[lawn]]—a few Italian poplars, with their conical summits rising out of the gracefully-rounded [[clump]]s of foliage which should surround it—the whole would be quite perfect and delightful.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 127–28, 130)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In forming [[plantation]]s of trees and shrubs, so as to produce a pleasing landscape effect, few rules can be given which would apply generally. . .
:“In grounds of any considerable extent, the [[view]] of the whole should never be taken in at once; but it should be so divided into different scenes or compartments, which may be bounded by trees, that only a small part is visible at first to the spectator; but as he advances, new and varied '''prospects''' open upon him, so that he is agreeably surprised to find, that what at first seemed to terminate his [[view]], only served to introduce him to new beauties.”
[[File:0399.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Design for a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''prospect''' tower,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 88.]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 459–60)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''A '''prospect''' tower'' is a most desirable and pleasant structure in certain residences. Where the [[view]] is comparatively limited from the grounds, on account of their surface being level, or nearly so, it often happens that the spectator, by being raised some twenty-five or thirty feet above the surface, finds himself in a totally different position, whence a charming ''coup d’oeil'' or bird’s-eye view of the surrounding country is obtained. . .
:“Figure 88 is a design for a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''prospect''' tower of three stories in height, with a double thatched roof. It is formed of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s, which are well fixed in the ground, and which are filled in with a fanciful lattice of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] branches. A spiral staircase winds round the interior of the platform of the second and upper stories, where there are [[seat]]s under the open thatched roof.” [Fig. 11]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1718.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “A Circular Building in the Form of a [[Temple]],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A '''prospect''' of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0240.jpg|Andreas Anton Lawatsch, “'''Prospect''' of Bethabara,” Salem, NC, c. 1759.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West '''Prospect''' of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West '''Prospect''' of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

File:0410.jpg|Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795.

File:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

File:0399.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''prospect''' tower,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 88.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "'''Prospect''' Hill (33). . . rises high above the others, and affords extensive [[view]]. . ."
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0036.jpg|Thomas Lee Shippen, Plan of Westover, 1783. Westover's prospect overlooked the James River, located at the top of the image.

File:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “[[View]] of the [[Seat]] of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' (July 1789), pl. 7, opp. 394.

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View to the North from the Lawn at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

File:0318.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Montibello the [[seat]] of Genl. S. Smith Maryland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 13.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

File:1100.jpg|Robert Walter Weir, “Lunatic Asylum, New York,” Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, in ''New York Mirror'' (February 1, 1834): opp. 241.

File:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.

File:0363.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the [[Meadow]] [[Park]] at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.

File:1012.jpg|Anonymous, “An Elizabethan villa,” in Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture'' (1848), 284, fig. 40.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0848.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.

File:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. [c. 1849].

File:0292.jpg|William Matthew Prior, ''Washington’s Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1855.

File:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] '''prospect'''-[[arbor]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0260.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''The Reverend Eleazar Wheelock (1711–1779), 1st President of Dartmouth College (1769–1779)'', 1793–96.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:0928.jpg|Charles Saunders, ''The survey of a tract of Land in Cambridge. And a perspective delineation of the Summer house theron'', Mathematical Thesis, 1802.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The [[Hermitage]]'', c. 1820.

File:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

File:0438.jpg|Anonymous, ''Leaving the Manor House'', c. 1850–55.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Vision]]

Icehouse

2021-04-12T13:35:11Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Ice house, Ice-house) {{break}}
See also: [[Temple]]

==History==
[[File:0963.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Samuel McIntire, “Section of Mr. Barrells Ice Cellar,” n.d.]]
[[File:0646.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the [[Seat]] of the late James Madison,” 1835.]]
The term icehouse, or ice house, as dictionary definitions make clear, refers to a structure for preserving ice year round and for keeping food and beverages cool during the warm months. Icehouses ranged in scale from small outbuildings for domestic use to larger warehouse-sized buildings designed for the commercial ice-harvesting industry.<ref>Helen Tangires, “Icehouses in America: The History of a Vernacular Building Type,” ''New Jersey Folklife'' 16 (1991): 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T72U8RCA view on Zotero].</ref> In the context of American landscape design, domestic icehouses were often incorporated into the overall plan of an estate. While functional requirements dictated below-ground construction, the visible parts of the structure were often designed to enhance ornamental aspects of the grounds.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the construction of icehouses generally followed the European tradition. An underground pit was excavated, in the shape of an inverted cone, and then covered by a [[mound]] or a structure whose exterior [[wall]]s took a variety of shapes. The angled [[wall]]s of the pit, such as those depicted in a profile drawing published in William Ranlett's ''The Architect'' (1851), helped to keep the ice densely packed as it was loaded into the pit and subsequently to keep the ice a solid mass, even as it melted. Because, as [[Robert Morris]] (1784) noted, “the closer it is packed the bet[ter i]t keeps,” it was important to design icehouses with openings large enough to pack the ice solidly. Commercial icehouses needed to deliver closely packed blocks of ice throughout the warm seasons, but residential icehouses more often preserved ice to cool the air for food preservation and occasional ice chipping. In this domestic context, the strategy was to try to pack as solid a mass as possible by breaking the ice into pieces and ramming it into place. Since dampness was the greatest impediment to the preservation of ice, drains or other means of conducting runoff usually were built into the base of these structures. In addition, straw mats or sawdust were added to insulate the ice from sun and drafts, as described by George Washington and J. S. Williams (1823) and illustrated by J. B. Bordley in his ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801).<ref> Bordley’s design was the basis for Joseph Jacques Ramée’s “Détails d’une Glacière Américaine,” in ''Jardins irréguliers'' (Paris, 1823), pl. VIII, and in ''Allgemeine Bauzeitung'' (1854), pl. 652. See also Paul Venable Turner, ''Joseph Ramée: International Architect of the Revolutionary Era'' (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 236–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/667JZS6S view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1495.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, “The common Ice-house below ground,” ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): 250, fig. 65.]]
[[File:0962.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, J. B. Bordley, “Section of an ice-pit,” in Richard Parkinson and J. B. Bordley, ''A Tour in America, 1798–1800'', 2 vols., 2:699. Bordley cites this image as a “Section of an ice-pit, with its log-cell insulated with straw on all sides; and a house covering the whole.”]]

The structure covering the pit took a variety of forms and materials. The feature ranged from a simple earthen [[mound]], seen in Samuel McIntire’s sketches of the ice cellar at Pleasant Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts [Fig. 1], to the more elaborate ornamental styles that harmonized with larger landscape design. For instance, at Montpelier, [[Thomas Jefferson]] designed a neoclassical temple to cover the subterranean icehouse, a style that echoed the architecture of the nearby main house [Fig. 2]. During the 19th century, icehouses were designed in a variety of architectural styles to complement landscape design, as illustrated in designs for ornamental icehouses published in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1846 [Fig. 3]. Most icehouses also contained antechambers, vaults, or superstructures where food, such as meat and dairy products, were stored. J. S. Williams, in an 1823 letter to the editor of the ''New England Farmer'', detailed the construction and advantages of an “ice closet” attached to his icehouse. This separate area used the air cooled by the ice to preserve food and was recommended for those who did not have a spring house (which provided a common way to keep food cool) or those who wanted to avoid the musty flavor of meat laid directly on the ice. In other cases, such as J. B. Bordley’s section of an icehouse published in an appendix to Richard Parkinson’s ''A Tour in America'' (1805) [Fig. 4], the structure consisted only of an ice pit with no storage area.

In the 18th century a private icehouse was something of a luxury for a homeowner, as suggested by the relative scarcity of examples in sources other than treatises. Prior to 1800, most families preserved their food by drying, smoking, and salting, or by storing it in cold cellars, spring houses, and dairies. Private icehouses were constructed principally by wealthy [[plantation]] or estate owners. Other icehouses were built by proprietors of taverns, [[public garden]]s, and other eating and drinking establishments, such as Joseph Delacroix’s Ice-House Garden (later Vauxhall Garden) in New York. These icehouses, in addition to preserving food, made it possible to serve iced drinks, desserts, and ice cream. Several advertisements of tavern sales prominently listed an icehouse with other assets. In at least one instance, in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1820, a vendor of ice cream, punch, and lemonade referred to his entire establishment as an “icehouse.” In 1811 Rev. William Bentley commented upon the growth in the Salem, Massachusetts, area of such pleasure establishments, many of which he noted had icehouses. He wrote, “The places of amusement are so much multiplied that the season is not long enough to give them all one visit. The principal places are at Orne’s point at the Villa, at the Hotels. . . at Spring Pond. . . at Nahant & Philip’s beach, besides as many little places for humble folk to crawl in all directions.”<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D.'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), 4:36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1793_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Thomas S. Sinclair, ''Ashland, The Home of Henry Clay'' [detail], 1852.]]
It was not until the first half of the 19th century that icehouses became common for residences, and then mainly for rural sites beyond the reach of commercial suppliers. Beginning in the early 19th century, proponents, such as Frederic Tudor (1806), began to argue the merits of above-ground icehouses with no underground pits; they were cheaper to build, easier to load, unload, and ventilate, and they were equally effective in preserving ice. Above-ground icehouses became the standard for larger-scale icehouses associated with communities, such as those of the Shakers, and also with the growing commercial industry. This increase in the availability of commercially produced ice, at least in heavily settled areas, is exemplified by comments in the ''New England Farmer'' (1835) about increasing ice consumption. The increase in icehouse construction was also due to changes in the 1830s and 1840s in the American diet, which included more fresh meats and vegetables.<ref>Tangires 1991, 39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T72U8RCA view on Zotero].</ref>

Icehouses were sited in relation to a combination of factors, including accessibility to the kitchen, proximity to an ice source, a location on an elevated and potentially well-drained place, and aesthetics. Thomas Moore, in an 1803 essay about icehouse construction, suggested placing one’s icehouse on the north face of a hill, preferably sheltered from prevailing winds. At Gen. Charles Ridgely’s estate, Hampton, in Baltimore, and Montpelier, the icehouse was placed on the north side of a gentle incline, near the front door of the main house. In each case the potential visual intrusion of the icehouse was minimized. At Hampton, it was covered by an earthen [[mound]]; at Montpelier, it was surmounted by a domed [[temple]]. In other cases the icehouse was incorporated more subtly into the landscape design [Fig. 5]. The icehouse pictured in the ''Horticulturist'' was sited in a densely planted area and dressed in a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[picturesque]] so that it blended into the naturalistic landscape.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Marshman, William, February 16, 1769, describing an expense at the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“To 1 Man 5 days filling the '''Ice House''' at 1s 3d.”

*[[Robert Morris|Morris, Robert]], June 15, 1784, in a letter to George Washington, describing [[The Hills]] (later [[Lemon Hill]]), estate of [[Robert Morris]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Riley 1989: 8)<ref name="Riley">John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My '''Ice House''' is about 18 feet deep and 16 square, the bottom is a Coarse Gravell & the water which drains from the ice soaks into it as fast as the Ice melts, this prevents the necessity of a Drain which if the bottom was Clay or Stiff Loam would be necessary and for this reason the side of a hill is preferred generally for digging an '''Ice House''', as if needful a drain can easily be cut from the bottom of it, through the side of the Hill to let the Water run out. The [[Wall]]s of my '''Ice House''' are built of stone without Mortar (which is called Dry [[Wall]]) untill within a foot and a half of the Surface of the Earth when Mortar was used from thence to the Surface to make the top more binding and Solid. When this [[Wall]] was brought up even with the Surface of the Earth I stopped there and then dug the foundation for another [[Wall]], two foot back from the first and about two foot deep, this done the foundation was laid so as to enclose the whole of the [[Wall]]s built on the inside of the Hole where the Ice is put and on this foundation is built the [[Wall]]s which appear above ground and in mine they are about ten foot high. On these the Roof is fixed, these [[wall]]s are very thick, built of Stone and Mortar, afterwards rough Cast on the outside. I nailed a Cieling of Boards under the Roof flat from [[Wall]] to [[Wall]], and filled all the Space between that Cieling and the Shingling of the Roof with Straw so that the heat of the Sun Cannot possibly have any Effect.
:“In the Bottom of the '''Ice House''' I placed some Blocks of Wood about two foot long and on these I laid a Plat form of Common [[Fence]] Rails Close enough to hold the Ice open enough to let the Water pass through, thus the Ice lays two foot from the Gravel and of Course gives room for the Water to soak away gradually without being in contact with the Ice, which if it was for any time would waste it amazingly. . .
:“I find it best to fill with Ice which as it is put in should be broke into small pieces and pounded down with heavy Clubs or Battons such as Pavers use, if well beat it will after a while consolidate into one solid mass and require to be cut out with a Chizell or Axe. I tryed Snow one year and lost it in June. The Ice keeps until October or November and I believe if the Hole was larger so as [to h]old more it would keep untill Christmass, the closer it is packed the bet[ter i]t keeps and I believe if the [[Wall]]s were lined with Straw between the Ice [and] Stone it would preserve it much, the melting begins next the [[Wall]]s and Continues round the Edge of the Body of Ice throughout the Season.”

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:213, 221)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[October 26] Took the cover off my dry Well, to see if I could not fix it better for the purpose of an '''Ice House''', by Arching the Top, and planking the sides. . .
:“[November 9] Having put in the heavy frame into my '''Ice House''' I began this day to Seal it with Boards, and to ram straw between these boards and the [[wall]]. All imaginable pains was taken to prevent the Straw from getting wet, or even damp, but the moisture in the air is very unfavourable.”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Underneath this [[summer house]], is an '''ice house''', convenient and well planned, and upon the right of this building is an oblong section of the garden, prettily enclosed, which is chiefly devoted to exotics.”

*Washington, George, October 14, 1792, in a letter to Anthony Whiting, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 216)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The flowering ever-green Ivy, I want them to plant thick around the '''Ice house''' upper side, not of the tallest kind, but of an even height. . . The like at the No. East of the same [[lawn]], by the other [[Wall]] [and if] the Path leading from the Bars to the Wild Cherry tree in the Hollow, was pretty thickly strewed with them (of the lower sort) and intermixed freely with the bush honey suckle of the [[Wood]]s, it would, in my opinion, have a pleasing effect.”

*Anonymous, August 27, 1795, describing in the ''Alexandria Gazette'' a tavern property in Annapolis, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“Indian Queen. FOR SALE, THAT well known Tavern and Stage House. . . containing thirty-three well furnished convenient rooms, with arched and other excellent cellars underneath the whole; also, an ''ice-house'' built on the best construction, which will contain fifty large loads.”

*Brooks, Joshua, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 18)<ref name="Riley"></ref>
:“At the back of the house is a covered staircase to the kitchen or cellar. Here many male and female negroes were at work digging and carrying away the ground to make a level grass [[plot]] with a gravel [[walk]] around it, at one end of which is an '''ice house'''.”

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a lunatic asylum in New York, NY (1822: 3:454)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7D8MGMDN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Among its conveniences are an excellent garden, fruit trees, [[walk]]s, a large '''ice-house''', [[Bathhouse|bathing-house]], and stables.”

*Anonymous, March 2, 1802, describing a property for sale in King George County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')
:“It lies on the Rappahannock river, about three miles from the town of Port Royal, and twenty four from Fredericksburg. . .
:“I have lately erected a two story dwelling House, and some necessary out houses. . . an eighteen feet cube '''Ice house''', and a thriving young bearing Peach [[Orchard]], of 1000 trees.”

*Anonymous, March 27, 1803, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“FOR SALE, the Tract of Land, whereon I reside. . . and a new and well constructed '''Ice House''', stand on an [[eminence]], commanding a beautiful and extensive [[view]] of the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers.”

*Anonymous, December 12, 1805, describing in the ''Enquirer'' the hours of operation and scheduled events at Hay Market Garden in Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“HAY MARKET GARDEN. THE proprietor of the Hay Market Garden, respectfully notifies the citizens of Richmond, Manchester, and the public generally, that the garden will be kept open during the session of the General Assembly. . . An excellent '''ice house''' may be annexed to the garden.”

*Foster, Sir Augustus John, 1812, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1954: 12)<ref>Sir Augustus John Foster, ''Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–1806–1807 and 1811–1812'', ed. Richard Beale Davis (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7FU8NDF4/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He [James Hoban, architect of the White House] left out the upper story however and built no cellars, which [[Thomas Jefferson|President Jefferson]], after experiencing great losses in wines, has been obliged to add at a depth of sixteen feet under ground. These are so cool that the thermometer stood two degrees lower in them than it did in a vacant spot in the '''ice-house''' early in July, when in the shade out of doors it was at ninety-six.”

*Anonymous, 1814, describing in the ''Raleigh Star'' a resort at Shocco Springs, Warren County, NC (quoted in Lounsbury, ed.,1994: 187)<ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . additions and improvements have been made to his buildings, so as to render them more commodious and comfortable than heretofore. His '''Ice House''' is well stored with ice.”

*Anonymous, September 14, 1816, describing a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')
:“NOTICE. The subscriber being desirous to remove to the Western Country, will sell the well known TAVERN & FARM. . .
:“The tavern is 44 feet by 40, two stories high, conveniently laid off into rooms. . . all well finished, good kitchen, stables for 100 Horses, '''Ice-house'''.”

*Anonymous, December 23, 1816, describing in the Cumberland County Deed Book articles of lease agreement in Cumberland County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“For the year 1817, Thomas Hobson and Richard S. Eggleston are to have the use of the '''ice house''' in partnership, and if upon trial, one will suffice both, they will continue to use it as aforesaid during the continuance of the lease.”

*Anonymous, July 29, 1818, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“Valuable property for sale. Will be offered at public auction, on the first Monday of August next, on the premises, that well known tavern and tract of land, at Spotsylvania court-house. . . there is an '''ice house''' and all other houses necessary. . . The improvements are. . . all necessary out houses, including an '''ice house'''.

*Forman, Martha Ogle, April 16, 1819, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 80)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Moved Ramsey’s bed to the Sky parlor over the '''Ice house'''.”

*Anonymous, 1820, describing in the ''Raleigh Register'' the opening of an ice-house in Raleigh, NC (quoted in Lounsbury, ed., 1994: 188)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>
:“DAVID SHAW has opened his '''Ice-House''', and is prepared to furnish Ice-Cream, Punch or Lemonade, every day (the Sabbath excepted) from 10 in the morning til 10 at night. He will also sell Ice by the pound.”

*Anonymous, September 30, 1820, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Culpeper County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“I will sell my tavern establishment. . . consisting of. . . A large and commodious house with four rooms below stairs and eight above, with two large [[portico]]es—a new smoke house, a new '''ice house'''.”

[[File:1471.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, J. S. Williams, ''Ground View'' and ''Elevated View'' of Ice House, in ''New England Farmer'' 2, no. 16 (November 15, 1823): 125.]]
*Williams, J. S., October 2, 1823, “Ice Houses—With Ice Closets Attached” (''New England Farmer'' 2: 125)<ref>J. S. Williams, “Ice Houses—With Ice Closets Attached,” ''New England Farmer'' 2, no. 16 (November 15, 1823): 125, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2AZKEH33 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I herewith hand yon [''sic''] a sketch of my ice closet attached to my '''ice house'''. . . The citizen and farmer may both enjoy its comforts—the latter more particularly, will soon know its value, where he is deprived of the benefits of a good spring. The greatest importance, however, attached to its use, I conceive to be the preservation of fresh meats, which I have kept for three weeks, as sound and wholesome, as the day it was placed in the closet, being entirely free from the musty and clammy flavour which it is apt to partake of, when confined in the customary way on the top of the ice. The only danger I apprehended, was the fear of losing my ice sooner in the season, from the closet drawing its quantum of cold atmosphere from the ice: I am happy to find, however, that my house still contains a body of ice, although it was little more than half filled, and (from my absence,) very imperfectly rammed. The size of my house is twelve feet square, and in depth to the floor, there being a space of one foot underneath, sloped to the centre where there is a well of two feet, to receive any water which may pass from the ice. The closet is four feet in width, which affords sufficient room for a private family. . . The pit is dug about three feet wider at top than bottom, the house being built perpendicular, (of logs or plank, mine is the former.) will leave a cavity eighteen inches wide at top, round the house, in which straw is to be closely crammed; this, with a layer of straw at bottom and straw mats laid over the top of the ice; will be quite sufficient for its preservation.” [Fig. 6]

*Silliman, Martha Trumbull, September 1, 1821, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (quoted in Saunders and Raye 1981: 20)<ref>Richard Saunders and Helen Raye, ''Daniel Wadsworth, Patron of the Arts'' (Hartford, CT: Wadsworth Atheneum, 1981), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8ZQIH73 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The place is a ''great deal'' handsomer than I expected. The buildings are all Gothic. First there is Uncles beautiful house; 2d the tower, 3d the cottage & the barns 4th the boat house & 5th the bathing house 6th a grape house 7th an '''ice house''' & 8th the [[beehive|bee house]] & a Gothic gate.”

*Q., December 22, 1826, “On Ice-Houses” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 173)<ref>Q., “On Ice-Houses,” ''New England Farmer'' 5, no. 22 (December 22, 1826): 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WBH6Z936 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Having had some experience in preserving ice, in the latitude of Maryland, I will place at your disposal a few observations, as an addition to the generally judicious directions of P. The shade of trees over the house, but not so much as to obstruct a good circulation of air, is a point of importance.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1828, describing Cincinnati, OH (1832: 1:132)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We found ourselves much more comfortable here [in the country] than in the city. The house was pretty and commodious, our sitting-rooms were cool and airy; we had got rid of the detestable mosquitoes, and we had an '''ice-house''' that never failed.”

*Anonymous, May 20, 1835, “Ice and Ice-Houses” (''New England Farmer'' 13: 353)<ref>Anonymous, “Ice and Ice-Houses,” ''New England Farmer, and Gardener’s Journal'' 13, no. 45 (May 20, 1835): 353–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SM6Z8DIB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We intend, however, to say a few words of ice and '''ice houses''', that may interest the reader. There are persons younger than ourself who can remember when the only ice sold in Boston, was brought to the city in parcels of ten or fifteen pounds in the box of a market gardener’s cart, and sold as a very great luxury at a corresponding price. There were then no '''ice-houses''' in the vicinity, except a few gentlemen’s country [[seat]]s, and they were built under ground, and were of small capacity. Within the last twenty years the consumption has become so general, and the cost is so small, that ice is no longer deemed a luxury, but one of the necessaries of life.”

===Citations===
*Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3:257)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical. . .'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . unless they were to be kept in '''''Ice-Houses''''' during the Season of our warm Weather, and not expos’d abroad ‘till our Frosts began: For if we are to follow Nature in the ''Culture of Plants'' from hot Countries, we must so the same in the Management of those from the frozen ''Zone''; we must imitate the Heat of one, and the Cold of the other.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: XII)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (1728; repr. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The Earth that came out of the ''[[Pond]]s'' B, B, raifed the ''[[Mount]]'' A, from whence is ''a very fine View to the Thames'', as well as to ''Richmond Hill, Petersham, &c.'' and underneath it is a very good '''Ice Houfe'''."

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''I’CEHOUSE'''. ''n.s''. [''ice'' and ''house''.] A house in which ice is reposited against the warm months.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. . .'' 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Ice house''' is a Building contrived to preserve Ice for the Use of the family in the Summer Season. . . It is considered that these Buildings are generally erected in Gardens. . . The external [[wall]] need not be built circular, but of any other figure, either square, hexangular, or octangular, and where this stands much in Sight, it may be so contrived as to make it a good object. I have seen an '''Icehouse''' built in such a manner as to have had an [[alcove]] [[seat]] in the Front, and behind the [[Seat]] was contrived a passage to get in and put out ice.”

*Bordley, J. B., 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 79)<ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''''Ice-House''''', will be best detached from the milk-house, that it may be clear of all moisture, and receive air on all sides. The '''ice-house''' at Gloster point, near Philadelphia, strongly recommends that it be chiefly ''above ground''. Four feet under ground, six above ground and twelve square, would hold 1440 solid feet: which is enough for family and milk-house purposes, though very freely expended.”

*Moore, Thomas, 1803, ''An Essay on the Most Eligible Construction of Ice-houses'' (1803: 11)<ref>Thomas Moore, ''An Essay on the Most Eligible Construction of Ice-Houses'' (Baltimore: Bonsal and Niles, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7TX5AHTN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''What is the most eligible construction for an '''Ice-house'''? . . .''
:“The most favourable situation is a north hill side near the top. On such a site open a pit twelve feet square at top, ten at bottom and eight or nine feet deep: Logs may be laid round the top at the beginning, and the earth dug out raised behind them so as to make a part of the depth of the pit. A drain should be made at one corner.”

*Tudor, Frederic, 1806, “Outline of Proposals Respecting Ice” (quoted in Cummings 1949: 138)<ref>Richard O. Cummings, ''The American Ice Harvests: A Historical Study in Technology, 1800–1918'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1949), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3WX5T2BF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''ice-houses''' upon the old construction in Europe have become obsolete, they cost great sums and kept ice badly—those underground in this country kept it better by an improvement upon them without costing a tenth part as much—mine upon the same principle pursued further is an improvement upon them. . . Moisture is the great destroyer of ice in '''ice-houses''' as it is a great conductor of heat from the surrounding bodies—all the moist air flies off from the top in my '''ice house''' and cannot communicate heat to the ice below because warm air cannot descend or cold air ascend.”

* [[Peale, Charles Willson]], November 22, 1815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale Robinson, describing Belfield (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 43)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honor’s Essay, La Salle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The objects in sight, are the road ascending to the Dwelling, Stone [[wall]] & Thorn [[hedge]] on it inclosing the Garden, The Garden [[Gate]] at the [[Fountain]], [[greenhouse|Green House]], [[summerhouse|Summer house]] a doom supported by 6 Pillars, and bust of Washington crowning it—beyond that an [[Obelisk]]; the Hay barracks; Barn with the wind-mill on top of it to pump water for the stock, stables; Mantion-House, Wash-House and connecting [[piazza|Piaza]]; Carriage House; Spring House, [[bathhouse|Bath-House]] and cover of the '''Ice-house'''.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ICE-HOUSE''', a building contrived to preserve ice for the use of a family in the summer season. It is generally sunk some feet in the ground in a very shady situation, and covered with thatch.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 340)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1725. ''The form of '''ice-houses''''' commonly adopted at country-[[seat]]s, both in Britain and in France, is generally that of an inverted cone, or rather hen’s egg, with the broad end uppermost.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ICEHOUSE''', ''n''. [''ice'' and ''house''.] A repository for the preservation of ice during warm weather; a pit with a drain for conveying off the water of the ice when dissolved, and usually covered with a roof.”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 184)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ICE HOUSE'''. In as warm a climate as this is in the summer season, ice for butter, milk, water, and other purposes, is a very great luxury. An '''ice house''' may be built under ground with or without any other building upon it. A dairy room or milk house may be built upon one.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 164)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“COLD HOUSES FOR PLANTS are not generally in use, though it is a common practice with gardeners to remove plants from [[hothouse]]s into the back sheds, in order to retard their blossoming or the ripening of their fruit. It is also the practice in some countries to place [[pot]]s of fruit-bearing or flowering [[shrub]]s in '''ice-houses''', so as to keep them dormant through the summer. . . Bulbs are also retarded in a similar manner; and even nosegays are placed in '''ice-houses''' in Italy and other warm countries, when it is wished to retard their decay for particular occasions.”

[[File:0999.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'', 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. 249.]]
[[File:0781.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Frances Palmer]], Plan and section of Villa at Oswego, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 12.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 1846, “How to Build Ice-Houses” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 249, 252–53)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Build Ice-Houses,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): 249–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ2UWZE2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Our business at the present moment is with the '''''Ice-house''''',—as a necessary and most useful appendage to a country residence. Abroad, both the '''ice-house''' and the [[hot-house]] are portions of the wealthy man’s establishment solely. But in this country, the '''ice-house''' forms part of the comforts of every substantial farmer. It is not for the sake of ice-creams and cooling liquors, that it has its great value in his eyes, but as a means of preserving and keeping in the finest condition, during the summer, his meat, his butter, his delicate fruit, and in short his whole perishable stock of provisions. . .
:“An '''ice-house''' below ground is so inconspicuous an object, that it is easily kept out of sight, and little or no regard may be paid to its exterior appearance. On the contrary, an '''ice-house''' above ground is a building of sufficient size to attract the eye, and in many country residences, therefore, it will be desirable to give its exterior a neat or tasteful air. . .
:“It will be frequently be found, however, that an '''''ice-house''' above ground'' may be very conveniently constructed under the same roof as the wood-house, tool-house, or some other necessary out-building, following all the necessary details just laid down, and continuing one roof and the same kind of exterior over the whole building.
:“In places of a more ornamental character, where it is desirable to place the elevated '''ice-house''' at no great distance from the dwelling, it should, of course, take something of an ornamental or picturesque character.
:“In figures 63 and 64, (see FRONTISPIECE,) are shown two designs for '''ice-houses''' above ground, in [[picturesque]] styles. Figure 63 is built in a circular form, and the roof neatly thatched. The outside of this '''ice-house''' is roughly water-boarded, and then ornamented with [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work, or covered with strips of bark neatly nailed on in pannels or devices. Two small gables with blinds ventilate the space under the roof.
:“Fig. 64 is a [[square]] '''ice-house''', with a roof projecting three or four feet, and covered with shingles, the lower ends of which are cut so as to form diamond pattern when laid on the roof. The [[Rustic_style|rustic]] brackets which support this roof, and the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[column]]s of the other design, will be rendered more durable by stripping the bark off, and thoroughly painting them some neutral or wood tint.*[Fig. 7]
:“*The projecting roof will assist in keeping the building cool. In filling the house, back up the wagon loaded with ice, and slide the squares of ice to their places on a plank serving as an inclined plane.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:18)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[Plate 12.—] Ground [[plot]] and profile of 1 1-4 acres of ground with the location of the Villa, A, B, and C; wood-house, D; privies, E E; Smokehouse, F; ash-house, G; '''ice-house''', H; vegetable garden, I; coach-house, K; [[bath-house]], L.” [Fig. 8]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0963.jpg|Samuel McIntire, “Section of Mr. Barrells Ice Cellar,” n.d.

File:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768.

File:1954.jpg|Andrew Craigie, Proposed Outbuildings for the Craigie Estate, December 11, 1791.

File:0962.jpg|J. B. Bordley, “Section of an ice-pit,” in Richard Parkinson and J. B. Bordley, ''A Tour in America, 1798–1800'', 2 vols. (1800), 2:699. Bordley cites this image as a “Section of an ice-pit, with its log-cell insulated with straw on all sides; and a house covering the whole.”

File:0874.jpg|J. B. Bordley, ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I. "7. '''Ice-houfe.'''"

File:0875.jpg|J. B. Bordley, ''Two '''Ice Houses''' Sected'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. II.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton, (Baltimore, MD) [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

File:1322.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Elevated circular platform to keep ice in stacks in '''Ice Houses''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 340, fig. 289.

File:1323.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The form of '''Ice Houses''' and excavation of Ice-Wells, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 340, fig. 290.

File:1324.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The construction of an '''Ice House''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 341, fig. 291.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843.

File:1495.jpg|Anonymous, “The common '''Ice-house''' below ground,” in ''Horticulturist'' vol. 1, no. 6 (December 1846), 250, fig. 65.

File:1494.jpg|Anonymous, "Section of the '''Ice-house''' above ground," in ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 6 (December 1846), 250, fig. 66.

File:0999.jpg|Anonymous, “Two Ornamental '''Ice Houses''' Above Ground,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' vol. 1, no. 6 (December 1846), pl. opp. 249.

File:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., “Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain,” 1847.

File:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. “At ''h'', is situated the '''ice-house'''."

File:0781.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Plan and section of Villa at Oswego, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1851), vol. 2, pl. 12. "'''ice-house''', H".

File:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "B, octagon '''ice-house''', 12 by 12, 9 feet deep, and 6 feet above the surface. . ."

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280. The icehouse is labelled as "26".

File:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. ". . . '''ice-houses''' and dairy-rooms, and fancy [[aviary|bird-houses]] (28)."

File: 2288.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854.

File: 2288_detail2.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854 [detail].

File:2138_detail.jpg|Evie Todd, ''Sunnyside. March 1866'' [detail] from ''Leisure Hours'' sketchbook, 1866.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0474.jpg|Peter Maverick, Trade card depicting Joseph de Lacroix’s '''Ice House''', c. 1796.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''[[Mount]] Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

File:1471.jpg|J. S. Williams, ''Ground [[View]]'' and ''Elevated [[View]]'' of '''Ice House''', in ''New England Farmer'' 2, no. 16 (November 15, 1823): 125.

File:0646.jpg|Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the [[Seat]] of the late James Madison,” 1835. The '''icehouse''' is located under the [[temple]].

File:0328.jpg|Anonymous, “Front [[View]] of the Mansion at [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington. . .'' (1847), opp. 14. The opening to the icehouse is visible just beneath the summerhouse on the left.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “A [[View]] of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States,” 1790.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:2116.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[Fountain]] [[Park]] near Philadelphia. Residence of A. McMakin Esq.'', c. 1850.

File:1793.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, ''Ashland, The Home of Henry Clay'', 1852. Courtesy, American Antiquarian Society. Ice-houses are the conical roofed structures on the right.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Aviary/Bird cage/Birdhouse

2021-04-12T13:33:03Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Dovecote]]

==History==
[[File:0735.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, Design for a Gothic Birdhouse at Springland, before 1805.]]
An aviary was a structure, enclosure, or cage for keeping birds. While henhouses and other more utilitarian structures for keeping fowl were relatively common in America, aviaries were generally reserved for ornamental and exotic birds, as well as songbirds. A wide variety of aviary types were discussed in treatises, particularly in publications from the second half of the 19th century, but the relative scarcity of American examples suggests that they were fragile structures, seldom recorded in the 17th century and rare through the 18th and first half of the 19th century. More common in America, however, was the practice of keeping doves and pigeons (see [[Dovecote]]).

[[File:1213.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, C. A. Hedin, “Front Elevation on Live Oak Street,” 1853.]]
Birdhouses, such as the one at Springland, William Russell Birch’s estate, near Bristol, Pennsylvania [Fig. 1], the one depicted in a notarial record [Fig. 2], and the “''accidental wren box''” at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, allowed birds to come and go freely.<ref>J.J.S., "Wrens the best insect destroyers," in A. J. Downing, ed. ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 4 (October 1849): 167-168, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2AJVD9GM view on Zotero].</ref> Aviaries and bird cages, by contrast, kept birds confined. Aviaries could be located indoors or outdoors. They were often situated in [[conservatories]] or [[greenhouse]]s, where the warmth suited plant and bird alike; an example of this is found at [[Monticello]]. An aviary built free-standing in the garden is found in Birch’s design for the Elysian Bower at Springland.

[[File:1800.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, “Four small columns. . . for suspending a lamp or bird-cage,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 309, fig. 2.]]
Treatises recommended that the style of an aviary or birdhouse be determined by its setting, particularly the architectural style of the principal dwelling. For example, [[A. J. Downing]] recommended Gothic detailing in outbuildings and garden structures, such as aviaries, to complement the architecture of the main house. This advice followed the general principles used for the design of other animal, bird, and insect-keeping structures found in American designed landscapes. Barns, poultry houses, and chicken coops were important parts of farm and plantation economies, and occasionally were ornamented to reflect the particular program of the landscape design. [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] (1826) detailed description of aviary types indicates the possible range of forms: a floating aviary for waterfowl, a glassed canary aviary, and portable aviaries made of net and wire. One illustration from the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841 depicts a bird cage suspended from four slender columns [Fig. 3]. Although Loudon described the British practice of furnishing aviaries with dead or living trees for the birds’ perch, no evidence exists for such American examples.

Aviaries were valued in garden design, as George William Johnson noted in 1847, because of the birds’ singing and plumage. They also provided objects of interest in the garden and could be used as a focal point at the termination or crossing of a [[walk]], as Batty Langley advised in 1728. Like specialized structures for exotic plants, aviaries provided a place to display one’s interest in and knowledge of the natural world. Both the access to exotic species and the means to keep them was once the province of only the wealthiest of Europe, and this association continued to lend status to the keeping of rare and ornamental birds. A singing bird not only graced a garden with its song, but also signified the owner’s erudition and connection with the world of foreign trade and exotic lands, as did swans on a [[lake]] or peacocks strolling on a [[lawn]].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Anonymous, July 1, 1771, describing a property for sale in the vicinity of Charleston, SC (''South Carolina and American General Gazette'')

:“There are on the Premises. . . two well contrived '''AVIARIES''', and every BUILDING necessary on a Farm.”

*Weld, Isaac, 1795, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1799: 119)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A large apartment is laid out for a library and museum, meant to extend the entire breadth of the house, the windows of which are to open into an extensive [[greenhouse]] and '''aviary'''.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing the McAran Botanic Garden and Nursery, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 434)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A small '''Aviary''' and [[beehive|Apiary]] are attached.”

*Anonymous, January 1, 1836, “Leaves from My Note Book” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 31)<ref> Anonymous, “Leaves from My Note Book,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 29–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I called, the next day after my arrival, at your friend Thorburn’s Horticultural Repository, 11, John Street. . . The second floor offers a fine lounge for one who wishes to pass an hour listening to ‘fairy-like music,’ and feasting his eyes on beautiful paintings and engravings which hang on the surrounding walls. The '''aviary''', at one end, is filled with many beautiful birds which fill the air with their songs—the native mocking bird, canary, &c. &c. all exerting their sweet voices in a mingled harmony, and fluttering as merrily as in their native [[wood]]s.”

===Citations===
*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–99)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (1728; repr. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.'' . . .

:“XXI. Such [[Walk]]s as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[mound|Mounts]], '''Aviaries''', [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular [[Hedge]]s ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 339, 347, 1020, 1183)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1722. ''Collecting and preserving ice, rearing bees'', &c. however, unsuitable or discordant it may appear, it has long been the custom to delegate to the care of the gardener. In some cases also he has the care of the dove-house, fish-ponds, ''aviary'', a menagerie of wild beasts, and places for snails, frogs, dormice, rabbits, &c. but we shall only consider the [[ice-house]], [[beehive|apiary]], and '''aviary''', as legitimately belonging to gardening, leaving the others to the care of the gamekeeper, or to constitute a particular department in domestic or rural economy. . .

:“1761. ''The canary or singing-bird '''aviary''''' used not unfrequently to be formed in the opaque-roofed [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]], by enclosing one or both ends with a partition of wire; and furnishing them with dead or living trees, or spray and branches suspended from the roof for the birds to perch on. Such are chiefly used for the canary, bullfinch, linnet, &c.

:“1762. ''The parrot '''aviary''''' is generally a building formed on purpose, with a glass roof, front, and ends; with shades and curtains to protect it from the sun and frost, and a flue for winter heating. In these, artificial or dead trees with glazed foliage are fixed in the floor, and sometimes cages hung on them; and at other times the birds allowed to fly loose. . .

:“1763. ''The verdant '''aviary''''' is that in which, in addition to houses for the different sorts of birds, a net or wire curtain is thrown over the tops of trees, and supported by light posts or hollow rods, so as to enclose a few poles, or even acres of ground, and water in various forms. In this the birds in fine weather sing on the trees, the aquatic birds sail on the water, or the gold-pheasants stroll over the [[lawn]], and in severe seasons they betake themselves to their respective houses or cages. Such an enclosed space will of course contain evergreen, as well as deciduous trees, rocks, reeds, aquatics, long grass for larks and partridges, spruce firs for pheasants, furze-bushes for linnets, &c. . .

[[File:1789.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Aviary designed by Humphry Repton for the grounds of the [[Pavilion]] at Brighton, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1020, fig. 718.]]

:“1764. ''Gallinaceous '''aviary'''''. At Chiswick, portable netted enclosures, from ten to twenty feet square, are distributed over a part of the [[lawn]], and display a curious collection of domestic fowls. In each enclosure is a small wooden box or house for sheltering the animals during the night, or in severe weather, and for breeding. Each cage or enclosure is contrived to contain one or more trees or shrubs; and water and food are supplied in small [[basin]]s and appropriate vessels. Curious varieties of aquatic fowls might be placed on floating aviaries on a [[lake]] or [[pond]]. . .

:“7258. ''Narrow terraces''. . . In some cases, the [[terrace]]-[[wall]]s may be so extended as to enclose ground sufficient for a level [[plot]] to be used as a [[bowling-green]] or a [[flower-garden]]. These are generally connected with one of the living-rooms or the [[conservatory]], and to the latter is frequently joined an '''aviary''' and the entire range of botanic stoves. Or, the '''aviary''' may be made an elegant detached building, so placed as to group with the house and other surrounding objects. An elegant structure of this sort. . . was designed by Repton for the grounds of the [[Pavilion]] at Brighton.” [Fig. 4]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''“A'VIARY''', ''n''. [ L. ''aviarium'', from ''avis'', a fowl.]

:“A bird cage; an inclosure for keeping birds confined. ''Wotton''.”

[[File:1788.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], One of the “Accidental Accompaniments to the Materials of Landscape,” for birds and animals, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 1183, fig. 947.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1834, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834: 1183)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1834), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TGQ5WTNR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6781. ''Animated nature.'' Deer, wild and tame hares, cattle, sheep, game, singing birds, all belong to a residence, and are necessary to complete its beauty. Pheasants and other game, ranging undismayed by man, in garden-scenes, give a high idea of seclusion and removal from common nature; the finer sorts may be retained in appropriate structures. . . and the common left to themselves, but liberally supplied with food. The cawing of rooks, the shrieking of the owl, the screams of peacocks, the notes of birds, are all desirable circumstances in certain situations, and ought to be attended to, by introducing such trees or plants as are favourable to their increase.” [Fig. 5]

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838: 711)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The '''Aviary''''' is an enclosure which should always, if possible, be of considerable extent, containing houses for different kinds of birds. These houses may be small [[rustic style|rustic]] structures, each with an enclosed court, and covered with netting or wirework, to prevent the birds from flying away, as well as to prevent the intrusion of other birds in a wild state.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 74)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''AVIARY'''. This building, devoted to the rearing of birds distinguished for the beauty either of their notes or plumage, is rarely admitted within a garden, and still more rarely are they sufficiently ornamental or sufficiently free from disagreeables to be a source of pleasure. . .”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0734.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Front of the '''Aviary'''/Grove, Springland'', before 1805.

Image:1789.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Aviary''' designed by Humphry Repton for the grounds of the [[Pavilion]] at Brighton, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1020, fig. 718.

Image:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and [[hothouse| hot-houses]] at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 642, fig. 159. “4 ''d'', An '''aviary''' for canaries.”

Image:1800.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Four small [[column]]s. . . for suspending a lamp or '''bird-cage''',” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 309, fig. 2.

Image:1787.jpg|Anonymous, “Ornamental wren box” in an ornamental iron post, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 4 (October 1849): 168, fig. 79.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. ". . . the '''aviary''' for wild fowls (27)."

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:1327.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Wire-cages,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 347, fig. 301.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0735.jpg|William Russell Birch, Design for a Gothic Birdhouse at Springland, before 1805.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), 80.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:1788.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], One of the “Accidental Accompaniments to the Materials of Landscape,” for birds and animals, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 1183, fig. 947.

Image:0893.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of unidentified two-story frame house, 1841–44.

Image:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside'': Center Circle, 1852.

Image:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, ''Front Elevation on Live Oak Street'', 1853.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855. Birdhouses are visible in the [[Flower_garden|flower gardens]] at left-center and right side of the painting.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Animal/bird/insect-keeping structures]]

Kitchen garden

2021-04-12T13:31:47Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Kitchen-garden)

==History==
[[File:1237.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''General Plan of a Marine Asylum and Hospital proposed to be built at Washington'', 1812. Kitchen gardens are indicated on the far left of the plan.]]
[[File:1398.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant Kitchen Garden Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including [[Walk]]s'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
In ''New England’s Prospect'' (1634), William Wood described the Massachusetts Bay Colony geography “as it stands to our new-come English planters, and to the old native inhabitants.” Most important to the recent settlers was the suitability of the land for growing food in what was commonly called a kitchen garden. The kitchen garden provided vegetables, herbs, and often fruit for a family’s table. It was an essential part of a household’s subsistence base, particularly given the difficulty of transporting fresh produce long distances in the absence of refrigeration and a developed road system. Unlike agricultural fields, the kitchen garden was smaller in scale, contained a variety of crops, and was generally enclosed and located near the dwelling house.

[[File:1394.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Batty Langley, “All the Geometrical Diagrams of the Problems contain'd in the first Part,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. I.]]
[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The “kitchen garden” is designated at “e,” at some distance from the main house.]]
As European settlement expanded, travelers throughout the colonies recorded well-organized kitchen gardens as a sign of the prosperity of a region. As markets grew and produce became more widely available, the importance of kitchen gardens diminished, at least for households in towns. Mary M. Ambler (1770) commented that in Baltimore, “People depend on the Market for their Stuff for there is not more than Seven Gardens in the Whole Town.”<ref>Mary Ambler, “The Diary of M. Ambler,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937): 166, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref> Living in Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin noted that there existed such “well-furnished plentiful markets” that he converted his kitchen garden into grass [[plot]]s and gravel [[walk]]s with trees and flowering [[shrub]]s, rather than for the cultivation of peas and cauliflowers.<ref>Benjamin Franklin to Mrs. Mary Hewson, May 6, 1786, quoted in Agnes Addison Gilchrist, “Market Houses in High Street,” ''Historic Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1953), 304–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MW7IU3VP view on Zotero].</ref> Kitchen gardens were essential, however, for those without access to markets.<ref>Gardens producing vegetables and fruit for sale were often called “market gardens” and were an important source of income for many living in the vicinity of markets. For example, in 1791 a slave named Sophia Browing sold produce from her market garden at the Alexandria market, eventually earning the four hundred dollars to buy her husband’s freedom. See Mary Beth Corrigan, “The Ties That Bind: The Pursuit of Community and Freedom among Slaves and Free Blacks in the District of Columbia, 1800–1860,” in ''Southern City, National Ambition: The Growth of Early Washington, DC, 1800–1860'', ed. Howard Gillette Jr. (Washington, DC: George Washington University, Center for Washington Area Studies, 1995), 75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GTADQ5JF view on Zotero]. Also see Gregory J. Brown, “Distributing Meat and Fish in Eighteenth-Century Virginia,” Research Report on file, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Department of Archaeological Research (1988), 5. For an in-depth discussion about the development of markets in 19th-century America, see Helen Tangires, “Meeting on Common Ground: Public Markets and Civic Culture in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., George Washington University, 1999), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQZ92WEP view on Zotero].</ref> They were not only in domestic but also institutional layouts, such as that mentioned in the description of the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, Pennsylvania, and seen in the design for the Marine Asylum in Washington, DC [Fig. 1]. A kitchen garden primarily provided food and diversion for the asylum residents. In addition, as Thomas S. Kirkbride noted for the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] in Philadelphia, the three-and-a-half-acre vegetable garden was to be “large enough to furnish all of that description of supplies that may be required for the institution, and may occasionally be made profitable from sales of the excess.”<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 352, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:0150.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.]]

[[File:2250_detail2.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Unknown, Kitchen Garden [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.]]

Garden treatises described in detail the layout and care of kitchen gardens and were remarkably consistent in their advice. The size of the kitchen garden depended upon the needs of the household, and several treatises mention a preference for regular shapes, such as a [[square]] or rectangle. All citations emphasized the need to enclose a kitchen garden with a [[wall]] or a [[fence]]. These barriers created sheltered environments and also deterred potential intruders. Within the confines of the garden, treatises also suggest laying out [[bed]]s, [[square]]s, or [[quarter]]s, dividing them by [[walk]]s, and creating [[border]]s along the perimeters. Many texts suggest planting smaller varieties of fruit trees, either [[Espalier|espaliered]] along the [[wall]] or [[fence]] or planted in [[border]]s. These trees not only bore fruit earlier than their less-protected counterparts, but also, as mentioned by [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), their shelter created microclimates for the growth of smaller plants beneath them. While treatises often offered a variety of designs for the arrangement of plant material within the kitchen garden from the complex [Fig. 2] to the relatively simple [Fig. 3], American kitchen gardens appear to have been executed in fairly modest form, even at the most elaborate estates [Figs. 4 and 5].

[[File:0161.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Jonathan Buddington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.]]

[[File:1110.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Samuel Vaughan, Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787. “16. Kitchen Gardens.”]]

The placement of a kitchen garden within the larger landscape of the farm or estate was a point of both practical and aesthetic debate in treatise citations, and, judging from the collected images [Figs. 6 and 7] and texts, a considerable variety of plans were adopted throughout the colonies. Some treatises suggested that the convenience of having the kitchen garden near the house for ease of tending and harvesting was balanced with the desire to remove the less attractive sights and smells of a manured garden, and crops such as cabbages and onions. Others extolled the convenience of placing the kitchen garden near the [[greenhouse]] (if one existed), or near the stables and barns for easy conveyance of dung. On a more aesthetic question, treatise writers disagreed about the relationship of the kitchen garden to more ornamental areas of an estate. Authors ranging from John Parkinson (1629) to [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826), George William Johnson (1847), and [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) in the 19th century advocated separating or at least screening the kitchen garden from other areas of the [[pleasure ground]]. [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741) noted that kitchen and fruit gardens were for “service” while [[flower garden]]s were to be placed conspicuously “for pleasure, and ornament.” [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing's]] plan of a suburban villa residence offered one solution of screening the kitchen garden from the lawn by “thick groups of evergreen and deciduous trees.”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1850), 118, fig. 26, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> In garden periodicals and treatises of the 1840s, the kitchen garden saw a resurgence as an element of newly marketed plans for suburban domestic landscapes.

[[File:0377.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern style/Natural style|natural style]]” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25. A kitchen garden is indicated at “d.”]]
Other writers and practitioners emphasized the integration of the kitchen garden with other parts of the landscape. This general concept, first described by Stephen Switzer (1718) in ''Ichnographia rustica'', more often was referred to as an “ornamental farm” (see [[Ferme ornée]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] advised landowners to “lay off lots for the minor articles of husbandry. . . disposing them into a [[ferme ornée]] by interspersing occasionally the attributes of a garden.”<ref>Jefferson to Mr. Bacon, February 1, 1808, in Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 360, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero]. Also see Peter Martin, ''Pleasure Gardens of Virginia'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 148, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/ view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the broader aesthetic and political implications of the ferme orneé, also see Therese O’Malley, “Landscape Gardening in the Early National Period,” in ''Views and Visions, American Landscape Before 1830'', ed. Edward J. Nygren with Bruce Robertson (Washington, DC: Corcoran Gallery of Art, 1986), 135–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9UC9ADIB view on Zotero]; William A. Brogden, “The Ferme Ornée and Changing Attitudes to Agricultural Improvement,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (January 1983): 39–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2JXRQB64/ view on Zotero].</ref> This aesthetic was exemplified at two of the colonies’ most famous sites, [[Monticello]] and [[Mount Vernon]]. In each instance, the kitchen garden was visually screened from the [[view]]s from the house, but was nonetheless incorporated into the overall landscape design. For example, Vaughan’s [[Mount Vernon]] plan of 1787 [Fig. 8] depicted the kitchen and [[flower garden]]s symmetrically balanced, but the placement of the kitchen on the southern or “lower” side meant that it was visually much less prominent than the northern [[flower garden]] and its corresponding elaborate [[greenhouse]]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] plans (most of which were never executed) called for interspersing [[pavilion]]s, [[temple]]s, a [[grotto]], [[grove]], flower [[bed]]s, and other “ornamental” features throughout the grounds and linking them with [[walk]]s and roundabouts. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] (1804), however, admitted that “after all, the kitchen garden is not the place for ornaments of this kind, [[bower]]s and treillages suit that better.” The 19th-century legacy of this aesthetic of integration may be seen in plans such as that published by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) for the ''[[ferme ornée]]'' [Fig. 9].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Byrd, William, II, April 2, 1721, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd II, on the James River, VA (1958: 513)<ref>William Byrd, ''The London Diary, 1717–1721, and Other Writings'', ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QVA68DXT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . took a [[walk]] in the [[orchard]] and '''kitchen garden''' and ordered Captain C-p man some cider, who came to see the garden.”

*Anonymous, January 30, 1749, describing a [[plantation]] for sale near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“TO BE SOLD at Public Vendue. . . his [[plantation]]s on the Ashley-River and Wappoo-Creek. . . [with] a very large garden both for [[Pleasure_garden|pleasure]] and profit. . . [and] a great deal of fine asparagus, and all kinds of '''kitchen-garden''' stuff.”

*Kalm, Pehr, June 23, 1749, describing the vicinity of Albany, NY (1937: 1:355–56)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The farms were commonly built close to the river, on the hills. Each house had a little '''kitchen garden''' and a still lesser [[orchard]]. Some farms, however, had large gardens. The '''kitchen gardens''' yielded several kinds of pumpkins, watermelon and kidney beans. This year the trees had few or no apples on account of the frosty nights which had come in May and the drought which had continued throughout this summer.”

*Anonymous, January 28, 1771, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (''New York Gazette, and Weekly Mercury'')
:“To be sold at private Sale, the commodious house and large gardens, in the out ward of this city, known by the name of [[Vauxhall Garden|VAUXHALL]]; the situation extremely pleasant, having a very extensive [[view]] both up and down the North River. . . there are 36 lots and a half of ground laid out to great advantage in a pleasure, and '''kitchen garden''', well stock’d with fruit and other trees, vegetables, &c. and several [[summerhouse|summer houses]] which occasionally may be removed; the whole in extreme good order and repair, well fenced in, very fit for a large family, or to entertain the gentry, &c. as a [[public garden]], &c. The premises are on lease from Trinity Church, sixty one years of which are yet to come.”

*Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1775, in a letter to his son, Charles Carroll (of Carrollton), advising him on his garden (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)
:“Examine the Gardiner strictly as to. . . in what Branch He had been Chiefly employed, ye '''Kitchen''' or [[flower garden|Flower '''Garden'']]'.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 405)<ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777”, ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other. . . opposite to this Parade is a [[Court Yard]] & a large '''Kitchen Garden'''.”

*[[Vaughan, Samuel]], 1787, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Norton and Schrage-Norton 1985: 142)<ref>John D. Norton and Susanne A. Schrage-Norton, “The Upper Garden at Mount Vernon Estate—Its Past, Present, and Future: A Reflection on 18th Century Gardening. Phase II: The Complete Report” (Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association Library, 1985), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3R9Z6WZT view on Zotero].</ref>
:"Before the front of the house. . . there are [[lawn]]s, surrounded with gravel [[walk]]s 19 feet wide. with trees on each side the larger, for shade. outside the [[walk]]s trees & [[shrubberies]]. Parralel [sic] to each exterior side a ''Kitchen Gardens''. with a stately [[hot house]] on one side."

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing the Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . Beyond the Garden is a Spot as large as the Garden which would form an admirable [[orchard]] now improved as a '''Kitchen garden''', & has not an ill effect in its present state."

*Anonymous, May 31, 1791, describing a gardener for hire (''Maryland Journal, and Baltimore Advertiser'')
:“A Gardener, (A young Man) of great Knowledge and Experience, acquired in celebrated Gardens, in England and Ireland, would undertake to serve any Gentleman in That Capacity, either in a '''Kitchen''' or Flower '''Garden''', in the most faithful Manner, and on Terms the most moderate.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing a farm in Springmill, PA (1800: 1:19)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797,'' ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“No '''kitchen-garden''' can be in better order; the vine-props are already fixed in the ground.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 110–11)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978) , [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the Rocks’. . . a turning Tuscan temple. . . proportions of Pantheon, . . . at the Point, . . . build Demosthenes’s lantern. . . The '''kitchen garden''' is not the place for ornaments of this kind. [[bower]]s and treillages suit that better, & these [[temple]]s will be better disposed in the [[pleasure ground]]s.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>'''kitchen'''</u> '''garden''' & [[Orchard|Hort. yard]]/[[Orchard|<u>Orchyard</u>]], which I did not see, are, I suppose behind the Stables, & adjacent.”

*Boudinot, Elias, 1809, describing the garden of Stephen Higginson, Brookline, MA (quoted in Emmet 1996: 9)<ref>Alan Emmet, ''So Fine a Prospect: Historic New England Gardens'' (Hanover, NH University Press of New England, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WHJZ52ZW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds around [the house] laid out much in the [[English style]]. . . The '''Kitchen garden''' at a distance, & thro’ Which [[Walk]]s wind so as to extend them about a quarter of a mile, all bordered with Grapes & Flowers.”

*Waln, Robert Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231–32)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[flower garden]], extending from the vestibule to a dark green [[hedge]] of cedar, which separates it from the '''kitchen garden''', offers a rich repast to the eye. . . .
:“The '''kitchen garden''' comprises about one and an half acres of ground, and, under the care of a skilful horticulturalist, affords abundance of vegetables for the use of the patients. From this source alone, they are plentifully supplied, at the proper seasons, with a great variety of wholesome vegetables. Cauliflowers, and early vegetables of various kinds, are successfully reared in hot-[[bed]]s; and a sufficient quantity of tobacco for the restricted consumption of the convalescent patients, is also grown on the premises. Salutary herbs, and medicinal plants, so essential to the invalid, are cultivated in large quantities.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 439)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Nothing on these grounds pleased us more than the perfect order of the '''kitchen garden'''. It contains about two acres, and is indeed, a picture of culinary horticulture. There are 4 walks in the length and 9 in the breadth; all intersecting at right angles, and making 24 divisions, besides [[border]]s; and these divisions are cropt with vegetables in the finest order: each division having its own cropt (not intermixed as we see in most gardens), which is through every stage attended with the utmost regularity. The [[walk]]s gravelled and edged with boxwood neatly clipped; and all exhibiting a lovely specimen of the art.
:“A half acre of other ground is devoted to flowers and decorative [[shrub]]s. On the whole we can safely assert that there is not a finer kept, or better regulated '''kitchen garden''' on this continent. Indeed it will bear a comparison with European gardens of the highest cultivation, according to its size. And what is exceedingly gratifying, is, that the gardener is a native American, and has superintended the place 14 years; which shows at once capacity and constancy.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We drove round his '''kitchen-garden''' too, where he had taken pains to grow every kind of vegetable which will flourish in that climate.”

[[File:0378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. The “kitchen garden” is designated at “c.”]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing the grounds of Riverside Villa, Burlington, NJ (1849; repr., 1991: 117–18)<ref name="Downing 1849">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house, a, stands quite near the bank of the river, while one front commands fine water [[view]]s, and the other looks into the [[lawn]] or [[pleasure ground]]s, b. On one side of the area is the '''kitchen garden''', c, separated and concealed from the [[lawn]] by thick groups of evergreen and deciduous trees.” [Fig. 10]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing Cheshunt Cottage, property of William Harrison, near London, England (1849; repr., 1991: 517)<ref name="Downing 1849"></ref>
:“The masses of trees and [[shrub]]s are chiefly on the [[mount]] near the [[lake]], and along the margin which shuts out the '''kitchen-garden'''; and in these places they are planted in the [[gardenesque]] manner, so as to produce irregular groups of trees, with masses of evergreen and deciduous [[shrub]]s as undergrowth, intersected by glades of turf. They are scattered over the general surface of the [[lawn]], so as to produce a continually varying effect, as viewed from the [[walk]]s; and so as to disguise the boundary, and prevent the eye from seeing from one extremity of the grounds to the other, and thus ascertain their extent.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), December 1849, describing Oatlands, residence of D. F. Manice, Hempstead, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 529)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Oatlands, Hempstead, L.I., N.Y., the Residence of D. F. Manice, Esq.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 12 (December 1849): 529–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIRK5R8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house is a handsome building, in a kind of castellated gothic, standing about fifty feet from the road, with the [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse]], and [[flower garden]] on the left,—the '''kitchen garden''' and forcing-houses on the right,—and the [[lawn]] and [[pleasure ground]], in the rear of the house, separating it from the [[park]].”

*Leuchars, R. B., February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 50)<ref>R. B. Leuchars, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 2 (February 1850): 49–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QAEQ7TUN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The inclosed space, of about two acres, forms the '''kitchen garden''', which is finely laid out, trellised and planted with the finer sorts of pears, peaches, &c. These latter were on [[trellis]]es, and protected with spruce branches, from the frost, or rather from the hot sun that succeeds it.”

===Citations===
*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 461)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As before I shewed you that the beautie of any worthy house is much the more commended for the pleasant situation of the [[flower garden|garden of flowers]], or of pleasure, to be in the sight and full [[prospect]] of all the chiefe and choisest roomes of the house; so contrariwise, your '''herbe''' ['''or kitchen'''] '''garden''' should bee on the one or other side of the house, and those best and choyse roomes: for the many different sents that arise from the herbes, as Cabbages, Onions, &c. are scarce well pleasing to perfume the lodgings of any house; and the many overtures and breaches as it were of many of the [[bed]]s thereof, which must necessarily bee, are also as little pleasant to the sight.”

*Wood, William, 1634, “Of the herbs, Fruits, Woods, Waters, and Minerals,” in ''New England’s Prospect'' (1634; repr., 1977: 36, 58)<ref>William Wood, ''New England’s Prospect'', ed. Alden T. Vaughan (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3AHWK8VH/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground affords very good '''kitchen gardens''' for turnips, parsnips, carrots, radishes, and pumpions, muskmellon, isquoterquashes, cucumbers, onions, and whatsoever grows well in England grows as well there, many things being better and larger. . . [in Dorchester] very good arable grounds and hay ground, fair cornfields and pleasant gardens, with '''kitchen gardens'''.”

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Kitchen-Gardens''''' are chiefly for ''Kitchen'' and Edible Plants.
:“''Potagery'', is a Term signifying all sorts of Herbs or ''Kitchen-plants'', and all that concerns them, considered in general.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“GARDEN. . .
:“''Gardens'' are distinguished into ''flower-gardens'', ''fruit-gardens'', and '''''kitchen-gardens''''': the first for [[Pleasure_garden|pleasure]], and ornament; and therefore placed in the most conspicuous parts: the two latter for service; and therefore made in by-places.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 724, 726–27)<ref name="Miller">Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''KITCHEN-GARDEN''': The '''kitchen-garden''' should always be situated on one Side of the House, so as not to appear in Sight; but must be placed near the Stables, for the Conveniency of Dung. . .
:“As to the Figure of the Ground, that is of no great Moment, since in Distribution of the [[Quarter]]s all Irregularities may be hid; tho’, if you are at full Liberty, an exact [[Square]], or an Oblong, is preferable to any other Figure. . .
:“Then you should proceed to dividing the Ground out into [[Quarter]]s, which must be proportion’d to the Largeness of the Garden; but I would advise, never to make them too small, whereby your Ground will be lost in [[Walk]]s; and the Quarters being inclosed by [[Espalier]]s of Fruit-trees, the Plants therein will draw up slender, and never arrive to half the Size as they would do in a more open Exposure.
:“The [[Walk]]s of this Garden should be also proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, which in a small Garden should be six Feet, but in a large one ten; and on each Side of the [[Walk]] should be allow’d a [[Border]] three or four Feet wide between the [[Espalier]] and the [[Walk]], whereby the Distance between the Espaliers will be greater, and the [[Border]]s being kept constantly work’d and manur’d, will be of great Advantage to the Roots of the Trees; and in these [[Border]]s may be sown some small Sallad, or any other Herbs, which do not continue long, or root deep; so that the Ground will not be lost. . .
:“The best Figure for the [[Quarter]]s to be disposed into, is a [[Square]], or an Oblong, where the Ground is adapted to such a Figure; otherwise they may be triangular, or of any other Shape, which will be most advantageous to the Ground.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''KI’TCHENGARDEN'''. ''n.s''. [''kitchen'' and ''garden''.] Garden in which esculent plants are produced.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1757, ''A General Treatise of Agriculture, both Philosophical and Practical'' (quoted in Dillon 1987b: 135)<ref>Clarissa F. Dillom, ““A Large, an Useful, and a Grateful Field”: Eighteenth-Century Kitchen Gardens in Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Uses of the Plants, and Their Place in Women’s Work” (PhD diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJASV475 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Rule for methodizing and assorting a parcel of ground containing 60 rods, for the use of a family of seven or eight persons, or for providing a '''kitchen-garden''' with necessaries for twenty or thirty in family.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref name="Miller"></ref>
:“Therefore, before the general Plan of the [[Pleasure garden]] is settled, a proper Piece of Ground should be chosen for this Purpose, and the plan so adapted, as that the '''kitchen garden''' may not be offensive to the sight, which may be effected by proper [[Plantation]]s of [[Shrub]]s to screen the [[wall]]s; and through these [[Shrub]]ts may be continued some winding [[walk]]s, which will have as good an effect as those which are now commonly made in gardens for Pleasure only. In the choice of the Situation, if it does not obstruct the views of better objects, or shut out any material [[Prospect]], there can be no Objection to placing it at a reasonable distance from the house or offices.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''KITCHEN-GARDEN''', a principal district of garden-ground allotted for the culture of all kinds of esculent herbs and roots for culinary purposes, &c.
:“A '''Kitchen-garden''' may be said to be the most useful and consequential part of gardening; since its products plentifully supply our tables, with the necessary support of life. . . This garden is not only useful for raising all sorts of esculent roots and herbs, but also all the choicer sorts of tree and shrub-fruits, &c. both on [[espalier]]s, wall-trees, and standards. . .
:“As to the place of disposition of this garden respecting the other districts, if it is designed principally as a '''Kitchen''' and fruit-'''garden''', distinct from the other parts, and there is room for choice of situation, it should generally be placed detached entirely from the [[pleasure-ground]]; also as much out of view of the habitation as possible, at some reasonable distance, either behind it, or towards either side thereof, so as its [[wall]]s or other [[fence]]s may not obstruct any desirable [[prospect]] either of the [[pleasure-garden]], [[park]], fields, or the adjacent country. . .
:“But as in many places they are limited to a moderate compass of ground, in others have scope enough, and require but a moderate extent of garden; that in either case, have often the '''Kitchen''', fruit, and pleasure-'''garden''' all in one; having the principal [[walk]]s spacious, and the [[border]]s next them of considerable breadth; the back part of them planted with a range of [[espalier]] fruit-trees, surrounding the [[quarter]]s; the front with flowers and small [[shrub]]s; and the inner quarters for the growth of the Kitchen-vegetables, &c. . .
:“The ground must be divided into compartments for regularity and convenience. A [[border]] must be carried all round the boundry-[[wall]]s, not less than four, but if six, eight or ten feet wide, the better, for the benefit of the [[wall]]-trees. . . next to this [[border]] a [[walk]] should be continued also all round the garden, of due width. . . proceed to divide the interior parts into two, four, or more principal divisions and [[walk]]s, if its extent be large.”

*Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 110–11, 155–56)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“GARDEN. . .
:“I consider the '''kitchen garden''' as of very considerable importance, as pot-herbs, sallads, and roots of various kinds, are useful in housekeeping. Having a plenty of them at hand, a family will not be so likely to run into the errour, which is too common in this country, of eating flesh in too great a proportion for health. Farmers, as well as others, should have '''kitchen-gardens''': And they need not grudge the labour of tending them, which may be done at odd intervals of time, which may otherwise chance to be consumed in needless loitering. . .
:“'''KITCHEN-GARDEN''', a garden to produce vegetables for the kitchen. . .
:“I cannot approve of the quantity of land he [Mr. Miller] proposes to be laid out for a garden. Four or five acres I should think three or four times too much for almost any person in this country. Half an acre will be sufficient for almost any family, unless we except those who have independent fortunes.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:42)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“the '''''kitchen garden''''' should be adorned with a sprinkling of the more ordinary decorations, to skirt the quarters, which should be chiefly those of the most powerful sweet scents.”

*Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 11, 150–51)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If in the '''kitchen garden''' for Standards, I would always recommend the planting of Dwarfs. . . If the garden is laid out with crosswalks, or foot-paths, about three feet wide, make the [[border]]s six feet broad, and plant the trees in the middle of them. . .
:“[[Wall]]s of '''kitchen gardens''' should be from ten to fourteen feet high. . .
:“When bricks can be had, I would advise never to build garden [[wall]]s of stone; as it is by no means so favourable to the ripening of fruit as brick. When a '''kitchen garden''' contains four acres, or upwards, it may be intersected by two or more cross [[wall]]s, which will greatly augment the quantity of fruit, and also keep the garden warm and shelter it greatly from high winds.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 127, 181)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the '''kitchen garden'''. . . might easily be concealed from the park by a [[shrub|shrubbery]] kept low. . .
:“The many interesting circumstances that lead us into a '''''kitchen garden''''', the many inconveniences which I have witnessed from the removal of old gardens to a distance, and the many instances in which I have been desired to bring them back to their original situations, have led me to conclude that a '''kitchen garden''' cannot be too near, if it be not seen from the house.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 16)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Espalier]]s. . . are commonly arranged in a single row in the [[border]]s, round the boundaries of the principal divisions of the '''kitchen-garden'''; there, serving a double or treble purpose, both profitable, useful, and ornamental. They produce large fine fruit plentifully, without taking up much room, and being in a close range, [[hedge]]-like; they in some degree shelter the esculent crops in the [[quarter]]s; and having [[border]]s immediately under them each side, afford different aspects for different plants, and also they afford shelter in winter, forwardness to their south-border crops in spring, and shade in summer.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 1:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>
:“GARDENING. . .
:“It is also fashionable to make a separation between the [[pleasure garden|pleasure]] and the '''kitchen garden'''. This may indeed preserve the few shrivelled fruit which the latter, on a diminutive scale, is capable of affording, from the hands of rapacious visitors; but the range of the proprietor becomes by this appointment most deplorably limited and diminished; and the vegetables will want what alone can render them fine and flourishing, the free circulation of air.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 309, 451, 455–58, 464–65, 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1582. ''Of fixed structures'', the brick [[wall]], both as a [[fence]], and retainer of heat, may be reckoned essential to every '''kitchen-garden'''; and in many cases the mode of building them hollow may be advantageously adopted. . .
:“2355. ''To unite the agreeable with the useful'' is an object common to all the departments of gardening. The '''kitchen-garden''', the [[orchard]], the [[nursery]], and the forest, are all intended as scenes of recreation and visual enjoyment, as well as of useful culture; and enjoyment is the avowed object of the [[flower-garden]], [[shrubbery]], and [[pleasure-ground]]. . .
:“2382. ''The situation of the '''kitchen-garden''', considered artificially or relatively to the other parts of a residence'', should be as near the mansion and the stable-offices, as is consistent with beauty, convenience, and other arrangements. Nicol observes, ‘In a great place, '''the kitchen-garden''' should be so situated as to be convenient, and, at the same time, be concealed from the house. . .’
:“2383. ''Sometimes we find the '''kitchen-garden''' placed immediately in front of the house'', which Nicol ‘considers the most awkward situation of any. . . Generally speaking, it should be placed in the rear or flank of the house, by which means the [[lawn]] may not be broken and rendered unshapely where it is required to be most complete. The necessary traffic with this garden, if placed in front, is always offensive. . .’
:“2388. ''Main entrance to the garden''. Whatever be the situation of a '''kitchen-garden''', whether in reference to the mansion or the variations of the surface, it is an important object to have the main entrance on the south side, and next to that, on the east or west. The object of this is to produce a favorable first impression on the spectator, by his viewing the highest and best [[wall]] (that on the north side) in front; and which is of still greater consequence, all the [[hot-house]]s, pits, and frames in that direction. . .
:“2389. ''Bird’s-eye view of the garden''. When the grounds of a residence are much varied, the general [[view]] of the '''kitchen-garden''' will unavoidably be looked down on or up to from some of the [[walk]]s or drives, or from open glades in the [[lawn]] or [[park]]. Some arrangement will therefore be requisite to place the garden, or so to dispose of [[plantation]]s that only favorable [[view]]s can be obtained of its area. To get a bird’s-eye view of it from the north, or from a point in a line with the north wall, will have as bad an effect as the [[view]] of its north elevation, in which all its ‘baser parts’ are rendered conspicuous. . .
:“2396. ''The extent of the '''kitchen-garden''''' must be regulated by that of the place, of the family, and of their style of living. In general, it may be observed, that few country-[[seat]]s have less than an acre, or more than twelve acres in regular cultivation as '''kitchen-garden''', exclusive of the [[orchard]] and [[flower-garden]]. From one and a half to five acres may be considered as the common quantities enclosed by [[wall]]s. . .
:“2401. ''The '''kitchen-garden''' should be sheltered by [[plantation]]s''; but should by no means be shaded, or be crowded by them. If walled round, it should be open and free on all sides, or at least to the south-east and west, that the [[wall]]s may be clothed with fruit-trees on both sides. . .
:“2431. In regard to ''form'', almost all the authors above quoted [London, Wise, Evelyn, Hitt, Lawrence] agree in recommending a [[square]]. . . or oblong, as the most convenient for a ['''kitchen'''] '''garden'''; but Abercrombie proposes a long octagon, in common language, an oblong with the angles cut off. . .
:“2436. ''[[Wall]]s'' are built round a garden chiefly for the production of fruits. A '''kitchen-garden''', Nicol observes, considered merely as such, may be as completely fenced and sheltered by [[hedge]]s as by [[wall]]s, as indeed they were in former times, and examples of that mode of [[Fence|fencing]] are still to be met with. But in order to obtain the finer fruits, it becomes necessary to build [[wall]]s, or to erect pales and railings. . .
:“7260. ''The '''kitchen-garden''''' should be placed near to, and connected with the [[flower-garden]], with concealed entrances and roads leading to the domestic offices for culinary purposes, and to the stables and farm-buildings for manure.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 19, 1829, ''An Address, Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16–17)<ref>H. A. S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The natural divisions of Horticulture are the '''Kitchen Garden''', Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green House]]s, the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[Landscape_gardening|Landscape]], or [[Picturesque]] Gardening.
:“The '''Kitchen Garden''' is an indispensable appendage to every rural establishment, from the stately mansion of the wealthy, to the log hut of the adventurous pioneer, on the [[border]]s of the wilderness. In its rudest and most simple form, it is the nucleus, and miniature sample of all others, having small compartments of the products of each, which are gradually extended, until the whole estate combines those infinitely various characteristics, and assumes that imposing aspect, which constitutes what is graphically called the [[picturesque]].”

*Anonymous, October 9, 1829, “Gardens” (''New England Farmer'' 8: 92)<ref>Anonymous, “Gardens,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 8, no. 12 (October 9, 1829): 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VZQ4XTDV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“People in general are too inattentive to that part of domestic economy which is denominated ''gardening''. We do not mean by this term, any of the higher branches of this useful, as well as ornamental art, but choose to confine our remarks to the simple subject of '''kitchen gardens'''.
:“Within our own observation, these have been unwisely and unaccountably neglected by the agricultural community. That which might be easily made the most productive of profit, as well as luxury and comfort of any part of a farm, is too often the most neglected, and the least profitable. . .
:“We have said nothing of flowers and ornamental [[shrub]]s, because we address these remarks to practical and laboring men. These are indeed matters of luxury, and when they are properly cultivated, evince a fine taste, and deservedly attract the attention and admiration of those who witness them. But the cultivation of these have nothing to do with making a useful '''kitchen garden''', and it is to this, we repeat, we confine these observations.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 1–2)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . some important matters essential to the good management of a '''Kitchen Garden'''. . .
:“To this end, he [the gardener] may form a [[border]] round the whole garden, from five to ten feet wide, according to the size of the piece of land; next to this [[border]], a [[walk]] may be made from three to six feet wide; the centre part of the garden may be divided into [[square]]s, on the sides of which a [[border]] may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c. The outside [[border]]s facing the East, South and West, will be useful for raising the earliest fruits and vegetables, and the North [[border]] being shady and cool, will serve for raising, and pricking out such young plants, slips and cuttings as require to be screened from the intense heat of the sun.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 96, 208, 228, 302–3, 334–35)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[BORDER]]. . .
:“1. ''Fruit-[[border]]s''.—Next to the [[wall]] should be a path three feet wide, for the convenience of pruning and gathering. Next to this path should be the border, eight or nine feet wide; and then the broad [[walk]], which should always encompass the main compartments of the '''kitchen garden'''. . .
:“[[EDGING]]. This for the '''kitchen-garden''' and all other places where neatness, not ornament, is the object, may consist of useful herbs, the strawberry &c. . .
:“[[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]]. . .
:“it is usual to arrange it so that the '''kitchen garden''' is immediately beyond it. . . A very common proportion for a small cottage is, the [[flower garden]] being one-fourth the size of the '''kitchen garden'''.”
:“[HORTICULTURE. . .]
:“The '''kitchen garden''' is an indispensable appendage to every rural establishment. In its simplest form, it is the nucleus of all others. Containing small compartments for the culture of esculent vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants, these may be gradually extended, until the whole estate assumes the imposing aspect of [[picturesque]] or landscape scenery. . . “ '''KITCHEN GARDEN'''.
:“''Situation of the '''Kitchen Garden'''''.—In selecting the site, and in erecting the inclosures, as well as in the after preparation of the soil, the ingenuity and science of the horticulturist are essentially requisite. He will be called upon to rectify the defects and to improve the advantages which nature affords; for it is very seldom that the natural situation of a mansion, or the plan of the grounds, allows him to construct it in the most appropriate spot.
:“A gentle declination towards the south, with a point to the east, is the most favourable aspect; to the north-east the least so: in short, any point to the south is to be preferred to one verging towards the north. A high [[wall]] should inclose it to the north and east, gradually lowering to the south and west. If, however, a [[plantation]] or building on the east side, at some distance, shelter it from the piercing winds, which blow from that [[quarter]], and yet are at such a distance as not to intercept the rays of the rising sun, it is much to be preferred to heightening the [[wall]]. It is a still greater desideratum to have a similar shelter, or that of a hill on the south-west and north-west points. The garden is best situated at a moderate elevation; the summit of a hill, or the bottom of a valley, is equally to be avoided. It is a fact not very difficult of explanation, that low lying ones are the most liable to suffer from blights and severe frosts; those much above the level of the sea are obviously most exposed to inclement winds.
[[File:1812.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, George William Johnson, “Plan of a Kitchen Garden,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', edited by David Landreth, p. 335, fig. 95.]]
:“''Size of the '''Kitchen Garden'''''.—To determine the appropriate size of a '''kitchen garden''' is impossible. It ought to be proportionate to the size of the family, their partiality for vegetables, and the fertility of the soil.
:“It may serve as some criterion to state, that the management of a '''kitchen garden''' occupying the space of an acre, affords ample employment for a gardener, who will also require an assistant at the busiest period of the year. In general, a family of four persons, exclusive of servants, requires a full rood of open '''kitchen garden'''.
:“''Plan of the '''Kitchen Garden'''''.—In forming the ground plan of a '''kitchen garden''', utility is the main object. The form and aspect represented in the accompanying sketch . . . are, perhaps, as unobjectionable as any, since none of the [[wall]]s face the north, and consequently the best aspects are obtained for the trees. A narrow path two feet wide should extend round, adjoining the wall, and then a [[border]] about ten feet, the widest on those broad sides that face the south, which not only is beneficial to the trees, but convenient for raising early crops, &c. Next to this should be walk five feet in width, likewise extending round the area. [Fig. 11]
:“Respecting the inclosure of the '''kitchen garden''', see ''[[Hedge]]s'' and ''[[Wall]]s''.”

[[File:0942.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, “Design for a Suburban Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 380)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The whole garden is surrounded by a [[wall]], which is covered with fruit trees trained. . .
:“At the end of this [[wall]], we come to the semicircular ''Italian [[arbor]]'', D. This [[arbor]], which is very light and pleasing in effect, is constructed of slender posts, rising 8 or 9 feet above the surface, from the tops of which strong transverse strips are nailed, as shown in the plan. . .
:“Beyond this [[arbor]], and at the termination of the central [[walk]], is a [[vase]], [[Rustic_style|rustic]] basket, or other ornamental object, ''e''. The semi-circle, embraced within the [[arbor]], is a space laid with regular [[bed]]s. This is devoted to '''kitchen garden''' crops, as is also all the outside [[border]] behind it. The other [[border]]s (under the vines, E,) may be cropped with strawberries, or lettuces, and other small culinary vevetables [''sic''] with a narrow grouping of flowers near the [[walk]] or not, as the taste of the owner may dictate. The small trees, planted in rows on the [[border]], between the [[walk]], E, and the ornamental [[lawn]], are dwarf pears and apples.” [Fig. 12]

*Kidd, George, April 1849, “A Hint on Kitchen Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 471)<ref> Geo. Kidd, “A Hint on Kitchen Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 10 (April 1849): 471–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9G2UB2XS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is desirable, in many respects, that the '''kitchen-garden''' should be near the barn-[[yard]], and so arranged that the bulk of the work may be performed with the plough.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1425.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper” and “The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), 124.

Image:1394.jpg|Batty Langley, “All the Geometrical Diagrams of the Problems contain'd in the first Part,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. I.

Image:1398.jpg|Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant Kitchen Garden Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including [[Walk]]s'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1385.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a [[Park]],” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII.

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

Image:1110.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787. “16. '''Kitchen Gardens'''.”

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The “'''kitchen garden'''” is designated at “e,” at some distance from the main house.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, '''Kitchen Garden''' [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA. The small circle in the middle of the '''Kitchen Garden''' is marked Bason.

Image:0728.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Plan of Springland'', c. 1800. "'''Kitchen garden'''" is inscribed left of center.

Image:0601.jpg|Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers live in the state of Ohio, November 7, 1807. '''Kitchen garden''' inscribed on lower center right.

Image:1237.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''General Plan of a Marine Asylum and Hospital proposed to be built at Washington'', 1812. '''Kitchen gardens''' are indicated on the far left of the plan.

Image:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Believers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835. '''Kitchen gardens''' right of center, at top.

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. "The '''''kitchen garden'''''. . . occupies all the space between ''B B''. . . "

Image:1812.jpg|George William Johnson, “Plan of a '''Kitchen Garden''',” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (1847), 335, fig. 95.

Image:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years' improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. The "'''kitchen garden''' adjacent at ''h''”.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern style/Natural style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25. A '''kitchen garden''' is indicated at “''d''.”

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. The “'''kitchen garden'''” is designated at “c.”

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of a [[Picturesque]] farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27. ". . . the '''kitchen garden''' at ''e''."

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Flower and '''Kitchen Garden''' (25)."
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1705.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Kitchen garden''', in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0239.jpg|Christian Gottlieb Reuter, ''Der UpLand Gartten'', 1759.

Image:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Buddington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

Image:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “[[View]] of the [[seat]] of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.ts,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp 648.

Image:0909.jpg|Barthélémy Lafon, “Plan de l'Habitation de Feu Jn. Bte. de Marigny Pour servir au partage des héritiers. . . ,” September 15, 1806. A '''kitchen garden''' is located at the extreme left of the plan.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0570.jpg|Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, ''Plan of Fort Erie, in Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale'' (Paris: A. Bertrand, 1826).

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many [[Fence]]s'', c. 1847. A '''kitchen garden''' can be seen in the center of the image between the two buildings.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]

Flower garden

2021-04-12T13:30:39Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Border]], [[Edging]], [[Lawn]], [[Parterre]], [[Pleasure ground]], [[Shrubbery]], [[Walk]]

==History==

The meaning of the term flower garden remained relatively unchanged between 1650 and 1850, and the placement of the flower garden within a designed landscape, as well as the plants and their arrangement contained therein, helped distinguish it from other garden features. Although flowers might appear in [[kitchen garden]]s, the kitchen garden carried connotations of utility while the flower garden signified ornament and pleasure. Moreover, the flower garden required specialized care and expertise, as implied by Charles Carroll (of Annapolis) in his 1775 query about the training of a potential gardener.

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Nancarrow, "Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The flower garden, “g,” is located at some distance from the main house.]]
The siting of the flower garden distinguished it from the [[kitchen garden]] and [[orchard]], which, as mainly utilitarian features, were often situated beyond the [[view]] of the main house. Flower gardens, in keeping with their ornamental function, were often placed in relative proximity to the most prestigious rooms of the house. In this location they could be viewed from the house and could act as adjuncts to reception and entertaining rooms. Some 18th-century British treatise writers stated that the flower garden should be situated at the “back-front” of the house, meaning the area adjacent to the rear of the house and often just below the [[terrace]]. Such a location also provided a degree of shelter conducive to nurturing plants.

Flower gardens also could be placed at some distance from the house. Batty Langley (1728), for example, advised situating the flower garden within a [[wilderness]]. At the [[seat]] of John Penn, near Philadelphia, the flower garden was located in a wooded area away from the mansion [Fig. 1]. This placement of the flower garden distinguished it from the [[parterre]], which, typically in the British and European context, was placed adjacent to the house. The 18th-century [[parterre]] used common plants, whereas the 18th-century flower garden was often devoted to exotic, unusual, or rare plants; hence [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) expressed disappointment in the flower garden at [[Mount Vernon]] because it contained “nothing very rare.” This “neat” layout arranged with precision met with [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe’s]] sarcasm as he described a [[parterre]] as “the expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather’s pedantry.” A sketch of [[John Bartram|John Bartram's]] famous garden depicts the botanist’s care and interest in “new flowers,” which were separated from the “common flower garden” [Fig. 2].
[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2,[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758. “New flower garden” upper left quadrant of the garden.]]

In England, long narrow [[bed]]s were associated with florists’ gardens, which were devoted to the cultivation of rare or “choice” flowers, also known as “florists’ flowers.” [[Bernard M’Mahon|Bernard M'Mahon's]] prescription in 1806 for a flower garden composed of narrow [[bed]]s and planted with bulbous and tuberous rooted flowers, “each sort principally in separate [[bed]]s,” suggests this English florist tradition.

By the 18th century in England, regular, [[Geometric_style|geometric layout]] gave way to a new type of flower garden: island [[bed]]s set into a [[lawn]]. Isaac Ware (1756) proposed planting flowers so as to resemble a nosegay emerging out of green [[lawn]].<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), 651–52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV/ view on Zotero].</ref> The island (or kidney-shaped [[bed]]), composed of flowers arranged in concentric circles or in a grid, gradually became a popular mode of flower garden design in 18th- and 19th-century English gardens.<ref>For more about the development of the 18th-century flower garden in the British context, including designs, plant materials, and its distinction from other planting features, see Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]. Also see John Harris, “Some Imperfect Ideas on the Genesis of the Loudonesque Flower Garden,” in ''John Claudius Loudon and the Early Nineteenth Century in Great Britain'', ed. Elisabeth B. MacDougall (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1980), 45–58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EX6XIP6E view on Zotero].</ref> Such practices were adopted in America in the 19th century.

[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826) attempted to order and clarify the increasing profusion of flower garden types by establishing a typology. For small gardens, he recommended a “regular figure” enclosed by a [[hedge]]. For larger gardens, Loudon recommended what he called an “irregular,” or alternately, a “[[Modern_style|modern” style]] garden, characterized by small groups or “garden scenes” of flowers set in the [[lawn]] and interspersed with [[shrub]]s. Loudon, in describing the modern garden, addressed an issue that had emerged for treatise writers of his time. As [[shrubbery]] developed as a garden feature, and as flowering [[shrub]]s were increasingly included in flower gardens, the “lines of distinction between the Flower Garden, the [[Shrubbery]], and the [[Pleasure Ground]],” as John Abercrombie and James Mean observed in ''The Practical Gardener'' (1817), “can neither be positively marked, nor constantly observed.” Indeed, writer Basil Hall (1828) conflated flowering [[shrub]]s in [[shrubbery]] and those in the flower garden when describing a [[plantation]] in the South.

Loudon outlined four types or classes of flower gardens. The first was the “general” or “mingled” flower garden, one in which graduated rows of flowers and shrubs were planted in a loose quincunx pattern that allowed taller species to rise up behind shorter species. In ''An Encyclopaedia'', Loudon included a plan for planting a flower garden with respect to alternating the colors and sizes of plants, as well as the time of the plants’ flowering. The second type, the “select” flower garden, included only “particular kinds of plants,” that were cultivated or hybridized flowers grown by [[nurseries]] or florists, which were often massed in irregular drifts. The “changeable” flower garden, the third type, plunged plants (presumably [[greenhouse]]- or [[hothouse]]-raised) in their pots to correspond with seasonal changes. The final type, the [[botanic garden|“botanic” flower garden]], had plants “arranged with reference to botanical study.” [[A. J. Downing]] similarly attempted to systematize the flower garden in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), in which he discussed the “irregular” flower garden, the “English” flower garden, and the “old French” flower garden.

[[File:1050.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.]]
The 19th century witnessed another style of flower gardening: the [[geometric style|“geometric” garden]], as described in Downing’s 1847 article in the ''Horticulturist''. The flower [[bed]] was divided into square or rectangular [[plot]]s and subdivided into geometric figures. This manner of gardening had persisted since the 18th century and harkened back to such European Renaissance patterns as knots or cutwork [[parterre]]s. The 1847 redesign of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House flower garden in imitation of a Gothic stained-glass window was suggestive of this fashion [Fig. 3].

[[Greenhouse]]s or [[conservatory|conservatories]] were often located near or in flower gardens as they allowed for easy transport of plants. (See, for example, C. M. Hovey's 1839 description of Charles Phelps’s residence in Stonington, Connecticut.) At [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], on the Hudson in New York, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1847) placed the flower garden in front of the [[conservatory]], echoing the “Moorish” character of this building with a flower garden designed to resemble an oriental carpet.

In addition to design and plant material, objects placed within the garden—[[seat]]s, [[statue]]s, [[arbor]]s, and other decorative structures—contributed to the style of flower gardens. “Figures of [[statue|statuary]] work of every character and description” characterized the “[[French_style|French]]” style according to [[Robert Buist]] (1841), whereas [[Jane Loudon]] (1845) included [[statue]]s as well as [[vase]]s, [[seat]]s, [[basin]]s of water, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] baskets, and [[rock-work]] in the “modern English” flower garden. Edward Sayers, in ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838), proposed a native American flower garden to be accompanied by a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]] and [[rockery]] in addition to a [[pond]], [[shrubbery]], and [[walk]].

Given the plethora of styles and types of flower gardens in the nineteenth century, treatise writers emphasized the need for homeowners to select a mode of flower garden design that suited the characteristics of their house’s site and architecture, as well as the associative readings desired by the owners. [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] explanation (1849) for why an “enthusiastic lover of the [[picturesque]]” whose residence was in the so-called “Rural Gothic” style would chose an “irregular” flower garden is an excellent example of this design logic.

Flower gardens often carried associations of status, wealth, and taste because of the expense of skilled gardening and of rare flower species.<ref>Similar to the decorative objects and elaborate furnishings found in middle- and upper-class drawing rooms, flower gardens offered displays of the skill, taste, and wealth of their owners and thus were part of the patterns of consumption and consumerism that shaped much of 18th- and 19th-century culture. For more about consumerism in early America, see Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds., ''Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia for the U.S. Capitol Historical Society, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q476GSSS view on Zotero]; and Carole Shammas, ''The Pre-Industrial Consumer in England and America'' (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USWXUCRF view on Zotero].</ref> Thomas Hancock in 1736, for example, fretted over the cost when he ordered plants, instructing that he wanted “Particular, Curious Things not of a high price.” Hancock’s concern about the potential financial liability of flowers was warranted. In 1737, for an order shipped from England of a “Baskett of flowers” (which, in fact, had arrived dead), he paid £26—a sizable amount of money considering that such luxury goods as lace, muslin, and silk could be purchased for a few pennies a yard.<ref>See U. P. Hedrick, ''A History of Horticulture in America to 1860'' (1950; repr., Portland, OR.: Timber Press, 1988), 48–50, for a history of Hancock’s plant purchases, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7ZAW9D6 view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the exchange of goods between America and England in the colonial period, see T. H. Breen, “An Empire of Goods: The Anglicization of Colonial America, 1690–1776,” ''Journal of British Studies'' 25 (October 1986): 467–99, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QZ7TI2Z view on Zotero].</ref> While the cost of flowers declined with the growth of [[nurseries]] in America, prices remained relatively high compared to other goods and services.<ref>For a discussion of the emergence and subsequent growth of nurseries in late 18th- and early 119th-century America as well as listings of flowers then available, see Hedrick 1988, 71–72, 113–14, 158–66, 197–214, 242–54, 270–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7ZAW9D6 view on Zotero], and Patricia Tice, “Industry in the Garden,” in ''Victorian Landscape in America: The Garden as Artifact'', ed. Robert R. Gutowski (Philadelphia: Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, 1989), 20–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZRD44B5K/ view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the flowers cultivated in American gardens, see Peggy Cornett Newcomb, “Plants of American Gardens,” in ''Keeping Eden: A History of Gardening in America'', ed. Walter T. Punch (Boston: Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1992), 120–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XKKUTM7/ view on Zotero]. Historic listings of available flowers can be obtained from seed catalogues; see, for example, those for the firms of Ellwanger & Barry at the Mount Hope Botanic Garden and Nurseries (Rochester, NY) and Hovey and Company (Boston, MA). Collections of seed catalogues can be found at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, and the University of Delaware Library. For an overview of the Delaware collection, see Gary E. Yela, compiler, ''Suitable for Cultivation: Horticultural Collections at the University of Delaware Library'' (Newark: University of Delaware Library, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4TX955TS view on Zotero]. For plant lists, also see books published by nurserymen and gardeners, such as John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'' (Georgetown, DC: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M view on Zotero]; Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero]; Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero]; Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero]; William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero]; and Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref> For example, in 1839, the Ellwanger and Barry Nursery in Rochester, New York, sold a China Rose for $2.50 at a time when the average wage for [[nursery]] labor was $1.50 per day.<ref>Patricia M. Tice, ''Gardening in America, 1830–1910'' (Rochester, NY: Strong Museum, 1984), 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QWJ9RQJU view on Zotero].</ref> In 1850, Henry C. Bowen of Woodstock, Connecticut, a successful dry goods merchant, bought a tree peony for $1.00, the equivalent of the daily wage that he paid his laborers.<ref>Papers of Henry C. Bowen, Landscape Projects 1847–1853, Box 2, Folder 10, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Boston, MA.</ref> Thus the flower garden proposed by treatise writer Joseph Breck in 1851 at the cost of $10.00 dollars was the equivalent to approximately ten days’ salary for a laborer. Breck’s recommendation of old-fashioned plants as opposed to new hybrids or florists’ flowers may have been, in part, an attempt to decrease the cost of a flower garden.

The high cost of flowers enhanced the cachet of flower gardens. Despite her protests that she had neither taste nor the time, Caroline Bell (1831) expended much energy to create a garden that she hoped would be “pleasing to the eye or comfortable.” Treatise writers echoed and encouraged such attention. Charles Marshall (1799) wrote that no trouble should be spared in cultivating the “choicest gifts of Flora”; Thomas Green Fessenden (1828) claimed that “flower gardens were ever held in high estimation by persons of taste”; and C. M. Hovey (1844) insisted that “the flower garden is an appendage to almost every residence” and therefore should be planted in “a judicious manner” in order to be “an object of importance.” Fessenden also capitalized upon the notion of the flower garden as an index of taste when he proposed that young ladies cultivate flower gardens to learn neatness and correct taste and ideas. Writer M. A. W. (1840) commended flower gardening as a test of the gardener’s taste and skill. This didactic aspect of the flower garden resided in the link between gardening and moral behavior. Fessenden (1828) argued that by caring for plants young persons could learn that “every moral virtue must be protected, and every corrupt passion and propensity subdued.” Walter Elder (1849) implied that flower gardens could keep at bay the physical and moral corruption that he associated with the urban environment. Robert Squibb (1727; repr., 1827), in keeping with his notion that flowers were an expression of divinity, believed that flowers could ennoble, “refine,” and comfort their beholders and caretakers. Consistent with these discourses, many 19th-century institutions responsible for the care of individuals (including orphanages and insane asylums) kept flower gardens.

The labor and exercise associated with flower gardens resulted in their promotion as a source of healthy activity. Fessenden argued that flower gardens crossed class lines and appealed to everyone, and he described tending gardens as particularly suitable exercise for older citizens. Elder, in touting gardening for city dwellers, stipulated that no other activity could “more plainly bespeak” the “health and happiness” of the family. Sayers (1838) also argued that flower gardens were particularly healthful for city dwellers, basing his argument upon the notion that gardening helped to dispel the noxious vapors that condensed and settled on the ground.

Such texts helped to imbue flower gardens with pastoral, anti-urban associations and encouraged the recognition of the feature as a sign of the transformation of the American “[[wilderness]]” into a cultivated, even utopian, landscape. As was written in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' in 1844, flower gardens suggested to the traveler “the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Lawson, John, 1709, describing North Carolina<ref>John Lawson, ''A New Voyage to Carolina; Containing the Exact Description and Natural History of That Country: Together with the Present State Thereof'' (London: n.p., 1709), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UZGRN2P3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Flower-Garden''' in ''Carolina'' is as yet arriv’d but to a very poor and jejune Perfection. We have only two sorts of Roses; the Clove-July-Flowers, Violets, Prince Feather, and ''Tres Colores''.”

*Hancock, Thomas, December 20, 1736, requesting items for the garden of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Hedrick 1988: 49)<ref>U. P. Hedrick, ''A History of Horticulture in America to 1860; with an Addendum of Books Published from 1861–1920'' (1950; repr., Portland, OR.: Timber Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7ZAW9D6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If you have any Particular, Curious Things not of a high price will Beautifie a '''flower Garden''', Send a Sample with the price or a catalogue of ‘em. . . My Gardens all Lye on the South Side of a hill, with the most Beautifull Assent to the Top & it is Allowed on all hands the Kingdom of England don’t afford So Fine a [[Prospect]] as I have both of Land and water. Neither do I intend to Spare any Cost or Pains in making my Gardens Beautifull or Profitable.”

*Anonymous, 1 July 1771, describing in the ''New York Gazette'' or ''Weekly Post Bay'' a property in Staten Island, NY (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“To be SOLD. THE pleasant situated Place or Farm of LAWRENCE ROOME. . . on the North Side of Staten Island. . . There is on said Farm, a large Stone House and Kitchen. . . a neat '''Flower Garden''' before the door, also a large [[Kitchen Garden]] behind the House, all in Pale [[Fence]].”

*Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1775, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, MD (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)
:“Examine the Gardiner strictly as to. . . in what Branch He had been Chiefly employed, ye [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen]] or '''Flower Garden'''.”

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (repr., Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. A young [[grove]] is growing in the back ground, in the middle of which is a [[pond]], decorated with four ships at anchor, & a marble figure in the centre. The [[Chinese manner]] is mixed with the European in the [[Summer house]] which fronts the House, below the '''Flower Garden'''.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1977: 1:165)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]] bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine [[walk]], shaded by weeping Willows. . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat '''flower garden''' laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precission. Along the North Wall of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time again since I left Germany, I saw here a [[parterre]], chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather’s pedantry.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and [[summer house]]s at the termination of each [[walk]], [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the '''flower garden''' in front of the house.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, c. 1802, describing Hamilton Grange, estate of Alexander Hamilton, New York, NY (quoted in Hamilton 1910: 348)<ref>Allan McLane Hamilton, ''The Intimate Life of Alexander Hamilton'' (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1910), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GBWZZ87C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“3. If it can be done in time I should be glad if space could be prepared in the ''center'' of the '''flower garden''' for planting a few tulips, lilies, hyacinths, and [missing]. The space should be a circle of which the diameter is Eighteen feet: and there should be nine of each sort of flowers; but the gardener will do well to consult as to the season.
:“They may be arranged thus: Wild roses around the outside of the '''flower garden''' with laurel at foot.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, 1809, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Next, I visited a '''flower garden''' belonging to the female department. The flowers were very numerous, but none of them remarkable for their beauty or novelty—the garden was badly laid off, for it possessed neither taste, elegance nor convenience: the soil appeared barren & unproductive, & the flowers by no means flourishing. There was nothing uncommon in the garden.”

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or [[piazza]], from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a '''flower garden''' and [[shrubbery]], rich with orange trees, laurels, myrtles, and weeping willows, and here and there a great spreading aloe.”

*Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, in a letter to Frances P. Butler, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, MS 102)
:“You tell me to procure all the flowers & [[shrub]]s possible—this I will certainly do—& am sure you will do the same—and under your direction—I have not the least doubt, our Gardens will be most beautiful, and flourish—for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire '''flower Gardens''' as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the [[Yard]]s being in White Clover—I have been equally unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering [[shrub]]s—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']—I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times— When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the [[Yard]] to have things do well in it—I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the yard—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), March 1835, “Notices of Some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the Neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from Memoranda made in the Month of March last” (''American Gardener’s Magazine'' 1: 241)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the Neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; Taken from Memoranda Made in the Month of March Last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1 (July 1835): 241–46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JGIJ6PI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is another class of gardens in Philadelphia, called [[public garden]]s, which combine in addition to a '''flower garden''', [[green-house]]s, [[hothouse]]s, &c., a bar-room or tavern; this latter addition we are far from believing useful or needful.”

*Breck, Joseph, July 1, 1837, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries in the Vicinity of Boston” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 271–72)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (July 1, 1837): 268–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRN8IQX2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“One of the most interesting spots is the boys’ '''flower garden''', an oblong [[square]] piece, handsomely [[fence]]d off, containing perhaps about a quarter of an acre. Every boy has his own spot, which is laid and planted to suit his own fancy, and the whole forms an assemblage of [[square]]s, triangles, circles, segments of circles, and every possible shape that their boyish notions dictated.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1839, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residences of Charles Phelps, Esq., Stonington, CT, and Horace Binney, Burlington, NJ (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Balitmore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''flower garden''' contains about a [[quarter]] of an acre, in front of the house, and between that and the road, and is walled in on the north and west side. It is tastefully laid out in small [[bed]]s, [[Edging|edged]] with box; on the north side stands a moderately sized [[green-house]], about forty feet long.”
:“The '''flower garden''' is nearly a [[square]], and is laid out with one main circular [[walk]], running round the whole, and a [[border]] for flowers on each side; the centre forming a [[lawn]] scattered over with several large fruit trees.”

[[File:0878.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of [[A. J. Downing|Downing’s]] [[Botanic Garden]]s and [[nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]
*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing Highland Place, estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 406–9)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“18. '''Flower garden''', in front of the [[greenhouse]]. It is laid out in circular [[bed]]s, [[Edging|edged]] with box, with gravel [[walk]]s. Under the [[arbor]] vitae [[hedge]], which is here planted against the boundary line, the [[green-house]] plants are principally placed during summer. . .
:“the '''flower garden''' (18,) a small space laid out with seven circular [[bed]]s; the centre one nearly twice as large as the outer ones: these were all filled with plants: a running rose in the centre of the large bed, and the outer [[edging|edge]] planted with fine phloxes, Bourbon roses, &c.: the other six beds were all filled with similar plants, excepting the running rose, which would be of too vigorous growth for their smaller size. Under the [[arbor]] vitae [[hedge]] here, on the south side of the garden, the [[green-house]] plants were arranged in rows, the tallest at the back.” [Fig. 4]

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17)<ref>P. B., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and all Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Flower gardens''' and [[shrubberies]] are no longer objects of amazement; [[avenue]]s of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:“'''THE FLOWER GARDEN.'''
:“How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright [[parterre]]s of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character. The whole garden is surrounded and shut out from the [[lawn]], by a belt of [[shrubbery]], and above and behind this, rises, like a noble framework, the background of trees of the [[lawn]] and the [[Wilderness]]. If there is any prettier '''flower-garden''' scene than this ensemble in the country, we have not yet had the good fortune to behold it.” [Fig. 5]

*Longfellow, Samuel, November 16, 1847, in a letter to Alexander W. Longfellow, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 42)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House|Craigie House there is nothing new I think save a new '''flower garden''' of larger growth which is in the process of completion under the direction of Richard Dolben Landscape gardener & florist from England & which promises to be very charming by next Summer, with a great Gothic Cathedral wheel or Rose-window in the centre.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 349, 352)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade [[fence]], is a neat '''flower garden'''. . . As on the men’s side, there is a private [[yard]] for females, and the '''flower-garden''' in front of the lodge, and the paved [[yard]]s connected with it are similarly arranged. . . The cultivation of the gardens and the improvement of the [[pleasure ground]]s, offer the generality of patients the most desirable forms of labour. It is sufficiently varied, not too laborious, and in some division of it many will engage who could not be induced to assist upon the farm or in any other kind of employment, out of doors. . . The '''flower gardens''' should be as extensive as can be well taken care of by the inmates and persons employed in the Hospital. The good influences which these, as well as a high state of improvement about the buildings, generally produce on patients and their friends, is often of great importance.”

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia, PA (''Horticulturist'' 3: 411)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We now sally forth into the '''flower garden'''. The flowers are grown in [[bed]]s and masses, and consist of sorts that are either continually in bloom, or such as are succeeded by others from a ''reserve-garden'', producing a magnificent display the entire season.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), December 1849, describing Oatlands, residence of D. P. Manice, Hempstead, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 529–31)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Oatlands, Hempstead, L.I., N.Y., the Residence of D. F. Manice, Esq.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 12 (December 1849): 529–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIRK5R8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house is a handsome building, in a kind of castellated gothic, standing about fifty feet from the road, with the [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse]], and '''flower garden''' on the left,—the [[kitchen garden]] and forcing-houses on the right,—and the [[lawn]] and [[pleasure ground]], in the rear of the house, separating it from the [[park]]. . .
:“Continuing our [[walk]] about the grounds, we entered the '''flower garden''', which is laid out in [[bed]]s, bordered with box; the dahlias were about all that remained in bloom at this late season, save here and there a stray rose.”

===Citations===

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thus was the ''Culture of Flowers'' begun indeed by such ''Gard’ners''. . . when Men had a mind to have so great a number of them, as is now practised by way of Ornament, to the palaces of ''Great Persons'', they begun to make particular ''Gardens'' of them which they called by a name proper to a '''''Flower Garden'''''; and because it was not possible for one ''Gard’ner'' at the same time, to manage the Culture of so great a number of ''Fruits, Legumes, Flowers, [[Shrub]]s'', &c. as were then required, there was a necessity of establishing a second ''Class'' of ''Gard’ners'', to ease those of the first, which new ''Gard’ners'' were commonly named ''Florists'', to distinguish them from the others, which were called only plain ''Gard’ners''. . .
:“''Embroidery'', is a term used in '''''Flower Gardens''''', signifying, ''Flower [[Plot]]s'' that are wrought in fine shapes, like patterns of ''Embroidery''. . .
:“''Gardens'' are choice inclosed pieces of Ground planted with Edible Plants, Fruit-Trees, and Flowers, and differ from [[Orchard]]s, which are commonly planted with Standard Fruit-Trees, and are seldom [[wall]]ed, or so curiously inclosed as Gardens.
:“''[[Kitchen-Garden]]s'' are chiefly for ''Kitchen'' and Edible Plants.
:“''Fruit Gardens'' for Fruits.
:“And '''''Flower-Gardens''''' or ''[[Parterre]]s'', for Flowers. . .
:“Whence it is easie to conclude, how much I dislike in the Case of ''[[Kitchen-Garden]]s'', all other Indented Figures, Diagonals, Rounds, Ovals, Triangles, &c. which are only proper for ''[[Thicket]]s'' and ''[[Parterre]]s'', or '''''Flower Gardens''''', in which Places they are at once both very useful, and of a great Beauty.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 198)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley et al., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . .
:“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to; and in the first are entertain’d with a pretty Fruit-Garden. . . from which you are insensibly led through the pleasant Meanders of a shady delightful [[Plantation]]; first, into an oven [''sic''] Plain. . . secondly, into a '''Flower-Garden''', enrich’d with the most fragrant Flowers and beautiful [[Statue]]s.”

*Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 110)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“GARDEN, ‘a piece of ground cultivated and properly ornamented with a variety of plants, flowers, fruit-trees, &c. Gardens are usually distinguished into '''flower-garden''', fruit-garden, and [[kitchen-garden]]: The first of which, being designed for ornament, is to be placed in the most conspicuous part, that is, next to the back front of the house; and the second and third, being designed for use, should be placed less in sight.’ ''Dict. of Arts.''”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:42)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Mixed Gardening,'' as comprehending the useful with the sweet—the profitable with the pleasant, has been the subject hitherto, but if the '''''flower garden''''' and the ''[[kitchen garden]]'' are to be distinct things, the case is altered; yet not so much, but that still the ''[[kitchen garden]]'' should be adorned with a sprinkling of the more ordinary decorations, to skirt the [[quarter]]s, which should be chiefly those of the most powerful sweet scents, as ''roses, sweet-briars, and honey-suckles, [[wall]] flowers, pinks, minionette'', &c. in order to counteract the coarser effluvia of vegetables, or (perchance) of dead leaves.
:“The '''''flower garden''''' (properly so called) should be rather small than large; and if a portion of ground be separately appropriated for this, only the ''choicest'' gifts of ''Flora'' should be introduced, and no trouble spared to cultivate them in the best manner. The [[bed]]s of this garden should be narrow, and consequently the [[walk]]s numerous; and not more than one half or two thirds the width of the [[bed]]s, except one principal [[walk]] all round, which may be a little wider. The gravel (or whatever the [[walk]]s are made of) should lie about four inches below the [[Edging|edge]]. The [[bed]]s for ''tulips, hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses'', &c. may be three and an half, or four feet wide, and those for single flowers the same, or only two and a half feet wide in the [[border]]s; which was the most usual breadth in the old '''''flower gardens''''', of which we have hardly an instance now. Let the mould lie rather rounded in the middle.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 99–101)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If solitude delight, we seek it rather in the covert of a [[wood]], or the sequestered alcove of a '''flower garden''', than in the open [[lawn]] of an extensive [[pleasure ground]]. . .
:“'''Flower gardens''' on a small scale may, with propriety, be formal and artificial; but in all cases they require neatness and attention. . .
:“A '''flower garden''' should be an object detached and distinct from the general scenery of the place; and whether large or small, whether varied or formal, it ought to be protected from hares and smaller animals by an inner [[fence]]: within this enclosure rare plants of every description should be encouraged, and a provision made of soil, and aspect for every different class.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55, 58, 71)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE district commonly called the Pleasure, or '''Flower-Garden''', or [[Pleasure-ground]], may be said to comprehend ''all'' ornamental compartments, or divisions of ground, surrounding the mansion; consisting of [[lawn]]s, [[plantation]]s of trees and [[shrub]]s, flower compartments, [[walk]]s, pieces of water, &c. whether situated wholly within the space generally considered as the ''[[Pleasure garden|Pleasure-Garden]]'', or extended to the adjacent fields, [[park]]s, or other out-grounds. . .
:“In the general arrangement, the great art is to vary the [[prospect]] of the different divisions, so as they may variously present an air of novelty, and source of convenience and entertainment. . .
:“Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant '''flower-ground''', or [[flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the [[parterre]] way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also [[border]]ed with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . .
:“A commodious piece of ''good ground'', for a '''flower-garden''', situated in a convenient and well sheltered place, and well exposed to the sun and air, ought to be allotted for the culture of the more curious and valuable flowers.
:“The form of this ground may be either [[square]], oblong, or somewhat circular; having the boundary embellished with a collection of the most curious flowering-[[shrub]]s; the interior part should be divided into many narrow [[bed]]s, either oblong, or in the manner of a [[parterre]]; but plain four feet wide [[bed]]s arranged parallel, having two feet wide [[alley]]s between [[bed]] and [[bed]], will be found most convenient, yet to some not the most fanciful.
:“In either method, a [[walk]] should be carried round the outward boundary, leaving a [[border]] to surround the whole ground, and within this, to have the various divisions or [[bed]]s, raising them generally in a gently rounding manner, [[edging]] such as you like with dwarf-box, some with thrift, pinks, sisyrinchium, &c. by way of variety, laying the [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s with the finest gravel. Some [[bed]]s may be neatly [[Edging|edged]] with boards, especially such as are intended for the finer sorts of bulbs, &c.
:“In this division you may plant the finest hyacinths, tulips, polyanthus-narcissus, double jonquils, anemones, ranunculus’s, bulbous-iris’s, tuberoses, scarlet and yellow amaryllis’s, colchicums, fritillaries, crown-imperials, snowdrops, crocus’s, lilies of various sorts, and all the different kinds of bulbous, and tuberous-rooted flowers, which succeed in the open ground; each sort principally in separate [[bed]]s, especially the more choice kinds, being necessary both for distinction sake and for the convenience of giving, such as need it, protection from inclement weather; but for particulars of their culture, see the respective articles in the various months.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 337–40, 347, 433, 460)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But in the [[Pleasure Ground]], the gardener’s professed object is elegance; and the stores of vegetation, from the stage of flowers in the fore-ground to the hanging [[grove]] in the distance, are scattered about to augment the beauty of the landscape.
:“The lines of distinction between the '''Flower Garden''', the [[Shrubbery]], and the [[Pleasure Ground]], can neither be positively marked, nor constantly observed. . . The flowering [[shrub]]s connect the two former. . .
:“The most essential point of separation between a '''Flower Garden''' and a [[Pleasure Ground]] seems to turn on the extent of the place. . .
:“With regard to the form, either a [[square]] or an oblong ground-plan is eligible; and although the shape must be often adapted to local circumstances, yet when a garden is so circumscribed that the eye at once embraces the whole, it is desirable that it should be of some regular figure.
:“''[[Fence]]s''.—The '''Flower Garden''', which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a [[fence]], whenever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good [[hedge]]-[[fence]], planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. . .
:“For internal [[fence]]s, to afford shade or shelter to particular compartments, yew, holly, laurel, and some of the other evergreens are occasionally used. . .
:“''Style of laying out a '''Flower''' Department''.—If a piece of ground be set apart for the cultivation of flowers, in what style should it be laid out? This may vary with the quantity of surface and the object of the cultivator. In the first place, carry a [[border]] round the garden, nowhere narrower than three or four feet. . . . In contact with the surrounding [[border]], may be either a grass-[[plat]] or a gravel-[[walk]]. . . If the ground be at all dilated, handsome [[walk]]s, crossing or leading to the centre, will be also requisite: let the principal [[walk]]s be five or six feet in breadth. The interior of the garden is usually laid out in oblong [[bed]]s three or four feet wide, with intervening [[alley]]s two feet wide, or from that down to twelve inches, when it is intended to abstract as little space as possible from the cultivation of the flowers; or, the same end may be attained by circular or oval [[bed]]s, with smaller compartments between, of such a form as will leave the [[alley]]s of one regular width. The [[alley]]s, as well as the main [[walk]]s, should be laid with gravel or some dry binding material; and the [[bed]]s [[Edging|edged]] with box or thrift: box is to be preferred. Keep the [[edging]]s neat and regular, about two inches in height and breadth, by clipping them once or twice a year, in the interval from April to September. See also [[SHRUBBERY]], ''Planting Box-[[Edging]]s''; and ''[[Edging]]s of [[Border]]s'' and ''Gravel-[[walk]]s'', under the head [[PLEASURE GROUND]].
:“Ground worked on the above plan may have regular divisions without being formal. The apology for [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s, varying in shape and direction, but finished in minute detail, must be, that the process of nature herself, in the small efflorescent plants, is delicate; the consummation of the process exquisite; and that the beauties of a flower can only be discerned on a near view. The more concentrated the [[bed]]s in relation to the house, and the easier the approach, the greater will be the entertainment derived from those plants which, in the mode of germination, or foliation, or coming into flower, or showing and maturing fruit or seed-vessels, offer subjects for curious observation.
:“Quadrangular and circular patches on the side next the house may be laid with turf, which will have a good effect from the windows; besides, if the domestics have a passage through that quarter, flower-[[bed]]s would be constantly exposed to casual injury. . .
:“For the regular [[bed]]s of a professed Flower Department, choice and curious species should be chiefly selected,—comprehending prime varieties of the Tulip, Hyacinth, and Jonquil, the Polyanthus-narcissus, and other esteemed kinds of the Narcissus, the Fritillaria, Crown-imperial, Bulbous Iris, Persian Iris, Amaryllis, Ranunculus, Anemone, with such other BULBOUS and TUBEROUS-ROOTED FLOWERS as are chiefly prized; likewise of the FIBROUS-ROOTED TRIBE, admit the capital sorts of the Auricula, Polyanthus, Carnation, and Pink, with the beautiful or extraordinary among the other kinds enumerated in the respective tables of that class, ''Annuals'', ''Biennials'', and ''Perennials''. . .
:“''Distribution in the Garden''.—As to the distribution of these hardy sorts in the garden: it is principally in small patches in the [[border]]s or [[bed]]s, or separately in [[pot]]s; to remain where sown for flowering. Observe, in placing the seeds in the compartments, to dispose the lower-stemmed plants towards the front. . . The larger in the next degree may stand proportionally more inward or retiring. . . The blossoms borne on the tallest stems will sufficiently strike the eye, in stations still farther removed from the front, near the back-part of [[border]]s or the centre of circular [[bed]]s. . . Be careful so to distribute the patches, that each sort in full growth may stand separate, and distinct to view. Confine the seeds to the principal sorts, and sow a smaller number, rather than crowd the [[border]]s confusedly. . .
:“THE distinction between a '''Flower Garden''' and a [[Shrubbery]], as an ornamental portion of ground, has been loosely marked in the opening of the last division. One branch of the ancient system of gardening was, to make large [[plantation]]s entirely of [[shrub]]s intersected by gravel-[[walk]]s: but this is now almost universally exploded; and [[shrub]]s are usually distributed over the grounds, sometimes in association with flowers, and sometimes with trees, or for a short space in a continued line, as the object is ornament, or shelter, or to form a side-screen. . .
:“The sense, however, in which we employ ''[[Shrubbery]]'', as the title of this article, is merely that of a treatise on the culture of [[shrub]]s. . .
:“While the [[Kitchen Garden]] is concealed by buildings or [[plantation]]s, the '''Flower Garden''' and [[Pleasure Ground]] should stand conspicuously attached to the family-residence.”

*[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon |Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 789–95, 797–98, 800, 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6075. ''Floriculture''. . . The culture of flowers was long carried on with that of culinary vegetables, in the [[border]]s of the [[kitchen-garden]], or in [[parterre]]s or groups of [[bed]]s, which commonly connected the culinary compartments with the house. In places of moderate extent, this mixed style is still continued; but in residences which aim at any degree of distinction, the space within the [[wall]]ed garden is confined to the production of objects of domestic utility, while the culture of plants of ornament is displayed in the '''flower-garden''' and the [[shrubbery]]. These, under the general term of [[pleasure-ground]], encircle the house in small [[seat]]s, and on a larger scale embrace it in one or more sides; the remaining part being under the character of park-scenery. . .
:“6076. ''The situation'' of the '''flower-garden''', as of every department of floriculture, should be near the house, for ready access at all times, and especially during winter and spring, when the beauties of this scene are felt with peculiar force. . .
:“6079. ''To place the '''flower-garden''' south-east or south-west of the house'', and between it and the [[kitchen-garden]], is in general a desirable circumstance. . .
:“6080. ''In exposure and aspect'', the '''flower-garden''' should be laid out as much as possible on the same principles as the [[kitchen-garden]]. . .
:“6081. ''The extent'' of the '''flower-garden''' depends jointly on the general scale of the residence, and the particular taste of the owner. If any proportion may be mentioned, perhaps, a fifth part of the contents of the [[kitchen-garden]] will come near the general average; but there is no impropriety in having a large '''flower-garden''' to a small [[kitchen-garden]]. . . As moderation, however, is generally found best in the end, we concur with the author of the ''Florist’s Manual'', when she states, that ‘. . . If the form of ground, where a [[parterre]] is to be situated, is sloping, the size should be larger than when a flat surface, and the [[border]]s of various shapes, and on a bolder scale, and intermingled with grass; but such a '''flower-garden''' partakes more of the nature of [[pleasure-ground]] than of the common [[parterre]], and will admit of a judicious introduction of flowering [[shrub]]s.’ . . .
[[File:1346.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden with irregular borders, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 791, fig. 540. The flower garden is indicated at ''a''.]]
:“6082. ''Shelter'' is equally requisite for the '''flower''' as for the [[Kitchen_garden|kitchen]] '''garden''', and, where naturally wanting, is to be produced by the same means, viz. planting. . . Sometimes an evergreen [[hedge]] will produce all the shelter requisite, as in small gardens composed of earth and gravel only. . . but where the scene is large. . . and composed of dug compartments (''a''), placed on [[lawn]] (''b'') the whole may be surrounded by an irregular [[border]] (''c'') of flowers, [[shrubbery]], and trees. . . [Fig. 6]
:“6086. ''Water''. This material, in some form or other, is as essential to the '''flower''' as to the [[Kitchen_garden|kitchen]]-'''garden'''. Besides the use of the element in common culture, a [[pond]] or [[basin]] affords an opportunity of growing some of the more showy aquatics, while [[jet]]s, dropping-[[fountain]]s, and other forms of displaying water, serve to decorate and give interest to the scene. . .
:“6087. ''The form'' of a small garden. . . will be found most pleasing when some regular figure is adopted, as a circle, oval, octagon, crescent, &c.: but where the extent is so great as not readily to be caught by a single glance of the eye, an irregular shape is generally more convenient, and it may be thrown into agreeable figures, or component scenes, by the introduction of [[shrub]]s so as to subdivide the space. . .
:“6090. ''Boundary [[fence]], or screen''. [[Parterre]]s on a small scale may be enclosed by an evergreen [[hedge]] of holly, box, laurel, privet, juniper, laurustinus, or Irish whin. . . but irregular figures, especially if of some extent, can only be surrounded by a [[shrubbery]], such as we have already hinted at (6082.) as forming a proper shelter for '''flower-gardens'''. . .
:“6093. ''Laying out the area''. . . In laying out the area of the [[kitchen-garden]], its destination being utility, affords in all cases a safe and fixed guide; but the '''flower-garden''' is a matter of fancy and taste, and where these are wavering and unsettled, the work will be found to go on at random. As '''flower-gardens''' are objects of pleasure, that principle which must serve as a guide in laying them out, must be taste. Now, in '''flower-gardens''', as in other objects, there are different kinds of tastes; these embodied are called styles or characters; and the great art of the designer is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out unmixed with other styles, or with any deviation which would interfere with the kind of taste or impression which that style is calculated to produce. Style, therefore, is the leading principle in laying out '''flower-gardens''', as utility is in laying out the culinary-garden. As subjects of fancy and taste, the styles of '''flower-gardens''' are various. The [[modern style]] is a collection of irregular groups and masses, placed about the house as a medium, uniting it with the open [[lawn]]. The ancient [[geometric style]], in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms; in France, adding [[statue]]s and [[fountain]]s; in Holland, cut trees and grassy [[slope]]s; and in Italy, stone [[wall]]s, [[wall]]ed [[terrace]]s, and flights of steps. In some situations, these characteristics of [[parterre]]s may with propriety be added to, or used instead of the modern sort, especially in flat situations, such as are enclosed by high [[wall]]s in towns, or where the principal building or object is in a style of architecture which will not render these appendages incongruous. There are other characters of gardens, such as [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], which are not widely different from the modern; the Indian, which consists chiefly of [[walk]]s under shade, in [[square]]s of grass, &c.; the Turkish, which abounds in shady retreats, boudoirs of roses and aromatic herbs; and the Spanish, which is distinguished by [[trellis]]-work and [[fountain]]s: but these gardens are not generally adapted to this climate, though from contemplating and selecting what is beautiful or suitable in each, a style of decoration for the immediate vicinity of mansions might be composed, greatly preferable to any thing now in use. . .
:“6099. ''The [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]] is generally placed in the '''flower garden''''', provided these structures are not appended to the house. . .
:“6110. ''The manner of planting the herbaceous plants and [[shrub]]s in a '''flower-garden''''' depends jointly on the style and extent of the scene. With a view to planting, they may be divided into three classes, which classes are independently altogether of the style in which they are laid out. The first class is ''the general or mingled '''flower-garden''''', in which is displayed a mixture of flowers with or without flowering-[[shrub]]s according to its size. The object in this class is to mix the plants, as that every part of the garden may present a gay assemblage of flowers of different colors during the whole season. The second class is the ''select '''flower-garden''''', in which the object is limited to the cultivation of particular kinds of plants; as, florists’ flowers, American plants, annuals, bulbs, &c. Sometimes two or more classes are included in one garden, as bulbs and annuals; but, in general, the best effect is produced by limiting the object to one class only. The third class is ''the changeable '''flower garden''''', in which all the plants are kept in [[pot]]s, and reared in a flower-[[nursery]] or reserve-ground. As soon as they begin to flower, they are plunged in the [[border]]s of the '''flower-garden''', and, whenever they show symptoms of decay, removed, to be replaced by others from the same source. This is obviously the most complete mode of any for a display of flowers, as the beauties of both the ''general'' and ''particular'' gardens may be combined without presenting blanks, or losing the fine effect of assemblages of varieties of the same species; as of hyacinth, pink, dahlia, chrysanthemum, &c. The fourth class is ''the botanic '''flower-garden''''', in which the plants are arranged with reference to botanical study, or at least not in any way that has for its main object a rich display of blossoms. . .
[[File:1352.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 7, [[J. C. Loudon]], The [[botanic garden|botanic flower garden]] with a gravel-[[walk]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 801, fig. 553.]]
:“6126. ''The botanic '''flower-garden''''' being intended to display something of the vegetable kingdom, as well as its resemblances and differences, should obviously be arranged according to some system or method of study. . . [For a private [[botanic garden]]] a gravel [[walk]] may be so contrived as to form a tour of all the groups [of species]. . . displaying them on both sides; in the centre, or in any fitting part of the scene, the botanic [[hot-house]]s may be placed; and the whole might be surrounded with a sloping phalanx of evergreen plants, [[shrub]]s, and trees. . . It is hardly necessary to observe that the above modes, or others that we have mentioned of planting a '''flower-garden''' are alike applicable to every form or style of laying out the garden or [[parterre]]. . . [Fig. 7]
:“7259. ''The '''flower-garden''''' should join both the [[conservatory]] and [[terrace]]; and, where the botanic stoves do not join the conservatory and the house, they, and also the [[aviary]] and other appropriate buildings and decorations, should be placed here.”

*Squibb, Robert, 1827, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North-Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia'' (1827: 1, 3)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (Charleston, SC: P. Hoff and E. Gibbs, 1827), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBDSMZ38 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Flower Garden'''.
:“It is a source of recreation and delight which but few are acquainted with, though calculated to exalt the mind, refine the taste and manners, and even qualify the temper, and sooth the feelings in many a gloomy hour. Flowers speak a language from the Creator. . .
:“The aspect of the ['''flower'''] '''garden''' is the next thing to be considered, which experience has proved to be best fronting the East or South-East, protected on the North and North-West by buildings or trees. The early suns; the cold winds which blow from the South-East, with the moisture accompanying those winds, are particularly favourable to our gardens; though many northern and eastern plants, and even from our interior, are obliged to be excluded from the gardens near Charleston on account of its vicinity to salt air.”

*Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (1828: 6, 109–10)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Gardens are usually classed under the following heads:—the ''[[kitchen garden]]''; the ''fruit garden''; and the ''''''flower garden''''''. The '''flower garden''', being designed principally for ornament, should be placed in the most conspicuous part, that is, in front, or next to the back part of the house; the [[kitchen garden]] and fruit garden may follow in succession. . .
:“FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL.—Should the agriculturist have no taste for ornamental gardening, yet such is the laudable taste of the fair daughters of America, at the present day, that there are but comparatively few, that do not take an interest in a '''flower garden'''. . .
:“'''Flower gardens''' were ever held in high estimation by persons of taste. . .
:“The cultivation of flowers is an employment adapted to every grade, the high and the low, the rich and the poor; but especially to those who have retired from the busy scenes of active life. . . And what exercise is more fit for him, who is in the decline of life, than that of superintending a well ordered garden? . . .
:“Floriculture is peculiarly calculated for the amusement of youth. It may teach them many important lessons. . . Let them be instructed, that nothing valuable is to be obtained or preserved without labour, care, and attention—that as every valuable plant must be defended, and every noxious weed removed, so every moral virtue must be protected, and every corrupt passion and propensity subdued.
:“The cultivation of flowers is an appropriate amusement for young ladies. It teaches neatness, cultivates a correct taste, and furnishes the mind with many pleasing ideas. The delicate form and features, the mildness and sympathy of disposition, render them fit subjects to raise those transcendent beauties of nature, which declare the ‘perfections of the Creator’s power.’”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110–12, 121)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''Flower Garden''' should be protected from cold cutting winds by close [[fence]]s, or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. Generally speaking, a '''Flower Garden''' should not be upon a large scale; the [[bed]]s or [[border]]s should in no part of them be broader than the cultivater can reach to, without treading on them: the shape and number of the [[bed]]s must be determined by the size of the ground, and the taste of the person laying out the garden. Much of the beauty of a [[pleasure garden]] depends on the manner in which it is laid out; a great variety of figures may be indulged in for the Flower [[bed]]. Some choose oval or circular forms, others [[square]]s, triangles, hearts, diamonds, &c., and intersected winding gravel [[walk]]s.
:“Neatness should be the prevailing characteristic of a '''Flower Garden''', and it should be so situated as to form an ornamental appendage to the house; and where circumstances will admit, placed before windows exposed to a southern or southeastern aspect. The principle on which it is laid out, ought to be that of exhibiting a variety of colour and form, so blended as to present one beautiful whole. In a small '''Flower Garden''', viewed from the windows of a house, this effect is best produced by [[bed]]s, or [[border]]s formed on the side of each other, and parallel to the windows from whence they are seen, as by that position the colours show themselves to the best advantage. In a retired part of the garden, a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]] may be formed, over and around which honey-suckles and other sweet and ornamental creepers and climbers may he [''sic''] trained on [[trellis]]es, so as to afford a pleasant retirement.
:“Although the greatest display is produced by a general '''flower garden''', that is, by cultivating such a variety of sorts in one [[bed]] or [[border]] as may nearly insure a constant blooming, yet bulbous plants, while essential to the perfection of the '''Flower Garden''', lose something of their peculiar beauty when not cultivated by themselves. The extensive variety of bulbous roots furnish means for the formation of a garden, the beauty of which arising from an intermixture of every variety of form and colour, would well repay the trouble of cultivation, particularly as by a judicious selection and management, a succession of bloom may be kept up for some length of time. As, however, bulbous flowers lose their richest tints about the time that annuals begin to display their beauty, there can be no well founded objection to the latter being transplanted into the bulbous [[bed]]s, so that the opening blossoms of the annuals may fill the place of those just withered, and continueto [''sic''] supply the flower [[bed]]s with all the gaiety and splendour of the floral kingdom.
:“But the taste of the florist will be exercised to little purpose, in his selection of flowers, if he does not pay strict attention to the general state of his garden. If there are [[lawn]]s or grass [[walk]]s, they should be frequently trimmed, and more frequently mowed and rolled, to prevent the grass from interfering with the flower [[bed]]s, and to give the whole a neat regular carpet-like appearance. If there are gravel [[walk]]s, they should be frequently cleaned, replenished with fresh gravel, and rolled. Box and other [[edging]]s should be kept clear of weeds, and neatly trimmed every spring. Decayed plants should be removed, and replaced with vigorous ones from the [[nursery]] [[bed]]. Tall flowering plants must be supported by neat poles or rods; and all dead stalks and leaves from decayed flowers, most be frequently removed. . .
:“The plants should be so arranged that they may all be seen. The most dwarfish may be placed in front, and others in a regular gradation to the tallest behind; or the tallest may be planted along the middle of the [[bed]]s, and the others on each side according to their varied heights and colours.”

*Anonymous, December 5, 1832, “On Planting a Flower Garden” (''New England Farmer'' 11: 164)<ref>Anonymous, “On Planting a Flower Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 11, no. 21 (December 5, 1832): 164 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AKUJF2PU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most efficacious plan for accomplishing this, and making the thing intelligible to every one, would be by giving a plan for a '''flower garden''', with a list of plants, and reference to their proper site in every [[border]], [[clump]] or [[parterre]]. Such it is in contemplation to publish in the Farmer at some future period; for the present, a few general hints must suffice. . . Whatever may be the arrangement decided upon, the plants generally selected for a '''flower garden''' are chosen for the beauty of their appearance, for being odoriferous, or for possessing some such distinguishing characteristic. . .
:“If a mixt '''flower garden,''' [[border]] or [[clump]], be the object in view, particular attention must be given to the selection of sizes, colors, and the different times of flowering. In planting the different [[clump]]s, a proportion of ornamental flowering [[shrub]]s may, with propriety, be admitted. The herbaceous plants should be such as produce large heads or masses of flowers—an equal number of every color, and so selected that some shall always be in flower during spring, summer, and fall, with as near a proportion of the different colors as possible. All this can be effected with a very few flowers, so that none need be deterred from forming a '''flower garden''', or properly distributing the various shades of color, under the impression that many plants are absolutely requisite to effect it. Much more regularity, and greater harmony in colors, may be effected by a select few, than by introducing a great number of sorts into one [[clump]]. For then a less distinctive or marked character would be the result. There should be a proper system decided upon before a single plant is planted, which will prevent the [[border]] or [[clump]] from appearing a heterogeneous mass, without meaning, without taste or design. In planting ‘''the mingled '''flower garden''''',’ it is essential that the separate parts should, in their appearance, constitute a whole; and whatever be the ground plan, it will be no barrier, if proper attention be given to the mode of arranging the plants. . .
:“For what is termed the ‘''select '''flower garden''''',’ a different style of planting is adopted—planting only one species of plant in each [[bed]], such as tulips, hyacinths, dahlias, ranunculus, anemonies, pinks, &c. &c. This mode of planting is very simple, all that is requisite being only to plant them in [[bed]]s of carefully prepared soil, and mix the colors as far as possible.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 13–16, 127–29, 130–31)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The principal object of the ‘'''Flower garden'''’ being to please the eye, it should in every department have a clean and healthy appearance, which greatly facilitates the health and growth of the plants and flowers that it contains. . .
:“The principal object to be considered in laying out the '''flower garden''', is the extent and location of the ground, and the taste of the owner.
:“At country residences, where a large extent is appropriated to this department, many convenient and pleasing appendages can be judiciously introduced; as [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[arbor]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and [[rockery]]; and if water can be connected, it always gives a good effect. All such appendages, I recommend to be constructed in as natural a manner as possible. . .
:“In many cases, the '''flower garden''' will have a pleasing appearance, when various figures are cut in a well kept grass [[plat]], where ease should invariably be attended to.
:“In laying out '''flower gardens''', great care should always be taken, that there is a regular proportion of the [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s in the different departments; for it will have a bad effect if any thing is cramped. The [[walk]]s should if possible be wide enough for two persons to walk abreast, in order to give a social effect, which should always be the first consideration in the '''flower garden'''. The [[bed]]s should also be well proportioned, and not too much cut up into small figures, which when [[border]]ed with box [[edging]], have the appearance of so many figures formed for the amusement of children more than for the purpose of growing flowers. . .
:“The manner of planting may be simply stated in a few words, combining trees, [[shrub]]s and flowers. . .
:“The '''flower garden''' attached to city residences, —when well managed, —embraces many useful features relative to health and pleasure, and in every way conveys to the proprietor a moral lesson in natural history of the most refined nature. I trust that every intelligent person is aware that the continual working of the ground, attached to city residences, is, in every way, conducive to the health of the inmates, by dispelling and rectifying the impure vapor, arising from smoke and other causes, that condenses and settles on the surface of the ground; which is purified if the earth is frequently turned up; and, in conjunction with this, the benefit arising is of common interest, in proportion to the quantity of ground kept in such order, in any city or town. . .
:“The plan of the garden I recommend to be such as to give ease with variety; so as to accommodate various plants and [[shrub]]s; the [[walk]]s to be of clean gravel, with an [[edging]] of box or neat dwarf plants—as the ''Thrift'', ''Dwarf Iris, Moss pink'', and such like. . .
:“In laying out '''flower gardens''', let them be so managed that many kinds of flowering [[shrub]]s may be introduced; for this purpose [[bed]]s should be appropriated. The most common error is laying out city gardens is, that they are too much cut up into small figures, and consequently [[shrub]]s, so essential to give a variety, cannot be admitted. Nothing should be cramped, but every thing should have an open, easy appearance, in the '''flower garden'''. . .
:“Native plants and flowers are those which are found growing spontaneously, without the aid of culture; perhaps no country has a finer or more numerous collection of hardy flowering plants than the United States; indeed, no collection can be said to be complete, without the ''American Flora'', which has engaged the attention of horticulturists to such an extent in Europe, that grounds have been prepared and adapted for American plants; and it is greatly to be hoped that the present good taste for gardening in this country, will be the means of introducing the many pretty varieties of flowers that are to be found in every part of the Union; particularly the beautiful ''Azelias, Kalmias, Rhododendrons'', and many others, that are much wanted in the '''flower garden'''.
:“It would far exceed my prescribed limits to give a descriptive list of the many varieties of plants that deserve a place in the native '''flower garden'''. I have, therefore, given a list of those which most deserve notice; and, as in every section of this country, there are to be found native plants adapted to their peculiar situation, I recommend that such as are pretty be selected and planted as similar as possible to their natural location. This method will at once create a taste for cultivating native plants and flowers, and facilitate a practical knowledge of their habits and location, in a natural state. Nothing can be a more inviting appendage to the country residence, where a sufficient quantity of ground can be appropriated, than a [[plot]] converted into an American '''flower garden'''; especially on the banks of ''rivers'' and ''streams'', as those of the Hudson, and many others, from which water might be introduced. In such situations, every variety of native plants might be commodiously planted, and grown to a high state of perfection.
:“The best method of laying out such gardens, is to manage the water so as to form a narrow strip or stream two or three feet deep, and if a natural stream can be hand, the better: at the end an artificial [[pond]] might be made at a trifling expense, for growing the ''Water Lily'', and ''Native Aquatics''; and also for the purpose of introducing gold and silver fishes.
:“The south margin of the stream might be advantageously planted with native flowering [[shrub]]s, as the ''Azelias, Kalmias, Spireas'', and those that are found growing in such situations: the margin of the [[pond]] should be planted with drooping willows and trees of a pendulous habit for shade, under which a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]] might be properly placed for the accommodation of those who desire to view the sporting fishes, and other interesting objects by which they are surrounded. Attached to the [[pond]] or streams, I recommend a well arranged grass [[plot]], with a few figures cut therein, which should be planted with native herbaceous plants, and dwarf [[shrub]]s. On the margin of the grass [[plot]], a serpentine or some well contrived [[walk]], [[border]]ed with [[shrubbery]], leading to a [[rockery]], ''of a semicircular form'' on the north side, and almost straight on the south. A [[rockery]] so situated, might be planted with various perennial and annual plants, and dwarf [[shrub]]s, which would there find a natural aspect and location.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 51–52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 2 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The laying out of a flower knot, or system of [[bed]]s in a '''flower garden''', is one of the first feats in which the young gardener undertakes to show off his abilities; and being one which affords the most ample scope for the play of fancy, is therefore, perhaps, the one in which he is most likely to manifest the display of a bad taste. Even where the design is of the most happy conception, and the plotting beautiful upon paper, the difficulty of defining and preserving accurately the outline of the figure, when practically applied, will often quite destroy the anticipated pleasing effect. [[Edging|Edge]]-boards of wood, so thin as to be easily bent to the required form, are commonly the first material employed. These soon warped out of shape, or quickly rot, and impart a deleterious principle to the soil in contact with them; and a very common fault is to have them too wide, so that the plants in the [[bed]]s suffer from drought, while the paths between them resemble gutters more than [[walk]]s for pleasure.”

[[File:0835.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.]]
[[File:1750.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 9, Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.]]
*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), May 1840, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 186–87)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and all Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 175–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8QC94QDP/q/On%20the%20Cultivation%20of%20Annual%20Flowers view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the two following plans. . . we have shown the manner in which '''flower gardens''' may be laid out, either for the cultivation of a miscellaneous collection of bulbs, perennials and annuals, a collection of perennials and annuals together, a collection of annuals and [[green-house]] and frame plants turned out of the [[pot]]s into the soil, or for a collection of annuals alone. The situation decided upon should be, if possible, near to or in front of the [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]], or, if there are neither of these attached to the garden, near to the house, where it can be seen from the drawing-room or library; but, as in most gardens, there is space afforded in front of the [[green-house]], that is certainly the best place. Its size may be regulated altogether by the taste and desire of the owner; it may be the full length of the [[conservatory]] and in the form of a parallelogram, or it may be exactly a [[square]], or its form may be regulated by the space, aspect, &c.
:“In the two plans annexed, we have supposed the '''flower garden''' to be situated directly in front of the [[green-house]] and to be just the same length, (thirty-two feet, the ordinary length of a common sized house,) and width; the [[bed]]s should be laid out with care, as on their precision much of their beauty depends: the [[bed]]s may be surrounded with box [[edging]], and gravel [[walk]]s between, or they may be [[Edging|edged]] with what we have found to answer a good purpose, Iceland moss. This forms a perpetual [[green]], and, if kept neatly trimmed, is full as desirable an [[edging]] around such common [[bed]]s as the box: supposing this to be ALL completed, we next come to the planting of [[bed]]s. This, as we have just observed, may be devoted wholly to annuals, to annuals and perennials, and to both, with the addition of tender plants, such as verbenas, &c. &c.; but we shall at present speak of them as only to be filled with annuals.” [Figs. 8 and 9]

*[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 9–13)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Flower Garden''' is chiefly devoted to the cultivation of showy flowering plants, [[shrub]]s, and trees, either natives of this country or those of a foreign clime: it is a refined appendage to a country-[[seat]], ‘suburban’ villa, or city residence; every age has had its principles of taste, and every country its system of gardening. . . . The Italian style is characterized by broad [[terrace]]s and paralléle [[walk]]s, having the delightful shade and agreeable fragrance of the orange and the myrtle. [[Terrace]]s may be advantageously adopted to surmount steep declivities; and, if judiciously laid out, would convert a steril [''sic''] bank into a beautiful [[promenade]] or choice '''flower garden'''.
:“The French partially adopt the above system, interspersing it with [[parterre]]s and figures of [[Statue|statuary]] work of every character and description. When such is well designed and neatly executed, it has a lively and interesting effect; but now the refined taste says these vagaries are too fantastic, and entirely out of place. A late writer says of [[Dutch_style|Dutch gardening]], that it ‘is rectangular formality:’ they take great pride in trimming their trees of yew, holly, and other evergreens, into every variety of form, such as mops, moons, halberds, chairs, &c. In such a system it is indispensable to order that the compartments correspond in formality, nothing being more offensive to the eye than incongruous mixtures of character.
:“The beauty of [[English_style|English gardening]] consists in an artful imitation of nature, and is consequently much dependent on aspect and locality. It is a desideratum where wood and water can be combined with the '''flower garden''', and the practical eye can dispose of an object to advantage by interspersing [[shrubbery]] and [[walk]]s, that the combined objects form an agreeable whole. They are not to be disposed with a [[view]] to their appearance in a picture, but to the use and enjoyment of them in real life.
:“We will now endeavour to give an explicit exposition of a system adapted to our variable climate of extreme heat and excessive cold. Where choice of aspects can be obtained, preference should be given to a south-east or east; but, if not, south or south-west, and, if possible, sheltered by rising ground or full-grown [[wood]]s from the north-west and north. . . A good soil is the sure foundation on which to rear the grand floral superstructure, and the most genial is a sandy loam. . . With many, the arrangement of a '''flower garden''' is rather a matter for the exercise of fancy, than one calling for the application of refined taste. . . But, in commencing these operations, a design should be kept in view that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the [[parterre]] and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. For perspicuity, admit that the area to be enclosed should be from one to three acres, a circumambient [[walk]] should be traced at some distance within the [[fence]], by which the whole is enclosed; the inferior [[walk]]s should partly circumscribe and intersect the general surface in an easy serpentine and sweeping manner, and at such distances as would allow an agreeable [[view]] of the flowers when walking for exercise. [[Walk]]s may be in breadth from three to twenty feet, although from four to ten feet is generally adopted. . . The outer margin of the garden should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and [[parterre]]s. In order that the whole should not partake of an uniform and graduated character, it should be broken and diversified by single trees plantedin the turf, or arising in scattered groups from a base of [[shrub]]s. In some secluded spot [[rock-work]] or a [[fountain]], or both, may be erected. . . The undertaking, when well completed, will present a field of varied and interesting study, and more than compensate for the labour and expense bestowed upon it. If it is desired that the '''flower garden''' should be a botanical study, there should be some botanical arrangement adopted.
:“The ''Linnean system'' is the most easily acquired. A small compartment laid out in [[bed]]s might contain plants of all the twenty-four ''classes'', and a few of all the hardy ''orders'', which do not exceed one hundred. Or, to have their natural characters more assimilated, the ''Jussieuean'' system could be carried into effect by laying down a grass [[plat]] to any extent above one [[quarter]] of an acre, and cut therein small figures to contain the natural families, which if hardy plants we do not supposed would exceed one hundred and fifty. . . All the large divisions should be intersected by small [[alley]]s, or paths, about one and a half or two feet wide. When there is not a [[green-house]] attached to the '''flower garden''', there should be at least a few sashes of framing or a forcing pit to bring forward early annuals, &c., for early blooming. These should be situate in some spot detached from the garden by a [[fence]] of Roses, trained to [[trellis]]es, Chinese Arbour vitae, Privet, or even Maclura makes excellent [[fence]]s.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), January 1844, “Retrospective View of the Progress of Horticulture for 1843” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 9)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Retrospective View of the Progress of Horticulture for 1843,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and all Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E2273B6C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In planting '''flower gardens''', artistical effect is but little attended to. It is here, however, that amateurs often have the means of making a great deal out of a small spot of ground; [[lawn]]s and [[pleasure ground]]s are only the accompaniments of the villa, while the '''flower garden''' is an appendage to almost every residence. To lay it out and plant in a judicious manner is consequently an object of importance.”

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 209–11)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''FLOWER-GARDENS''' embrace a subject on which a volume might be written without exhausting it; but the present article will be confined to a few general observations, applicable in every case; and to a short notice of the different kinds of '''flower-gardens''' which have been, or are, in most general use.
:“All '''flower-gardens''', to have good effect, ought to be symmetrical; that is, they ought to have a centre, which shall appear decided and obvious at first sight, and sides; and all the figures or compartments into which the garden is laid out, ought to be in some way or other so connected with the centre as not to be separable from it, without injuring the general effect of the garden. All the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s ought to have one general character of form and outline; that is, either curved, straight, or composite lines ought to prevail. The size of the [[bed]]s ought also never to differ to such an extent, as to give the idea of large [[bed]]s and small ones being mixed together; and the surface of the garden ought to be of the same character throughout; that is, it ought not to be curvilinear on one side of the centre, and flat or angular on the other. In the planting '''flower-gardens''' the same attention to unity ought to be kept in [[view]]. One side ought not to be planted with tall-growing plants, and the other with plants of low growth; nor one part with evergreens, whether ligneous or herbaceous, and the other part with annuals or bulbs. '''Flower-gardens''' which are intended to be ornamental all the year, ought to have a large proportion of evergreen herbaceous plants distributed regularly all over them; such as Pinks, Sweet Williams, Thrift, Saxifrages, and intermixed with very low evergreen [[shrub]]s. . . '''Flower-gardens''' which are intended to be chiefly ornamental in spring, ought to be rich in bulbs and early-flowering [[shrub]]s. . . those that are intended to be chiefly ornamental in summer, should be rich in annuals; and those that are to be in perfection in autumn, in Dahlias. '''Flower-gardens''' on a large scale never look so well as when the spaces between the [[bed]]s are of turf; but those on a small scale may have the spaces between the [[bed]]s of gravel, and the [[bed]]s [[Edging|edged]] with box. . .
:“All the different kinds of '''flower-gardens''' may be reduced to the following:
: ''The French garden, or [[parterre]]'', is formed of arabesques, or scrollwork, or, as the French call it, embroidery of Box, with plain spaces of turf or gravel, the turf prevailing. The Box is kept low, and there are but very few parts of the arabesque figures in which flowers or [[shrub]]s can be introduced. Those plants that are used, are kept in regular shape by cutting or clipping, and little regard is had to flowers; the beauty of these gardens consisting in the figures of the arabesques being kept clear and distinct, and in the pleasing effect produced on the eye by masses of turf, in a country where verdure is rare in the summer season. These embroidered or arabesque gardens originated in Italy and France, and they are better adapted for warm climates than for England: they are, indeed, chiefly calculated for being seen from the windows of the house, and not for being walked in, like English '''flower-gardens'''.
:“''The ancient English '''flower-garden''''' is formed of [[bed]]s, connected together so as to form a regular or symmetrical figure; the [[bed]]s being [[Edging|edged]] with Box, or sometimes with flowering plants, and planted with herbaceous flowers, Roses, and one or two other kinds of low flowering [[shrub]]s. The flowers in the [[bed]]s are generally mixed in such a manner, that some may show blossoms every month during summer, and that some may retain their leaves during winter. This kind of garden should be surrounded by a [[border]] of evergreen and deciduous [[shrub]]s, backed by low trees; and in the centre there should be a [[sundial]], a [[vase]], a [[statue]], or a [[basin]] and [[fountain]].
:“''The modern English '''flower-garden''''' has the groundwork of turf, on which a system of [[bed]]s are formed, in such a manner as to constitute a symmetrical figure; or, if on a very large scale, groups of figures. The French '''flower-garden''' and the ancient English garden were chiefly calculated for being seen from an elevated situation, so as to show the whole at once; but the modern English '''flower-garden''' is calculated to be walked through, and seen by degrees. The [[bed]]s are generally of roundish or curvilinear figures, and they should never be of figures with numerous narrow angles, or projecting points; because such parts can never be properly covered with plants, and therefore have always a bad effect. These [[bed]]s are sometimes planted with a mixture of flowers alone, and sometimes with flowers and [[shrub]]s; but they are more generally planted, each [[bed]] with one kind of flower or one kind of [[shrub]], so as to produce masses of colour, or of shades of colour, which will harmonize with the masses in the other [[bed]]s. . . For every garden of this kind there is, or ought to be, a [[basin]] of water, as well for effect, as for watering the plants; and if the garden be on a large scale, there may be [[statue]]s, [[vase]]s, open and covered [[seat]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] baskets containing plants, [[rockwork]], and a variety of other objects; but these require to be introduced with great caution, and afford an excellent opportunity for a lady to exercise her taste in their arrangement. In fact, these ornaments, if not well managed, destroy the simplicity and elegance of the garden, and do more harm than good. When '''flower-gardens''' are close to the house, and are intended to be very highly kept, the [[bed]]s are often surrounded with a low frame-work of wire or [[trellis]]-work, so as to give them the effect of baskets of flowers; and this has sometimes a very good effect. . .
:“''The architectural '''flower-garden''''', or Italian garden, always adjoins the house, and it is [[border]]ed and separated from the rest of the [[pleasure-ground]]s by an architectural parapet or [[wall]]—see [[FENCE]]S. It consists of [[bed]]s symmetrically arranged, with gravel or pavement between; and the [[bed]]s are [[border]]ed or [[Edging|edged]] with stone. In other respects, these gardens are treated like the old English '''flower-garden'''.
:“''[[Terrace]]-gardens'' are merely architectural-gardens, formed on platforms adjoining the house, on one or more levels, each level being supported by a [[terrace]]-[[wall]]; but as they are chiefly adapted for mansions and places of considerable extent.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FLOWER GARDEN''', is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in [[parterre]]s and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. Under the title [[Pleasure Ground]], the portions of ornamented garden more distant from the house are considered.
:“''Aspect''.—The '''flower garden''' should encompass every side of the house upon which a window opens that is frequented by the master or his friends, whether in parlour or bed-room. The aspect of the '''flower garden''', therefore, must vary; but that which is best, because most favourable to flowers, is the south, south-eastern, and southwestern sides of the residence; and it is usual to arrange it so that the [[kitchen garden]] is immediately beyond it. Variety of aspect secures a succession of flowering in the same kinds. No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his [[parterre]]s should not be large, though his villa be small. A very common proportion for a small cottage is, the '''flower garden''' being one-fourth the size of the [[kitchen garden]]. . . .
:“All this is excellent, and I will only add these general additional rules:—always plant in masses, and with due attention to the harmony and contrast of colours and forms. . .
:“[[PARTERRE]], a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name '''''Flower Garden'''''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 441–43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH/q/hints%20on%20flower%20gardens view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Now, there are many genuine lovers of flowers who have attempted to make '''flower-gardens'''. . . who have quite failed in realizing all that they conceived of, and fairly expected, when they first set about it. It is easy enough to draw upon paper a pleasing plan of a '''flower-garden''', whether in the ''[[Geometric_style|geometric]]'', or the ''natural'', or the ‘''[[gardenesque]]''’ style, that shall satisfy the eye of the beholder. But it is far more difficult to plant and arrange a garden of this kind, in such a way as to afford a ''constant succession'' of beauty, both in blossom and leaf. Indeed, among the hundreds of avowed ''flower gardens'', which we have seen in different parts of the country, public and private, we cannot name half a dozen which are in any considerable degree ''satisfactory''.
:“The two leading faults in all our '''flower gardens''', are, the ''want'' of ''proper selection'' in ''the plants themselves'', and a ''faulty arrangement'', by which as much surface of ''bare soil meets the eye'' as is clothed with verdure and blossoms. . .
:“A '''flower garden''', deserving the name, should, if possible, be as rich as a piece of embroidery, during the whole summer and autumn. In a [[botanical garden]], or the collection of a curious amateur, one expects to see ''variety of species''— plants of all known forms, at the expense of every thing else. But in a '''flower garden''', properly so called, the whole object of which is to afford a continual display of beautiful colors and delicious odors, we conceive that every thing should be rejected, (or only most sparingly introduced,) which does not combine almost perpetual blooming, with neat and agreeable habit of growth. . .
:“We would add to the effect of our selection of perpetual blooming plants, by abandoning altogether the old method of ''intermingling'' species and varieties of all colors and habits of growth, and substitute for it the opposite mode of ''grouping'' or ''massing'' colors and particular species of plants. Masses of crimson and white, of yellow and purple, and the other colors and shades, brought boldly into contrast, or disposed so as to form an agreeable harmony, will attract the eye, and make a much more forcible and delightful impression, than can ever be produced by a confused mixture of shades and colors, no where distinct enough to give any decided effect to the whole. The effect of thus collecting masses of colors in a '''flower garden''' in this way, is to give it what the painters call ''breadth of effect'', which in the other mode is entirely frittered away and destroyed. . .”

[[File:0959.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and Flower Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.]]
*Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Nearly all the '''flower gardens''' of the country are laid out in geometrical lines; a style, it is true much better adapted to the small piece of ground allotted to flowers, than to the larger landscape garden composed of trees, [[lawn]]s, and sheets of water. With a wish however, to encourage a more graceful, pleasing, and [[picturesque]] mode of laying out even the small '''flower garden''' in connexion with the [[shrubbery]], we have given the above plan, which nearly explains itself.” [Fig. 10]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr. 1991: 418–21, 427–31, 435–37)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In our finest places, or those country [[seat]]s where much of the polish of [[pleasure ground]] or park scenery is kept up, one of the most striking defects is the want of ‘''union between the house and the grounds.''’. . .
:“If our readers will imagine, with us, a pretty villa, conveniently arranged and well constructed. . .
:“Let us suppose, for further illustration, the same house and grounds with a few additions. . . On the drawing-room side of the house, that is, the side towards which the best room or rooms look, we will place the '''flower-garden''', into which we descend from the [[terrace]] by a few steps. This '''flower-garden''' may be simply what its name denotes, a place exclusively devoted to the cultivation of flowers, or (if the house is not in a very plain style, admitting of little enrichment) it may be an architectural '''flower-garden'''. In the latter case, intermingled with the flowers, are to be seen [[vase]]s, [[fountain]]s, and sometimes even [[statue]]s; the effect of the fine colors and deep foliage of the former, heightened by contrast with the sculptured forms of the latter. . .
:“through these ornaments, [the '''flower garden'''] maintains an avowed connexion with the architecture of the house; all this. . . forms a rich setting to the architecture, and unites agreeably the forms of surrounding nature with the more regular and uniform outlines of the building. . .
:“''The Architectural '''Flower-garden''''', as we have just remarked, has generally a direct connexion with the house, at least on one side by the [[terrace]]. It may be of greater or less size, from twenty feet square to half an acre in extent. The leading characteristics of this species of '''flower-garden''', are the regular lines and forms employed in its [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s. The flowers are generally planted in [[bed]]s in the form of circles, octagons, [[square]]s, etc., the centre of the garden being occupied by an elegant [[vase]], a [[sundial]], or that still finer ornament, a [[fountain]], or ''[[jet d’eau]]''. In various parts of the garden, along the principle [[walk]]s, or in the centre of [[parterre]]s, pedestals supporting [[vase]]s, [[urn]]s, or handsome flower-[[pot]]s with plants, are placed. When a highly marked character of art is intended, a balustrade or parapet, resembling that of the [[terrace]] to which it is connected, is continued round the whole of this garden. Or in other cases the garden is surrounded by a [[thicket]] of [[shrub]]s and low trees, partly concealing it from the eye on all sides but one.
:“It is evident that the architectural '''flower-garden''' is superior to the general '''flower-garden''', ''as an appendage to the house'', on two accounts. First, because, as we have already shown, it serves an admirable purpose in effecting a harmonious union between the house and the grounds. And secondly, because we have both the rich verdure and gay blossoms of the flowering plants, and the more permanent beauty of sculptured forms; the latter heightening the effect of the former by contrast, as well as by the relief they afford the eye in masses of light, amid the surrounding verdure.
:“There are several varieties of general '''flower-gardens''', which may be formed near the house. . .
[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 428, fig. 76.]]
:“The ''irregular'' '''flower-garden''' is surrounded by an irregular belt of trees and ornamental [[shrub]]s of the choicest species, and the [[bed]]s are varied in outline, as well as irregularly disposed, sometimes grouping together, sometimes standing singly, but exhibiting no uniformity of arrangement. An idea of its general appearance may be gathered from the accompanying sketch. . . which may be varied at pleasure. In it the irregular boundary of [[shrub]]s is shown at ''a'', the flower-[[bed]]s ''b'', and the [[walk]]s ''e''. [Fig. 11]
:“This kind of '''flower-garden''' would be a suitable accompaniment to the house and grounds of an enthusiastic lover of the [[picturesque]], whose residence is in the Rural Gothic style, and whose grounds are also eminently varied and [[picturesque]]. Or it might form a pretty termination to a distant [[walk]] in the [[pleasure-ground]]s, where it would be more necessary that the '''flower-garden''' should be in keeping with the surrounding [[plantation]]s and scenery than with the house.
:“Where the '''flower-garden''' is a spot set apart, of any regular outline, not of large size, and especially where it is attached directly to the house, we think the effect is most satisfactory when the [[bed]]s or [[walk]]s are laid out in symmetrical forms. Our reasons for this are these: the '''flower-garden''', unlike distant portions of the [[pleasure-ground]] scenery, is an appendage to the house, seen in the same [[view]] or moment with it, and therefore should exhibit something of the regularity which characterizes, in a greater or less degree, all architectural compositions; and when a given scene is so small as to be embraced in a single glance of the eye, regular forms are found to be more satisfactory than irregular ones, which, on so small a scale, are apt to appear unmeaning.
:“The ''French'' '''flower-garden''' is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of '''flower-garden''' [[French style|[French Style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or ''[[parterre]]s of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height.
:“In the English '''flower-garden''', the [[bed]]s are either in symmetrical forms and figures, or they are characterized by irregular ''curved'' outlines. The peculiarity of these gardens, at present so fashionable in England, is, that each separate [[bed]] is planted with a single variety, or at most two varieties of flowers. Only the most striking and showy varieties are generally chosen, and the effect, when the selection is judicious, is highly brilliant. Each [[bed]], in its season, presents a mass of blossoms, and the contrast of rich colors is more striking than in any other arrangement. . .
[[File:0393.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “English Flower-Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 434, fig. 78.]]
:“We give an example of a small cottage or villa residence of one or two acres, where the flower[[bed]]s are disposed around the [[lawn]] in the [[English style]]: their forms irregular, with curved outlines, affording a great degree of variety in the appearance as viewed from different points on the [[lawn]] itself. . . . [Fig. 12]
:“Where the proprietor of a country residence, or the ladies of a family, have a particular taste, it may be indulged at pleasure in other and different varieties of the '''flower-garden'''. With some families there is a taste for botany, when a small botanic '''flower-garden''' may be preferred—the herbaceous and other plants being grouped or massed in [[bed]]s after the ''Linnæan'', or the ''natural'' method. Some persons have an enthusiastic fondness for florist flowers, as Pansies, Carnations, Dahlias, Roses, etc.; others for bulbous roots, all of which may very properly lead to particular modes of laying out '''flower-gardens'''.
:“The ''mingled'' '''flower-garden,''' as it is termed, is by far the most common mode of arrangement in this country, though it is seldom well effected. The object in this is to dispose the plants in the [[bed]]s in such a manner, that while there is no predominance of bloom in any one portion of the [[bed]]s, there shall be a general admixture of colors and blossoms throughout the entire garden during the whole season of growth.

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 229)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Every-body in a city should adorn the front of his dwelling with a pair of neat shade trees, and convert his back yard into a '''flower garden'''; it is the cheapest amusement he and his family can get; much more so than attending balls and theatres. . . Every house in Philadelphia has its '''flower garden''', and nearly every one has its couple of street shade trees. . .
:“Among the various amusements and recreations enjoyed by the inhabitants of large towns and crowded cities, none affords a greater source of innocent pleasure, or is better calculated to instruct and moralize the young, than the neatly laid out, the well-stocked and nicely kept '''flower garden'''; and nothing can more plainly bespeak the refined taste and good disposition of a family, or tend more to promote their health and happiness.”

*Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower Garden'' (1851: 26, 28)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Tenants, who occupy their places for an uncertain length of time, are not generally disposed to make many improvements by the addition of plants. Those who may be thus situated, and have a desire for a '''flower-garden''', can, without much outlay, have a succession of flowers through the season. The following Annuals may be obtained for one dollar:—Double Rocket Larkspur, Phlox Drummondii, Mignionette, German Asters, Coreopsis Drummondii, Pansies, Sweet Peas, Poppies, Gillyflowers, Chriseis, Purple and White Candytuft, Nemophila, Petunias, Lavateras, Convolvulus, Globe Amaranths, Immortal Flower, Mourning Bride, and Sweet Sultans. For two dollars a dozen, Verbenas, of different colors, may be obtained, that will keep up a lovely bloom from June to November. A dozen fine Dahlias and a few Gladiolas will cost three or four dollars, which, with a few monthly roses to be turned out into the garden, and to be re-potted in autumn, and a few choice perennials, grown in deep [[pot]]s and plunged in the ground, will not altogether exceed the sum of ten dollars. These plants, well grown, will make a fine display, and quite a respectable '''flower-garden'''.
:“Many beautiful plants may be selected from the [[wood]]s and fields, by those who wish to ornament their grounds at the least expense. These would be more highly prized than many far-fetched plants, that are trumpeted before the public, from time to time, could they be seen grouped together in the '''flower-garden''', with the same care of cultivation bestowed upon them as upon some of the expensive exotics.
:“In selecting for the garden, it should be borne in mind that many of the new varieties of flowers, of recent introduction, trumpeted forth, in advertisements and catalogues, as being ‘exquisite, superb, unsurpassed,’ &c., are, many of them, greatly inferior to the old and highly esteemed varieties of the old-fashioned gardens. These time-honored denizens of the '''flower-garden''' should not be discarded as antiquated and out of fashion.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River", 1758. “New '''flower garden'''” upper left quadrant of the garden.

File:0048.jpg| John Nancarrow, "Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The '''flower garden''', “g,” is located at some distance from the main house.

File:1346.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a '''flower garden''' with irregular [[border]]s, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 791, fig. 540. The '''flower garden''' is indicated at ''a''.

File:1348.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plans of the surfaces of '''flower gardens''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 793, figs. 543 and 544.

File:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a '''flower garden''' in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 794, fig. 545.

File:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The [[Botanic garden|botanic '''flower garden''']] with a gravel-[[walk]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 801, fig. 553.

File:1373.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The house and '''flower-garden''' entrance,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1026, fig. 729.

File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for '''Flower Garden''',” 1847.

File:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and '''Flower Garden''',” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

File:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque '''Flower Garden''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

File:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric style|Geometric]] Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280.

File:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. "'''flower-garden''', ''f''."

File:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular '''Flower-garden''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76.

File:0392.jpg|Anonymous, “The '''Flower-Garden''' at Dropmore,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 431, fig. 77.

File:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “[[English style|English]] '''Flower-Garden''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 434, fig. 78.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "'''Flower''' and [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen '''Garden''']] (25)."

File:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. "12. '''Flower Garden'''."
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

File:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.

File:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a '''Flower Garden''', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

File:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a '''Flower Garden''', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The Conservatory,” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

File:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "The [[lawn]] is on the north of the house. . .with '''flower gardens'''. . . on the south and east."

File:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The '''Flower-Garden''', in Joseph Breck, ''The '''Flower-Garden''': or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

File:1622.jpg|Anonymous, Gardens and Grounds of a Cottage Residence, ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 7. No. 5 (May 1, 1852), 233, fig. 102.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0253.jpg|John Durand, ''Two Little Boys in a Garden'', c. 1765

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0968.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0172.jpg|Susanna Heebner, attr., ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.

File:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck [[Pond]]'', c. 1820.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners’ Harbor'', Staten Island, NY, c. 1830–40.

File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], c. 1839.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]]: for the Year 1841'' (1841), frontispiece.

File:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846. A flower garden can be seen in the center-right of the image.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many [[Fence]]s'', c. 1847. A flower garden can be seen in the center of the image between the two buildings.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys’ School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1215.jpg|Charles Arthur de Armas, “Plan of a Property,” March 28, 1853.

File:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''[[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|Belvedere]]'', c. 1858.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]

Greenhouse

2021-04-12T13:28:58Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Green house, Green-house) <br/>
See also: [[Conservatory]], [[Hothouse]], [[Nursery]], [[Orangery]]

==History==
[[File:1190.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Samuel McIntire, “South Front of the Green house in the East Building,” Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.]]
The term greenhouse designated a plant-keeping house built to protect tender plants from cold weather. Although these structures were most commonly referred to as greenhouses, the terms [[conservatory]], glasshouse, and [[hothouse]] were often used synonymously. Attempts were made to distinguish among the terms. <span id="M’Mahon_cite"></span>According to [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, plants were planted in free soil and in “[[bed]]s and [[border]]s” in a [[conservatory]], whereas in a greenhouse, plants were kept in [[pot]]s or tubs ([[#M’Mahon|view text]]). <span id="Downing_1849_cite"></span>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] later wrote that plants were kept in the greenhouse until they were ready to be displayed in the [[conservatory]] ([[#Downing_1849|view text]]). In actual usage, however, the terms were often used interchangeably. The descriptors [[Hothouse]] or stove was also used to describe that part of the greenhouse with higher temperatures (see also [[Conservatory]], [[Hothouse]], and [[Orangery]]).

Although plant-keeping structures have been built since antiquity, the modern greenhouse, in which light and temperature could be artificially controlled, was possible only after 1700 when glassmaking improved and glass became cheaper. In addition to blowing glass, a pouring process was used by manufacturers. The earliest plant houses, which were called greenhouses in this country, had façades with large window openings that were integrated into a masonry, wood, or stone structure [Fig. 1]. These early buildings were replaced by iron-and-glass houses around the turn of the 19th century, which revolutionized greenhouse construction by allowing wide-span and filigree structures that let in more light.<ref>A disadvantage of cast iron technology was that condensation developed as a result of iron’s high thermal conductivity. Humidity control, always a concern, became a real issue in design. Therese O’Malley, ''Glasshouses: The Architecture of Light and Air'' (Bronx, NY: The Garden, 2005), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WTSZTV7Q view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0743.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, John Izard Middleton, Greenhouse, 1813.]]
Greenhouse construction, evident as early as [[John Bartram|John Bartram’s]] 1739 description of Westover, Virginia, on the James River, continued through the mid-19th century at sites ranging from elite houses such as Mount Clare, Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll’s plantation in Baltimore, to the more modest dwelling and greenhouse advertised for sale in Charleston in 1748. The pervasiveness of the structure reflects an interest in keeping exotic plants, which was a fundamental function of a greenhouse. In addition, the greenhouse allowed the extension of the growing season by providing a supportive environment for starting seeds, ripening fruit, and forcing flowers.

[[File:1000.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.]]
Two major concerns in greenhouse design were the admission of light and the creation of artificial heat. These problems could be solved in the modest construction of a building with a high back [[wall]], a low front [[wall]], and a glazed roof above, as shown in the greenhouse at Kirk Boott’s residence in Boston [<span id="Fig_9_cite"></span>[[#Fig_9|See Fig. 9]]]. The brick [[wall]] of a greenhouse could also serve as support for [[trellis|trellises]] or espaliered fruit trees. Most simple greenhouses built in this mode did not require the high temperatures or moist atmosphere of [[hothouse]]s. As [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] pointed out in 1806, such a greenhouse needed only enough artificial heat to “keep off frost and dispel damps,” whereas the [[hothouse]] required an inside stove and more glass (see [[Conservatory]] and [[Hothouse]] for further discussion of heating systems).

[[File:1709.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, William Halfpenny, “The Plan and Elivation of a Green House in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 42.]]
Early greenhouses had brick, stone, or dirt floors, but improved designs later made use of wood floors so that the air space under the floor might allow hot air to radiate under the entire floor.<ref>Michael F. Trostel, ''Mount Clare, Being an Account of the Seat Built by Charles Carroll, Barrister, upon His Lands at Patapsco'' (Baltimore: National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in the State of Maryland, 1981), 120n2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NTB2KX7C view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] recommended a small, air-tight coal stove and the related Polmaise mode of heating. This heating technique was based on the recirculation of air in the greenhouse: cold air was drawn into a furnace and heated air was expelled into the farthest reaches of the structure.<ref>Anonymous, “Description of the Polmaise Mode of Heating Greenhouses,” ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 3 (September 1848): 122–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XXGVE7H view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Downing_June1848_cite"></span>In 1848, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] described a plant house for [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] on the Hudson River that utilized this feature ([[#Downing_June1848|view text]]).

[[File:1734.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Oscar Alexander Lawson, ''Robert Buist: Nurseryman & Florist'', n.d.]]
The greenhouse generally had an open plan, which permitted a flexible arrangement of plants to accommodate changing plant collections in different seasons. It could contain “stages,” or stepped benches, upon which plants in [[pot]]s and tubs were placed [Fig. 2]. The interior could be divided so that different temperatures might be tailored to the needs of plant collections. Temperate zones were separated into either upper and lower areas or side-by-side partitions. These distinctive areas within the greenhouse were sometimes referred to by terms that described their contents: [[orangery]], vinery [Fig. 3], or palmhouse, for example. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>The finishing of the interior or exterior depended upon whether the greenhouse was to be visited, and therefore perceived as an “ornamental object” [Fig. 4], as Robert Buist wrote in 1841 ([[#Buist|view text]]). Or the greenhouse could be “primarily utilitarian” as seen at Buist’s nursery in Philadelphia [Fig. 5].

The most important development in greenhouse design resulted from [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon’s]] invention of the ridge-and-furrow roof and its supporting framework in the 1810s. In this system, hollow cast iron columns framed an open structure with gutter beams, and a roof surface was divided into small sections of channels and ridges, so that rainwater falling on it could flow through horizontal channels leading to drains in the columns.<ref>Georg Kohlmaier and Barna von Sartory, ''Houses of Glass, A Nineteenth-Century Building Type'', trans. John C. Harvey (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EFN32HR view on Zotero]. For Loudon’s role in the history of this building type, see Melanie Simo, ''Loudon and the Landscape: From Country Seat to Metropolis, 1783–1843'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMCPCCH5 view on Zotero].</ref> A new capacity to enclose space in an architectural style that was both weightless and transparent became available as new industrial methods made it possible to mass produce glass and iron components at a low price.<ref>Kohlmaier and von Sartory, ''Houses of Glass'', 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EFN32HR view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1285a.jpg|thumb|left|400 px|Fig. 6, George Washington, Plan for the greenhouse quarters at [[Mount Vernon]], Plan No. 1, c. 1785. ]]
Before the mid-19th century, glass prices remained high in America. The Federal Direct Tax law, which was passed in 1798 and which took into account the number and size of windows, was not repealed until 1847.<ref>Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds., ''Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia for the U.S. Capitol Historical Society, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q476GSSS view on Zotero].</ref> Therefore, the ownership of a greenhouse remained, for the most part, the privilege of the middle and upper classes. The greenhouse at [[The Woodlands]], near Philadelphia, was said to display to the observer “a scene that which, nothing that has proceeded it can excite more admiration.”<ref>Oliver Oldschool [Joseph Dennie], “American Scenery—for the Portfolio. The Woodlands,” ''Port Folio'' n.s. 2, no. 6 (December 1809): 504–7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FDWRDFDT view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Warville_cite"></span>Similarly, J. P. Brissot de Warville (1788), arriving at [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 6] was impressed by the display of a [[lawn]], stables, a greenhouse, and slave quarters—all trophies of wealth and prestige ([[#Warville|view text]]).

Several greenhouses associated with particular women are documented, suggesting the participation of both sexes in the activities surrounding their building, including maintenance and certainly enjoyment. Margaret Tilghman Carroll and Mrs. Jackson were two notable examples. Indeed, treatise literature of the period under study often recommended greenhouse gardening for women, which saved them from having to go outside. [[Jane Loudon]] in ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1843), for example, provided a chapter about “Window Gardening, and the Management of Plants in Pots in Small Greenhouse.” This subject matter was typical of the increasingly popular literature for a middle-class female audience.

[[File:1138.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Groombridge, ''[[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]],'' c. 1800.]]

The greenhouse was often part of a designed route through the ornamental landscape, serving as the termination of a [[walk]], as at [[Gray’s Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], or as the focus of a view, such as that at [[Lemon Hill]] [Fig. 7], both in Philadelphia. Many views of the latter depict a greenhouse dominating the scene of the house and landscape. In the early colonial period, greenhouses were built by wealthy families who had extensive contacts with international trade. For collectors, such as Abraham Redwood Jr. of Rhode Island and William Hamilton of Philadelphia, the greenhouse literally displayed the source of much colonial wealth that originated from plants important to the economy. It required money, skill, and staff to maintain a greenhouse, and therefore it became a symbol of erudition and luxury.

In addition to private greenhouses, commercial [[nursery|nurseries]] and [[botanic garden|botanic gardens]] also featured greenhouses that the broader public could visit and admire. Jacob Sperry’s seed garden; Robert Buist’s City Nursery and Greenhouse in Philadelphia; [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] Botanic Gardens and Nurseries in Newburgh, New York; [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] in Brooklyn, New York; and the [[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Botanical Garden]] in New York were all examples of such public or institutional greenhouses. At the same time, greenhouses were built and maintained by botanists and amateurs of far more modest means to enable them to pursue their scientific interests. Eventually, by the mid-19th century, when costs dropped and the country experienced a new fashion for and popularization of gardening, the greenhouse, both free-standing and attached, became more common in both urban and suburban domestic contexts. Garden periodicals such as ''Magazine of Horticulture'' and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] ''Horticulturist'' regularly featured articles on greenhouses, as did various garden books that were published in the early to mid-19th century.

—''Therese O’Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*[[John Bartram|Bartram, John]], July 18, 1739, describing Westover, [[seat]] of William Byrd II, on the James River, VA (1992: 121)<ref>John Bartram, ''The Correspondence of John Bartram, 1734–1777'', ed. Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Col Byrd is very prodigal in [[Gate]]s roads [[walk]]s [[hedge]]s & seeders [cedars] trimed finely & A little '''green house''' with 2 or 3 [orange] trees. . .

*Smith, John, 1745, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Weber 1996: 46–47)<ref>Carmen Weber, “The Greenhouse Effect: Gender-Related Traditions in Eighteenth-Century Gardening,” in ''Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape'', ed. Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny (Knoxville: The University of Tennesee Press, 1996), 32–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/92DA3QAZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the afternoon, the weather being so agreeable, John Armitt and I rode to Charles Jenki’s ferry on [[Schuylkill_River|Schuykill]]. We ran and walked a mile or two on the ice. On our way thither we stopped to view the proprietor’s '''green-house''', which at this season is an agreeable sight; the oranges, lemons and citrons were, some green, some ripe, some in blossom.”

*Anonymous, 1748, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a property for sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury, ed., 1994: 167)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[The dwelling house contains] a large Garden, with two neat '''Green Houses''' for sheltering exotic Fruit-Trees, and Grape-Vines.”

*Fisher, Daniel, 1755, describing the greenhouse in the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Martin 1991: 211)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“What to me surpassed every thing of the kind I had seen in America was a pretty bricked '''Green House''', out of which was disposed very properly in the [[pleasure garden|Pleasure Garden]], a good many Orange, Lemon and Citrous [''sic''] Trees, in great profusion loaded with abundance of Fruit and some of each sort seemingly then ripe.”

*Redwood, Abraham Jr., c. 1760, in a letter to his [[plantation]] manager, describing Redwood Farm, [[seat]] of Abraham Redwood Jr., Portsmouth, RI (Rhode Island Landscape Survey)
:“I would desire you send to me one hhd of good rum and one hhd of good sugar and I desire that you speak to your overseer to put up in Durt one dozen of Small orange Trees that has bore one or two years with the young fruit upon them, if to be had that has bore two or three years of Saffadella trees, four young figg trees and some Guavas roots, to put in my '''greenhouse''', for I have made a garden of 1 1/2 acres of land and I have built a '''green house''' twenty-two feet long, Twelve feet wide and Twelve feet high, and a [[hothouse|hotte house]] Sixteen feet long Twelve feet wide and Twelve feet high, and I have growing in my '''greenhouse''' Fifty young fruit trees from six inches to four feet high, and my Gardner says ye largest will not bear fruit these two years, and I have [[hothouse|hotte house]] Strawberries, Bush beans and Crownations in Blossom.”

*[[John Bartram|Bartram, John]], June 24, 1760, in a letter to Peter Collinson, describing his plans for the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 224)<ref name="Darlington_1849">William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Dear friend, I am going to build a [[greenhouse]]. Stone is got; and hope as soon as harvest is over to begin to build it, to put some pretty flowering winter [[shrub]]s, and plants for winter’s diversion; not to be crowded with orange trees, or those natural to the Torrid Zone, but such as will do, being protected from frost.”

*Anonymous, c. 1765, describing the greenhouse and garden of Dr. Upton Scott, Annapolis, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 149)<ref name="Sarudy_1989">Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no. 3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He is fond of botany and has a number of rare plants and [[shrub]]s in his '''greenhouse''' and garden.”

*Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, [[plantation]] of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166)<ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45, no. 2 (April 1937): 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . took a great deal of Pleasure in looking at the [[bowling green|Bowling Green]] & also at the Garden which is a very large Falling Garden there is a '''Green House''' with a good many Orange & Lemon Trees just ready to bear besides which he is now buildg [''sic''] a Pinery where the Gardr expects to raise about an 100 Pine Apples a Year He expects to Ripen some next Sumer.”

*Washington, George, August 11, 1784, in a letter to Tench Tilghman, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 95–96)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I shall essay the finishing of my '''green house''' this fall, but find that neither myself, nor any person about me is so well skilled in the internal construction as to proceed without a probability at least of running into errors.
:“Shall I for this reason, ask the favor of you to give me a short description of the '''Green-house''' at Mrs. Carrolls Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, Md.]? I am persuaded, now that I planned mine upon too contracted a scale. My house is (of Brick) 40 feet by 24, in the outer dimensions, and half the width disposed of for two rooms, back of the part designed for the '''green house'''; leaving the latter in the clear not more than about 37 by 10.”

*Tilghman, Tench, August 18, 1784, in a letter to George Washington, describing Mount Clare, [[plantation]] of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Trostel 1981: 77)<ref>Michael Trostel, ''Mount Clare, Being an Account of the Seat Built by Charles Carroll, Barrister, upon His Lands at Patapsco'' (Baltimore: National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in the State of Maryland, 1981), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NTB2KX7C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Inclosed you will find answers to your Several Queries respecting the '''Green House''' including the order in which they were put, and that you may better understand the Construction of Mrs Carroll’s, I have made a rough Plan of the Manner of conducting the Flues—Your Floor being 40 feet long Mrs Carroll recommends two Flues to run up the Back [[wall|Wall]], because you may then increase the number of Flues which run under the Floor, and which she looks upon as essential—The trees are by that means kept warm at the Roots—She does not seem to think there is any occasion for the Heat to be conveyed all around the [[wall|Walls]] by means of small Vacancies left in them She has always found the Flues mark’d in the plan sufficient for her House—
:“She recommends it to you to have the upper parts of your Window sashes to pull down, as well as the lower ones to rise—you then Give Air to the Tops of your Trees—
:“Your Ceiling she thinks ought to be Arched and at least 15 feet high—She has found the lowness of hers which is but 12 very inconvenient—
:“Smooth Stucco she thinks preferable to common Plaster because drier—
:“The Door of the House to be as large as you can conveniently make it—otherwise when the Trees come to any size, the limbs are broken and the Fruit torn off by moving in and out
:“It is the Custom in many '''Green Houses''' to set the Boxes upon Benches—But Mrs Carroll says they do better upon the Floor, because they then receive the Heat from the Flues below to more advantage—
:“I recollect nothing more—I hope your Excellency will understand this imperfect description of a matter which I do not know much about myself.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray’s Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1888: 1:275)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5/q/cutler view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We returned to the grass [[plat]], from which we ascended several glaces by a serpentine gravel [[walk]], and came to the '''Green-house'''. It is a very large stone building, three stories in the front and two in the rear. The one-half of the house is divided lengthwise, and the front part is appropriated to a '''green-house''', and has no chamber floors. It is finished in the completest manner for the purpose of arranging trees and plants in the most beautiful order. The windows are enormous. . . We then took a view of the contents of the '''greenhouse''', beautifully arranged in the open air on the south of the garden. Here were most of the trees and fruits that grow in the hottest climates. Oranges, lemons, etc., in every stage from blossoms to ripe fruit; pine-apples in bloom, and those that were fully ripe. The flowers were numerous and extremely fragrant.”

[[File:0333.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, G. & F. Bill (firm), Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington, c. 1859.]]
*<div id="Warville"></div> Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1792: 427–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . On this rout traverse a considerable [[wood]], and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grass[[plat]]s; on one side of the [[avenue]] are the stables, on the other a '''greenhouse''', and houses for a number of negro mechanics.” [Fig. 8] [[#Warville_cite|back up to History]]

*Barrell, Joseph, October 19, 1793, in a letter to W. W. Pringle, ordering plants for Pleasant Hill, [[seat]] of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (quoted in Hammond 1982: 230)<ref name="Hammond_1982">Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[Ten half standard and ten espaliered Morella cherry trees] to cover the back of my '''greenhouse'''. . . I want a (new) person that understands '''green house''' plants & laying out grass [[plot]]s & grounds, you will send the trees by the same opportunity the gardener comes that he may attend them on the passage.”

*Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de St.-Méry, March 26, 1797 (quoted in Roberts 1947: 240)<ref>Kenneth Roberts, and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I went. . . to visit [[Robert Morris]]’s [[greenhouse]] [''serre chaud''] near Philadelphia. It had very beautiful specimens of orange trees, lemon trees, and pineapples.”

*“A Schedule of Property within the State of Pennsylvania Conveyed by [[Robert Morris]], to the Hon. James Biddle, Esq. And Mr. William Bell, in Trust for the use and account of the Pennsylvania Property Company,” c. September 6, 1797<ref>“A Schedule of Property within the State of Pennsylvania Conveyed by Robert Morris, to the Hon. James Biddle, Esq. And Mr. William Bell, in Trust for the use and account of the Pennsylvania Property Company,” c. September 6, 1797, Autograph Collection of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, original MS reproduced Robbins 1987, 136, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An Estate called [[The Hills|the Hills]] Situate in the Northern Liberties, near the City of Philadelphia, containing Three hundred acres of land highly improved, and on which are erected a large and elegant [[greenhouse]], with a [[hothouse|hot house]] of fifty feet on each side; on the back front a House for a gardener, with one large and five small rooms, also two large rooms on the back or north front of the [[hothouse|hot house]], with an excellent vault under the [[greenhouse|green houses]], and a covered room for preserving roots & c in winter; the whole being a strong stone building, with the necessary glasses, casements, fruit trees, plants shrubs & c in good order; a well of excellent water, with a pump close to the north front the whole enclosed within a large Garden stocked with fruit trees of the best kind &c. & c.”

*Booth, William, September 23, 1799, advertisement in the ''Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser'' (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 115)<ref name="Sarudy_1989"></ref>
:“TO BOTANISTS, GARDENERS AND FLORISTS, and to all other gentlemen, curious in ornamental, rare exotic or foreign plants and flowers, cultivated in the '''greenhouse''', [[hothouse|hot-house]], or stove, and in the open ground. A large and numerous variety of such rarities is now offered for sale. . .
:“After reserving a general and suitable stock, he has to spare a well assorted and great variety of those things, comprising a beautiful collection, sufficient to decorate, furnish, and ornament a spacious or handsome greenhouse at once. . . The whole is a truly valuable collection, such as is very rarely to be met with for sale on this side of the Atlantic—indeed a moiety of them would comprise a very desirable and exclusive variety, consisting of many or most of the tropical fruits, and other rare and curious finely ornamental trees, scrubs and plants; with a numerous and abundant assortment of choice bulbous, tubrous, and fibrous rooted flowering and ornamental plants in mixtures. . . for which. . . please apply to John Cummings, at the alms-house, Messrs. David and Cuthbert Landrith, gardeners and nursery-men. . .
:“N.B. it is now a good time and proper season to build a '''green-house''', and to remove plants.”

*Codman, Dr. John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (quoted in Hammond 1982: 170)<ref name="Hammond_1982"></ref>
:“. . . behind which are stables (and) servants houses of various kinds, & in particular the gardens and '''greenhouses''' all of which are thus covered from sight. . . retirement is the object in this country. To be alone in the world as Adam and Eve were seems to be the taste, and the calm soft sweet scenes to be desirable.”

*Southgate, Eliza, July 6, 1802, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (quoted in Kimball 1940: 76)<ref>Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, ME: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We returned to the house, which was neat and handsome, and from thence visited the '''green house''', where we saw oranges and lemons in perfection. . . every plant and [[shrub]] which was rare and beautiful was collected here.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (1888: 2:145)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We then took a turn in the gardens and the '''green-houses'''. In the gardens, though ornamented with almost all the flowers and vegetables the earth affords, I was not able to walk long. The '''green-houses''', which occupy a prodigious space of ground, I can not pretend to describe. Every part was crowded with trees and plants from the hot climates, and such as I had never seen, all the spices, the tea-plant in full perfection; in short, he assured us there was not a rare plant in Europe, Asia, or Africa, many from China and the islands in the South Seas, none, of which he had obtained any account, which he had not procured.”

*Anonymous, November 25, 1805, describing the Museum Naturae, Norfolk, VA (''Norfolk Gazette and Publick Ledger'')
:“MUSEUM NATURÆ, ''of Norfolk and Portsmouth''. . .
:“[[Botanical Garden]], containing specimens of all the vegetable productions of this country, and furnished with '''green-houses''', for all such exotick and rare plants, as may be procured from abroad.”

<div id="Fig_9"></div>[[File:1459.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–47. [[#Fig_9_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Boott, Kirk, April 15, 1806, describing his residence, Boston, MA (quoted in Emmet 1996: 35)<ref>Alan Emmet, ''So Fine a Prospect: Historic New England Gardens'' (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WHJZ52ZW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . my '''Greenhouse''' has flourished beyond my expectation, and what pleases me much, I have found my skill equal to the care of it. Lettuces in abundance I have preserved, and have had fine Sallads thro’ the Winter.” [Fig. 9]

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1806, describing [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1806: 3–4)<ref>David Hosack, ''Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (New York: T. and Y. Swords, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy '''green-house''' plants, has been built.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55—56)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>[[Conservatory]]</u> consists of a '''green house''', & 2 [[hot house]]s—one being at each end of it. The '''green house''' may be about 50 feet long. The front only is glazed. Scaffolds are erected, one higher than another, on which the plants in pots or tubs are placed—so that it is representing the declivity of a mountain. At each end are step-ladders for the purpose of going on each stage to water the plants—& to a walk at the back-[[wall]]. On the floor a walk of 5 or 6 feet extends along the glazed [[wall]] & at each end a door opens into an [[Hot house]]—so that a long walk extends in one line along the stove [[wall]]s of the houses & the glazed [[wall]] of the '''green house'''.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter to William Randolph, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 366)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . my '''green house''' is only a [[piazza]] adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana & a very few things of that kind. I remember to have been much taken with a plant in your '''green house''', extremely odoriferous, and not large. . .”

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Trumbull, “Dr. Hosack’s Green houses,” [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], June 1806.]]
*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John E. West, and Timothy B. Crane, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 45)<ref>David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Estimate of the Buildings at the [[Botanic Garden]]''
:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or '''green house''', and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hothouse|hot houses]] and their back buildings, the lodges, the [[gate]]s and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.” [Fig. 10]

*Peck, William Dandridge, 1818, describing the Cambridge Botanical Garden, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Hammond 1982: 254)<ref name="Hammond_1982"></ref>
:“exotic plants, contributed by friends of the institution, who possessed '''greenhouses''' in the vicinity, who as they have acquired new plants, have generously continued to impart them.”

*Memorial of the Columbian Institute, December 1818, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O'Malley 1989: 123)<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C. 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Columbian Institute|[Columbian Institute]] lottery for] enclosing the grounds, for the erection of their hall—their laboratory—their [[hothouse|hot]] and '''green houses''',—their library and museum, and for the cultivation of the [[botanic garden]], wherein they hoped 'to soon present to the view of their fellow citizens specimens of all the plants of this middle region of our country, with others exotic and domestic. . . for the promotion of a great national object.’”

[[File:1454.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 1:108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss, 3 vols. (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975–77), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . We visited the '''green-house'''. Here were pine apples gro[wing. T]he rafters were covered with the grape vine of Europe whose clusters were nearly ripe. —Here was an American aloe whose ensiform leaves are as thick and as large as I am—a species of datura with large white flowers of the size of a half pint tumbler—and a thousand other curious matters—” [Fig. 11]

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:383)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5 ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . finding a spring stream in the Garden he followed it up the side of the hill, untill it become of some debth and among large Stones—and having at this place made a considerable cavity in the bank round the source of the Spring, to wall it up this hollow and arch it over, it was thought that it might be an excellent place to keep cabbage and Turnups &c during the winter season, but on tryal it was found to[o] moist and warm, for those vegetables sprouted and took a second groath, and they were obliged to take them out, in the first of January, and cover them with earth in the usial mode. This tryal gave the Idea of building a '''green house''' jouining to the arched cave—and that '''Green house''' keepted all exotic plants perfectly well without the aid of Stoves in the severest winters.”

[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “Map of [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York,” c. 1828.]]
*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, “From the New York Farmer and Horticultural Repository,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAI39F39 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''green-house''' department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier’s]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce picturesque effect.” [Fig. 12]

*Anonymous, December 31, 1828, describing in the ''Cincinnati Advertiser'' of the death of Mrs. Jackson (Hermitage Collections, John Trotwood Moore Papers)
:“Mrs. Jackson. . . We have understood from verbal information that the origin of Mrs. Jackson’s disease was severe cold, caught in her '''greenhouse''', while attending to her plants and flowers.”

[[File:0043_2.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.]]
*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The treasures contained in the [[hothouse|hot]] and '''green houses''' are numerous. Besides a very fine collection of Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Shaddock, Bergamot, Pomgranate and Fig trees in excellent condition and full of fruit, we notice with admiration the many thousand of exotics to which Mr. Pratt is annually adding. The most conspicuous among these, are the tea tree; the coffee tree—loaded with fruit; the sugar cane; the pepper tree; Banana, Plantain, Guva, Cherimona, Ficus, Mango, the Cacti in great splendour, some 14 feet high, and a gigantic Euphorbia Trigonia—19 years old, and 13 feet high. The '''green houses''' are 220 feet long by 16 broad; exhibiting the finest range of glass for the preservation of plants, on this continent.
:“Colonel Perkins, near Boston, has it is true, a grapery and peach [[Espalier]], protected by 330 feet of glass, yet as there are neither flues not foreign plants in them, they cannot properly be called '''green houses''', whereas Mr. Pratt’s are furnished with the rarest productions of every clime, so that the committee place the [[conservatory]] of [[Lemon Hill]] at the very head of all similar establishments in this country.” [Fig. 13]

*Forman, Martha Ogle, October 12, 1830, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 292)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I rode out with Mrs. Longstreeth to her country [[seat]]. I was very much pleased they have a very spacious house handsomely furnished, an elegant '''green house''' and [[hothouse|hot house]] and all the grounds in beautiful order.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[David Hosack|David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At an equal distance south, is to be seen the '''green house''' and [[hothouse|hot house]], a spacious edifice, constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, and well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection in our climate. It is composed of a centre and two wings, extending 110 feet in front and from 17 to 20 feet deep. One apartment is appropriated to a large collection of pines.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the southeastern and northeastern borders of the tract can be arranged the [[nursery|nurseries]], and portions selected for the culture of fruit trees and esculent vegetables, on an extensive scale; there may be arranged the [[Arboretum]], the [[Orchard]], the Culinarium, Floral departments, Melon grounds, and Strawberry [[bed]]s, and '''Green houses'''.”

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], February 13, 1832, describing greenhouses in the vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Weber 1996: 45)<ref>Carmen Weber, “The Greenhouse Effect: Gender-Related Traditions in Eighteenth-Century Gardening,” in ''Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape'', ed. Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny (Knoxville: The University of Tennesee Press, 1996), 32–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/92DA3QAZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is a Report of the Committee of the Horticultural Society. . . in which is displayed a great ignorance of the former taste for Gardening amongst us when it states, that Mr. Pepper’s '''Green house''', originally built by the late Dr. Barbon, was the first '''Green house''' built in Pennsylvania; this is not So.—The '''Greenhouse''' at [[Springettsbury|Sprigetsbury]], built by Margaret Freame daughter of William Penn, was the first;—the one attached to the House of my Father [Charles Norris]. . . was the next; and to this was added a [[hothouse|hot-house]]; with its bark-bed and roof of Glass, where upwards of 50 Pine-apples were raised of a Season, besides many rare plants.
:“My Father [in-law] Logan, had also a '''Green house''' in town, as well as a good one here [at Stenton], for he was an excellent Horticulturalist, and had many rare and beautiful Plants; indeed the large and fine Orange and lemon trees which now ornament Pratts '''Greenhouse''' at [[Lemon Hill]] were originally of his raising. . . Israel Pemberton likewise had a '''Green House''' for his wife’s Amusement, and there was one at Fair-hill [home of Isaac Norris Jr.].”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), February 1835, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Oakley Place, [[seat]] of William Pratt, Boston, MA (''American Gardener’s Magazine'' 1: 71)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 2 (February 1835): 68–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PMT6E6TC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Pratt’s '''greenhouse''' is entirely new, having been erected the last summer; it is heat[ed] with two brick flues, one only of which is used unless in very severe weather. The stage consists of one range running the whole length, with two tiers of shelves; one running up very steep from the [[walk]], which runs parallel with the back [[wall]], and the other from the front [[walk]], about the same [[slope]] as the surface of the glass.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), March 1835, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia” (''American Gardener’s Magazine'' 1: 241)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the Neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; Taken from Memoranda Made in the Month of March Last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 7 (July 1835): 241–46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JGIJ6PI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is another class of gardens in Philadelphia, called [[public garden|public gardens]], which combine in addition to a [[flower garden]], '''green-houses''', [[hothouse]]s, &c., a bar-room or tavern; this latter addition we are far from believing useful or needful.”

*B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine,” describing the garden of M. P. Sawyer, Portland, ME (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 380–81)<ref>J. B., “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden of M. P. Sawyer, Esq. contains the only '''green-house''' of any note in the city or vicinity. This we visited, and found MR Milne, who has charge of it, a man well skilled in his profession, and an ardent admirer of flowers. There are two houses upon it—The first a cold house for peaches and grapes, fiftythree feet long. The trees and vines were planted in it about the 20th June, 1835. The peach and some other trees are trained to the wall in a fine manner, and will probably produce fruit another season. . .
:“The other building is a common '''green-house''' or [[conservatory]], fifty feet long, devoted in part to grapes.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), March 1837, “Notes on some of the Nurseries and Private Gardens in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 164–66)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Some of the Nurseries and Private Gardens in the Neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia, Visited in the Early Part of the Month of March, 1837,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 5 (May 1837): 161–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U77842TZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Residence of ____ Perry, Esq.— . . .The house is built in the Grecian style, with a wing extending to the east, which is the [[conservatory]]. It is built with a span roof, and is glazed on the two sides and one end, the other end communicating with the house, from which it is entered through the parlor. . .
:“The advantages are so many and important, of having the '''green-house''' connected with the mansion, either through the library or parlor, that we have often wondered at their generally isolated situation. This is particularly the case around Boston, where there is scarcely a '''green-house''', certainly not one of any size or beauty, which connects with the living rooms to the dwelling house. We hope that those who are about erecting plant structures will bear this in mind. . .
:“A '''green-house''', strictly speaking, is but a place for the preservation of plants, and not for the growth of them; and the idea which some persons have, that all sorts and kinds may be grown in them is entirely erroneous.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing ''Residence of Dr. T. Edmonson Jr.'' (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 374)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Balitmore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . Attached to the garden is a '''green-house''', [[hothouse|hot-house]], and [[conservatory]] with a blank roof in the old style: this is made use of to preserve a number of large old lemons and orange trees."

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the garden of T. Dunlap, Haerlem Plain, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 326)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 9 (September 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The principal object of notice upon Mr. Dunlap’s place is the '''green-house''', which is built on a somewhat novel plan. It is a span-roofed house, composed of glass, with the exception of a flat blank roof in the centre, about four feet wide, against the sides of which the glass abuts. The house is seventy-five feet long and twenty-five feet wide, and cost about twelve hundred dollars. The walls are built of brick, with a cavity between the outer and inner wall, for the circulation of air, and to act as a non-conductor. By this means, the cold is more effectually excluded, as bricks are a ready conductor of either heat or cold; and where back walls to houses are built of brick, we should always advise this. Mr. Dunlap’s '''green-house''' has no side-sashes. The novelty of the plan, however, is the stage, which is quite different from any thing we have ever seen. Wishing not to lose any heat, and having always observed the great quantity of waste room in a '''green-house''', particularly under the stages, he thought of the expediency of building the latter of brick, and making the whole work solid. The experiment was tried, and so far it has proved a great economizer of fuel. The bricks are laid in Roman cement, and the work being well done, the stages are as smooth and level as if made of plank or boards, in the usual manner: there is consequently no lost room to be heated, and all that is given out by the flue is radiated throughout the house. So far as economy of fuel is the object, and for the purposes of the nurseryman, Mr. Dunlap’s plan is a very good one; but where neatness and lightness of the interior is a consideration, we should not advise a departure from the old mode. The house is warmed wholly with brick flues, running each side of the house, the stage being in the middle, between the [[walk]]s.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the residence of J. Cox, New York, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 370)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Attached to the house is a kind of '''greenhouse''' or plant cabinet, in which a variety of plants are kept during winter; and, in the place of a larger structure, contributes much to the pleasure of the family.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden is laid out with a large circular grass [[plat]] in the centre, about a hundred feet in diameter, and back of this, against the [[wall]] in the rear, is the '''green-house''', a handsome building, about thirty feet long, and sixteen wide, corresponding in its architecture with the house.”

[[File:1289.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, A. Hoffy, “[[View]] of Robert Buist’s City [[Nursery]] and Greenhouses,” 1846.]]
*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the grounds of [[Robert Buist|Robert Buist’s]] City Nursery and Greenhouse, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 124)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On it is a '''green-house''', forty feet long; a camellia-house facing the north, forty feet; a [[hothouse]], forty feet; and a geranium-house; about forty feet, the whole being a connected range. In addition to this, there is a rose-house, lately erected, about forty feet long. The whole we found well filled, for the season of the year, with a choice collection of healthy and well grown plants. The camellias were in excellent health; they are kept in the house the year round.” [Fig. 14]

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, John Notman, “No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute,” December 23, 1846.]]
*Notman, John, December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC (quoted in Greiff 1979: 119)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“No. 4 is the south front, and shews the elevation of the '''greenhouse''' and [[conservatory]]. I have not embodied those places in my design, but as applique, as they are unwholesome, their required surfaces of light does not agree with any style of architecture; but as adjunct, they require a great deal of dirty work and material in them, which is better done if they are out of direct observation The size of them is 30 feet by 65 feet each, and 25 feet high in the centre; they are directly entered from the building, and will be highly ornamental thus placed and formed, as a parallel perspective view of this front would shew.” [Fig. 15]

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 61)
:“The principle out-buildings on the premises are a barn, including stables and carriage-house, an [[icehouse|ice-house]], and a '''green-house''', or [[conservatory]]. The barn is large, and built of stone in the most substantial manner. The '''green-house''' contains about seven hundred plants, many of them rare and beautiful exotics.”

[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 3 (April 1848): opp. 280.]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“East of the entrance is the private [[yard]] and residence of the Phy[sic]ian of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the '''green-house''', hot-[[bed]]s, seed-houses, &c.” [Fig. 16]

[[File:1674.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, [[A. J. Downing]], Sketch of a “Propagating Pit” (or greenhouse) at Montgomery Place, June 17, 1848.]]
*<div id="Downing_June1848"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Aandrew Jackson]], June 17, 1848, in a letter to Cora L. Barton, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 34–35)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be very glad to aid you in the plan of your pit — but perhaps shall need more definite details. What you describe is rather a small '''greenhouse''' than a pit. . . .
:“What, I imagine, you require, is a sort of propagating pit — and I would recommend one the form of which you will easily understand by the section which I send you on the next page.
:“This is a sort of cheap span-roof building part of which is glass & the other part, viz the roof towards the north shingled. Under this roof, which is just high enough to allow a person to walk upright, is the [[walk]]. The roof is supported by a line of posts, a, which rest on the back wall of the pit or stage. . . In this country I do not find it of the least importance what the angle is for a house of this kind — there is so much sun & light. [Fig. 17] [[#Downing_June1848_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground|public grounds]] in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47, no. 3 (March 1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6th: The [[Botanic Garden]]
:“This is the spot already selected for this purpose and containing three '''green-houses'''. It will probably at some future time, be filled with a collection of hardy plants. I have only shown how the carriage-[[drive]] should pass through it (Crossing the [[canal]] again here) and making the exit by a large [[gateway]] opposite the middle [[gate]] of the Capitol Grounds.”

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston,” describing the residence of Timothy Bigelow, near Brighton, MA (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The residence of Mr. BIGELOW, near Brighton, is a prettily situated spot, nestling snugly on the sunny [[slope]] of a hill-side. There we found a pretty good range of [[hothouse|hot-houses]], consisting of two graperies, with a small '''green-house''' in the center; the latter rather small, badly contrived, but containing a nice assortment of '''green-house''' plants.”

===Citations===
*Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712: 75)<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens'', trans. John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GREEN-HOUSES''' are large Piles of Building like Galleries, which, by their Fronts, add to the Beauty of Gardens; besides that they are of absolute Necessity to be built, for preserving Orange-Trees, and other Plants, in Cases, during the Winter.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3:198, 202, 204)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical. . .'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1720), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''''Green-Houses''''', as they are commonly built, serve more for Ornament than Use; their Situation to receive the ''South Sun'', is the only thing that seems to be regarded towards the Health of the ''Plants'' they are to shelter: It is rare to find one among them that will keep a ''Plant'' well in the ''Winter'', either by reason of their Situation in moist places, their want of ''Glasses'' enough in the Front, the Disproportion of the Room within them; and sometimes where it happens that a '''''Green-House''''' has been well consider’d in these Points, all is confounded by the ''Flues'' under it, which convey the Heat from the ''Stoves''. . .
:“a good '''''Green-House''''' ought to be situated upon the driest Ground, to be as free from Damps as possible; . . . and yet upon occasion to let in Air freely, but chiefly to contrive that the Front of the House be so dispos’d, that nothing may obstruct the Passage of the Sun’s Rays in the ''Winter'' into the House. . .
:“The [[Wall]]s towards the ''North'' and the ''East'' must be of a good Thickness, but the Front towards the ''South'' should be all of ''Glass'', excepting a low [[Wall]] about a Foot high from the Ground.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter: 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[greenhouse|GREENHOUSE]], or ''[[conservatory]]''; a house of shelter in a garden, contrived for preserving the more tender and curious exotic plants, which will not bear the winter’s cold abroad in our climate. See EXOTIC.
:“''[[greenhouse|Greenhouses]]'', as now built, serve not only as [[conservatory|conservatories]], but likewise as ornaments of gardens; being usually large and beautiful structures, in form of galleries, wherein the plants are handsomely ranged in cases for the purpose. See GARDEN.”

[[File:1470.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, Philip Miller, “The Ground Plan of the Green house” and “The Ground Plan of the two Stoves,” in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1764), n.p.]]
*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 576, 579–83)<ref>Phillip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer,1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GREEN HOUSE''', or [[Conservatory]].
:“As of late Years there have been great Quantities of curious Exotic Plants introduced into the English Gardens, so the Number of '''Greenhouses''' or [[conservatory|Conservatories]] has increased; and not only a greater Skill in the Management and Ordering of these Plants has increased therewith, but also a greater Knowledge of the Structure and Contrivance of these Places, so as to render them both useful and ornamental, hath been acquired: and since there are many Particulars to be observed in the Construction of these Houses, whereby they will be greatly improv’d, I thought it necessary not only to give the best Instructions for this I was capable of, but also to give a Design of one in the manner I choose to erect it, upon the annexed Copper-plate.
:“As to the Length of these Houses, that must be proportion’d to the Number of Plants they are to contain, or the Fancy of the Owner; but their Depth should never be greater than their Height in the Clear; which in small or middling Houses may be sixteen or eighteen Feet; but for large ones, from twenty to twenty-four Feet, is a good Proportion. . .
:“The Windows in Front should extend from about one Foot and an half above the Pavement, to within the same Distance of the Cieling [''sic''], which will admit of a Cornice round the Building, over the Heads of the Windows. . . The Piers between these Windows should be as narrow as possible to support the Building; for which Reason I should choose to have them of Stone, or of hard well-burnt Bricks. . .
:“At the Back of the '''Green-house''' there may be erected an House for Tools, and many other Purposes; which will be extremely useful, and also prevent the Frost from entering the House that Way. . . The Floor of the '''Green-house''', which should be laid either with Stone, or broad Tiles, according to the Fancy of the Owner (but if it is laid with Stone, the ''Bremen'' Squares are the best, as being porous; so will not detain the Moisture), must be rais’d two Feet above the Surface of the Ground whereon the House is placed; which, in dry Ground, will be sufficient: but if the Situation be moist and springy, and thereby subject to Damps, it should be rais’d at least three Feet above the Surface: and if the Whole is arched with low Brick [[Arch]]es, under the Floor, it will be of great Service in preventing the Damps rising in Winter. . . Under the Floor, about two Feet from the Front, I would advise a Flue of about one Foot in Width, and two Feet deep, to be carried the whole Length of the House, which may be returned along the Back-part, and be carried up in proper Funnels adjoining to the Tool house, by which the Smoke may pass off. The Fire-place may be contrived at one End of the House; and the Door at which the Fuel is put in, as also the Ashgrate, may be contrived to open into the Toolhouse; so that it may be quite hid from the Sight, and be in the Dry; and the Fuel may be laid in the same Place, whereby it will always be ready for Use. . .
:“The Back-part of the House should be either laid over with Stucco, or plastered with Morter, and white-washed; for otherwise the Air in severe Frost will penetrate through the [[Wall]]s, especially when the Frost is attended with a strong Wind; . . .
:“Therefore, to avoid the Inconvenience which attends the placing of Plants of very different Natures in the same House, it will be very proper to have two Wings added to the main '''Greenhouse''': which, if placed in the manner expressed in the annexed Plan, will greatly add to the Beauty of the Building, and also collect a greater Share of Heat. In this Plan the '''Green-house''' is placed exactly fronting the South; and one of the Wings faces the South-east, and the other the South-west: so that from the time of the Sun’s first Appearance upon any Part of the Building, until it goes off at Night, it is constantly reflected from one Part to the other; and the cold Winds are also kept off from the Front of the main '''Green-house''' hereby: and in the Area of this Place you may contrive to place many of the most tender Exotic Plants, which will bear to be exposed in the Summer-season: and in the Spring, before the Weather will permit you to set out the Plants, the [[Bed]]s and [[Border]]s of this Area may be full of Anemonies, Ranunculus’s, early Tulips, &c., which will be past flowering, and the Roots fit to take out of the Ground, by the time you carry out the Plants; which will render this Place very agreeable during the Spring-season that the Flowers are blown; and here you may walk and divert yourself in a fine Day, when, perhaps, the Air in most other Parts of the Garden will be too cold for Persons not much used thereto, to take Pleasure in being out of the House.
:“In the Centre of this Area may be contrived a small [[basin|Bason]] for Water, which will be very convenient for watering of Plants, and add much to the Beauty of the Place. . .
:“The two Wings of the Building should be contrived so as to maintain Plants of different Degrees of Hardiness; which must be effected by the Situation and Extent of the Fireplace, and the Manner of conducting the Flues; a particular Account of which will be exhibited under the Articles of ''Stoves''.” [Fig. 18]

*<div id="M’Mahon"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardeners Calendar'' (1806: 78–79, 82)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''Green-house''', is a garden-building fronted with glass, serving as a winter residence, for tender plants from the warmer parts of the world, which require no more artificial heat, than what is barely sufficient to keep off frost. . .
:“A '''green-house''' should generally stand in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]], and if possible, upon a somewhat elevated and dry spot fronting the south. . . the building ought to be of brick or stone, having the front almost wholly of glass-work, ranging lengthwise east and west, and constructed upon an ornamental plan. . .
:“The '''Green-house''' and [[Conservatory]] have been generally considered as synonymous [''sic'']; their essential difference is this: in the '''Green-house''', the trees and plants are either in tubs or [[pot]]s, and are placed on stands or stages during the winter, till they are removed into some suitable situation abroad in summer. In the [[Conservatory]], the ground plan is laid out in [[bed]]s and [[border]]s, made up of the best compositions of soils that can be procured, three or four feet deep. In these the trees or plants, taken out of their tubs or [[pot]]s, are regularly planted, in the same manner as hardy plants are in open air. This house is roofed, as well as fronted with glass-work, and instead of taking out the plants in summer, as in the '''Green-house''', the whole of the glass-roof is taken off, and the plants are thus exposed to the open air.” [[#M’Mahon_cite|back up to History]]

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 557)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''GREEN-HOUSE''', or [[Conservatory]], is a building adapted, by its situation and construction, for the seasonable shelter and nurture of such exotics from warmer climates as are not hardy enough to endure the colder vicissitudes of our year, but yet neither require, nor would prosper under, the intense and more artificial culture of a [[hothouse|Hot-house]]. . .
:“Some persons distinguish between a '''Greenhouse''' and [[Conservatory]]; making the latter contain a [[border]] and pit: but this is to mix two systems of culture, which will proceed better separately.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 259–60)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. (Georgetown: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''Green-house''' should front the south, be sixteen feet wide, and any length you please. The front should be of sashes twelve to fifteen feet high, and have outside shutters. The roof should be of shingles—the back [[wall]] of brick, six to nine feet high, with flues thro' it. There should be a shed to shelter the back [[wall]], and a furnace under the shed to communicate with the flues in the [[wall]], for the purpose of warming the house moderately in frosty weather.
:“Or a '''green-house''' may be placed on the south side of a hill, and the hill excavated so that the back and ends of the house will be solid earth; the front of sashes with outside shutters, in this situation a fire place will be unnecessary.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 53)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'' (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:“99. A '''green-house''' is for the purpose of having plants and flowers flourishing, or, at least, in verdure and in bloom, in ''winter''. The best place for a '''green-house''', is, near the dwelling house, and, it should be actually ''joined'' to the dwelling house, one of the rooms of which should have ''windows looking into the'' '''green-house''', which latter, however, must face the ''South''. When the thing can be thus contrived, it is very pretty. It renders a long winter shorter in appearance; and, in such cases, appearances are realities. A door, opening from a parlour into a '''green-house''', makes the thing very pleasant and especially in a country like America, where, for six months, every thing like verdure is completely absent from the fields and gardens. And, if the expense be but small, such a pleasure may, surely, be afforded to the females of a family, though, to afford it, may demand some deduction in the expenditure for the ''bottle'', in the pleasures of which (if, alas! pleasures they be!) the amiable ladies of this country do not partake.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 310–12, 794, 811–12)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1584. ''[[greenhouse|Green-houses]] were known in this country in the seventeenth century''. They were then, and continued to be, in all probability, till the beginning of the 18th century, mere chambers distinguished by more glass windows in front than were usual in dwelling-rooms. Such was the [[greenhouse|green-house]] in the apothecaries' garden at Chelsea. . .
:“1585. ''The first æra of improvement'' may be dated 1717, when Switzer published a plan for a forcing-house, suggested by the Duke of Rutland’s graperies at Belvoir Castle. Miller, Bradley, and others, now published designs, in which glass roofs were introduced. . .
:“1586. ''A second æra of improvement'' may be dated from the time when Dr. Anderson published a treatise on his patent [[hothouse|hot-house]], and from the publication of Knight’s papers in the ''Horticultural Society’s Transactions'', both of which happened about 1809. Not that the scheme of Dr. Anderson ever succeeded, or is at all likely to answer to the extent imagined by its inventor; but the philosophical discussion connected with its description and uses, excited the attention of some gardeners, as did the remarks of Knight on the proper [[slope]] of glass roofs (''Hort. Trans.'' vol. i.); and both contributed, there can be no doubt, to produce the patent [[hothouse|hot-houses]] of Stewart and Jorden, and other less known improvements. These, though they may now be considered as reduced ''au merite historique'', yet were really beneficial in their day. Knight’s improvements chiefly respected the angle of the glass roof; a subject first taken up by Boerhaave about a century before, adopted by Linnaeus (''Amen. Acad.'' i. 44.), and subsequently enlarged on by Faccio in 1699, Adanson (''Familles des Plantes'', tom, i.) in 1763, Miller in 1768, Speechley in 1789, John Williams of New York (''Tr. Ag. Soc. New York'', 2d edit.) in 1801, Knight in 1806, and by some intermediate authors whom it is needless to name.
:“1587. ''The last and most important æra'' is marked by the fortunate discovery of Sir G. Mackenzie in 1815, ‘that the form of glass roofs best calculated for the admission of the sun’s rays is a hemispherical figure.’ . . .
:“1591. . . The object or end of [[hothouse|hot-houses]] is to form habitations for vegetables, and either for such exotic plants as will not grow in the open air of the country where the habitation is to be erected; or for such indigenous or acclimated plants as it is desired to force or excite into a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation at extraordinary seasons. The former description are generally denominated [[greenhouse|green-houses]] or botanic stoves, in which the object is to imitate the native climate and soil of the plants cultivated; the latter comprehend forcing-houses and culinary stoves, in which the object is, in the first case, to form an exciting climate and soil, on general principles; and in the second, to imitate particular climates. . .
[[File:1357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan, [[view]], and section of green-house, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 567.]]
:“6099. ''The [[greenhouse|green-house]] or [[conservatory]] is generally placed in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]]'', provided these structures are not appended to the house. . .
[[File:1825.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, [[J. C. Loudon]], Greenhouse or [[conservatory]] for a [[Flower garden|flower-garden]], with a span roof, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 568.]]
:“6161. ''The [[hothouse|hot-houses]] of floriculture'' are the frame, glass case, [[greenhouse|green-house]], [[orangery]], [[conservatory]], dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]], or [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]; and the pit and hot-[[bed]] in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial heat with the least labor and expense. . .
:“6164. ''The [[greenhouse|green-house]]'' may be designed in any form, and placed in almost any situation as far as respects aspect. Even a house looking due north, if glazed on three sides of the roof, will preserve plants in a healthy vigorous state. A detached [[greenhouse|green-house]], even in the old style, may be rendered an agreeable object in a [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. . . but the curvilinear principle applied to this class of structures, admits of every combination of form, and without militating against the admission of light and air. Though we are decidedly of opinion, however, that as iron roofs on the curvilinear principle become known, the clumsy shed-like wooden or mixed roofs now in use will be erected only in [[nursery]] and market-gardens. . . [Fig. 19]
:“6165. ''The most suitable description of [[greenhouse]] or [[conservatory]] for the [[flower garden|flower-garden]]'' is that with span roof (''fig''. 568), because such a house has no visible 'hinder parts,' back sheds, stock-holes, or other points of ugliness, with which it is difficult to avoid associating all the shed, or lean-to forms of glazed buildings with back [[wall]]s. . . [Fig. 20]
:“6166. ''In the interior of the [[greenhouse|green-house]]'' the principle object demanding attention is the stage, or platform for the plants.”

[[File:1197.jpg|thumb|Fig. 21, Robert Squibb, Green-House: front and back walls, in ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (1827), frontispiece.]]
*Squibb, Robert, 1827, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (1827: 2–3)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (Charleston, SC: P. Hoff and E. Gibbs, 1827), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBDSMZ38 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I commence first by giving a sketch and the dimensions of a '''Green-House''' adapted to our climate, which, added to our local advantages, completes the beauty of our Winter season by uniting the whole world in one grand [[conservatory]] in our Carolina gardens.
:“The vast variety of beautiful evergreens indiginous to this soil, together with a selection from climates similar to our own, would keep up a perpetual bloom, and would not require the '''Green-house''' to be on so extensive a plan as to become expensive or laborious, and yet give an imposing and pleasing variety. No fuel being required, it would only be necessary to give the houses all the glass-lights possible, and to make them perfectly tight. Perhaps not more than once in twenty years would it be necessary to have a top covering to protect the plants from severe frosts, which might be done by a tarpawling or with garden mats, and serve equally well to protect from hail storms which sometimes might occur in the spring. On the south front of the house, if a row of deciduous trees were planted to break the power of the summer sun, and an opening made on the north side in a form to take down, the majority of plants might remain in the house all the year.” [Fig. 21]

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 19, 1829, ''An Address, Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H. A. S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and '''Green Houses''', the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or [[Picturesque]] Gardening.”

*Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 151)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“J. W. Watkins, Esq. of New York, gives the following plan for the construction of a '''green-house''', in the ''Trans. of the Agric. Soc.'' of the above state: —
:“‘The building should be sunk in the earth from two to four feet, in proportion to the size of the house, and according to the nature of the soil. . . The height should not exceed twelve feet from the exterior ground, by which it will be less exposed to high winds. The width should not exceed sixteen or eighteen feet, as the sun’s rays are, at that distance from the glass, very feeble. A south front is well known to be the true one, but advantage should be taken of glazing as much of the eastern end as possible, for the benefit of the morning sun. The front should decline northward from a perpendicular with the horizon, so as the angle made thereby with the horizon will, at noon-day in the winter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side without a break. . .
:“‘The advantages proposed by this method of constructing are, the lessening the expense of building; that, the heat of the sun being sufficient to warm the house, the trouble and expense of warming it by a stove is avoided, which unless very carefully attended, the plants may be injured by too much heat, and are always by the smoke that unavoidably makes its way out of pipes. It would be proper, nevertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold, cloudy days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the house below that degree of temperature necessary for preserving the plants, which is a case that will seldom happen, as one clear day will warm the house sufficiently to admit its being shut up for several days.’”

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 22, James E. Teschemacher, “A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.]]
*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 157–61)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The principal feature of the plan in the drawing is the construction of a '''green-house''' in the centre of the cottage, which has only one attic story; the rooms on each side of the entrance may be imagined as being each sixteen feet wide in front and eighteen or twenty deep, with fourteen feet width for the '''green-house''', which would give a front of fortysix [''sic''] feet. . .
:“In many houses which are warmed throughout, the entrance is frequently appropriated to plants, and where it is feasible why may not a glass roof be substituted for the shingle or slate, thus affording the necessary vertical light? advance one step farther by giving a glass front and we have a '''green-house'''. . .
:“The interior arrangement of this small [[conservatory]] can be fixed to suit different tastes, but I should prefer any to the usual mode of a straight walk down the centre; for instance, the roof might be additionally supported by three or four slender [[pillar]]s up which might be trained Lophospermum, Acacia pubescens, Cobea scandens, Eccremocarpus scaber or other beautiful climbing plants. . .
:“I shall not at present touch on the choice of ornamental [[shrub]]s, and also merely hint now that if the spot possess the enviable qualification of a stream or even a [[pond]] (from the former the latter could easily be formed), the cultivation of the beautiful aquatic and swamp plants of this and other countries would create very considerable additional interest and beauty. The back door of the '''green-house''' should open into this garden; outside of this door, on the left, a stage may be erected, concealing the culinary offices, on which to place the '''green-house''' plants during the summer.” [Fig. 22]

*Sayers, Edward, December 1, 1837, “The City Green-House” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 457)<ref>Edward Sayers, “The City Green-House,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (December 1, 1837): 457–58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EXPIQI6K view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are but few appendages to the city residence that are of a more inviting and useful nature and add more to the social comforts of its inmates, than a well stocked '''green-house''', that at once presents a pleasing and amusing variety, and is congenial to the most refined observer. For while winter envelopes, as it were, the native ''flora'' around in a mantle of ''white'', and the flowers of the forest repose until the return of a more propitious season, the '''green-house''' presents a pleasing variety of floral riches, in the most happy manner, that are natives of the different parts of the globe. . .
:“I know not of any thing in which the merchant or man of business can spend a few leisure hours more pleasantly, to unbend his mind from the cares of his avocations, than to view a beautiful collection of '''green-house''' plants, where it is impossible there can be any thing to ''mar'' his feelings or appear disagreeable. The temperature is also in accordance with our feelings, and we can therefore view the beauties before us without inconvenience. Nothing here can taint the morals of the most refined observer; and to the younger members of families many pleasing and useful features of the vegetable kingdom are imbibed, as botany, the utility of the different plants as relates to their domestic and medicinal properties, &c.; which in many cases is proved to be a useful compendium through our various walks in life, and ever brings to memory our infantile days of pleasure in the '''green-house'''.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 97–98)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Green-house''' being, at this time, an almost general appendage to the [[flower garden]], particularly in city residences, where it is generally connected with the dwelling house, is the principal reason for introducing some remarks on the subject in this place.
:“The position of the '''green-house''' should, if possible, be such that it may face to the south, although a southeast or southwest aspect may answer; it must be a consideration with the owner, as to which is the most convenient place on the premises. . . The ['''green'''] '''house''' may be of almost any plan; it will appear to good advantage with a circular front, although a straight one is the most general and answers best. Thirtyfive feet long, and fourteen wide in the inside, is perhaps a good house; but when the length is greater the width must be in proportion. The front and end [[wall]]s should be of brick and may be placed two feet above the surface of the earth; on the front [[wall]], upright sashes from two and a half to three feet high, must be conveniently fixed so as to give air. . . The back [[wall]] must be carried to such a height that when the roof, which must be glass, is put on, it forms an angle of forty deg.; the ends, which should also be glass, will have a pitch accordingly; the roof should be composed of sashes four feet wide, the top ones to slide by pulleys and reels over the bottom. The rafters may be four inches wide on the outside, and bevelled to an angle inside; the panes should be five by seven inches, well glazed with a lap of not more than a quarter of an inch, the wood and all other materials require to be of the best quality. . .
:“The house may be heated either by a dry flue, or hot water, but the dry flue is most general, and perhaps best.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 89–91)<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. . .'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the Construction of a [[Greenhouse|Green-House]] and its Size.
:“It can be heated with one fire-place, if it is forty feet long, sixteen wide, and the same in height; windows upright, and to commence two feet from the bottom, and go within three feet of the top; all hanging with weights to give air when wanted; there should be two or three in each end of the house also.
:“The principal thing is the fire place; that is to be in the rear, and to come into the house from the north-west corner is rather the best; the size in the inside to be two feet in the clear in the length, eighteen inches wide, the grate to be one foot wide, and fifteen inches long; the bars to be one inch and a half thick by one inch broad, and to lay not more than one-quarter of an inch apart, the ends to fit close together, and half in, to lay on a bar of iron, with a fall of nine inches for the ashes; the door frame for two doors, the lower one to have two holes, with valves to shut or not as may be; the bottom of the entrance into the flue to be eighteen inches above the fire-place; an arch turned over rather higher behind than before; the flues all round to be four bricks on edge, a foot wide outside, and tiles a foot wide to cover over the top, an inch and a quarter thick; all soft brick, and laid in clay mortar; it will look better and throw more heat at less expence of fire, to have the bricks laid pigeon-hole fashion. The [[greenhouse|green-house]] to face the mid-day sun, or a little earlier. A [[conservatory]] may range south and north with glass roof, sides and ends, within two feet of the ground, and heated in the same way. The glass for the slope of the roof had better be about six inches wide, as it is bought cheaper, and not so liable to break. The slope may be what you please, only keep as near the directions as possible for the fire-place. Either of the above directed houses should be near the house, for convenience, or amusement for the winter. The stage in the [[greenhouse|green-house]] may be put up any form wished, provided it has a regular slope, as the plants always look best. The flues round the house with a shelf on it, will hold a great many plants, and they will be partly out of sight. Steam pipes will hold nothing, being round, and they cost more money, and when they get out of order, you have to get an engineer to put all right again, and if that should happen in the middle of winter, the consequences may be feared. . .
:“Grape vines can be trained up the inside of a [[conservatory]] to advantage, by making the ground good where they are planted, and having an aperture through the lower part where they grow. You may indulge your taste to a considerable extent in laying out the ground adjacent to the house, if you wish; it will have a pretty effect for various flowers, [[shrub]]s, &c.
:“It is customary to cause steam in the house in the evening, when the fire is kept up in cold weather, by occasionally pouring water along on the flue; it will make the plants have a fine appearance in the morning.”

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 13, 210)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>
:“When there is not a '''green-house''' attached to the [[flower garden]], there should be at least a few sashes of framing or a forcing pit to bring forward early annuals, &c., for early blooming. These should be situate [''sic''] in some spot detached from the garden by a [[fence]] of Roses, trained to [[trellis|trellises]], [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] [[arbor|Arbour]] Vitae, Privet, or even Maclura makes excellent [[fence]]s. . .
:“In many respects, the construction of the '''Green-house''' will be the same as the [[hothouse|Hot House]], but might be made much more an ornamental object, and could be erected contiguous to the mansion-house, with large folding-doors to open at pleasure, and be connected with the drawing-room or parlour. The extent may vary according to the collection to be cultivated.
:“It was formerly the practice to build these houses with glass only in front, and even to introduce between the windows strong piers of brick stone; but this is now abolished, and has given way to a more light and ornamental style, by which cheerfulness and the desired utility are better consulted. There should be conveniences for the admission of air in the highest part of the house, that a free current may be obtained whenever desired, which is an essential point.” [[#Buist_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1843, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1843: 143)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; And Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VJ3SM523 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[greenhouse|GREENHOUSE]].— A structure for growing those plants in (more particularly in the winter season,) which will not endure the open air of British winters. It may be of any form, but the most convenient is a [[square]] or a parallelogram, with upright glass in front, sufficiently high to admit of walking upright under it immediately within the glass; and with a sloping roof, at such an angle as readily to throw off the rain. This roof, for the better receiving the sun’s rays, should face the south, south-east, or south-west, and this is called the aspect. The front should seldom be lower than seven feet in height, and the height of the back should be about two-thirds of the width of the house. The space within is generally laid out so as to have a shelf in front, about two feet high from the ground, and two or three feet in width; and next there is a path two or three feet in width; the remainder of the floor, from the edge of the path to the back [[wall]], being occupied with a series of shelves, rising one above another like the steps of a staircase, on which the [[pot]]s of plants are to be placed. . . The fire should be at one end, or behind the house, whichever may be most convenient. . . Other minor details need not be here entered into, as they are perfectly understood by all constructors of [[greenhouse]]s, whether of wood or iron. With respect to these two materials, iron admits of the greatest variety of shape, such as a curvilinear ground plan and roof, and it also admits most light; but the construction in wood is most generally understood, and is rather the cheapest.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 270–71, 273–74)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GREEN-HOUSE'''. This is a winter-residence for plants that cannot endure the cold of our winter, yet do not require either the high temperature or moist atmosphere of a stove [''i e''. [[hothouse|hot-house]] ].
:“'The first thing to be attended to in its construction,’ says Mr. H. Fortune, of the Chiswick Gardens, 'is the choice of a proper situation. South is the best aspect, or as nearly that as possible: south-west or south-east will do, or even east or west; but on no account should it ever face the north. '''Green-houses''' should be fixed in situations where they will not be shaded from the sun by any part of the dwelling-house, or other buildings, and should also be quite free from large trees. They should not be placed near trees for another reason than being shaded by them, namely, the glass in the roof being apt to be broken by the rotten branches which are sent down during high winds.
:“'Another most desirable consideration is, to make arrangements for a constant supply of rainwater. This is very easily done when the house is building. Gutters are wanted to carry the wet off the roof; and, in so doing, let it be brought into a tank in the house, and used for watering the plants. . .’ —''Gard. Chro. . .''
:“as the practice is most injurious to have the temperature of the [[hothouse|hot-house]] too elevated during the night, so no less injurious, in winter, is it to permit tender plants in the '''green-house''' or elsewhere, which may have been subjected to a freezing temperature, to be suddenly exposed to a higher degree of heat. Experience has placed it beyond dispute that such plants should be shaded from the sun, and thus returned very slowly to a more genial temperature. So convinced by experiment of the importance of securing plants in '''green-houses''' from sudden transitions is Mr. Macnab, the curator of the Caledonian Horticultural Society’s garden, that he has those structures ranging north and south, and consequently with a western and eastern aspect. They have two aspects, because he has them with span roofs, instead of the old lean-to form. For '''green-houses''', but not for forcing, there is no doubt that this form is to be preferred; and Mr. M'Nab thus enumerates its advantages: ‘In a span-roofed house the circulation of air may be constantly kept up so as effectually to prevent damp. For such a '''green-house''' fire heat is scarcely at all required; for, if there be a free circulation of air during the autumn and winter months, and if the tables and shelves be carefully kept dry and clean, water being sparingly given to such plants only as require it, cold, even descending to freezing occasionally the surface of the soil, will do less injury than the application of fire heat to most plants. In the case of plants frozen in a lean-to house, and others in a span-roofed house extending north and south, the consequences were much the least injurious in the latter, for in it the influence of the sun was much less felt; as he proceeded towards the meridian, the astragals and rafters formed a shade, and air being given, the plants survived and soon recovered; in the lean-to house they blackened and perished.’ . . .
:“'''Green-house''' plants are chiefly kept in [[pot]]s or tubs for moving them into shelter in winter, and into the open air in summer; for being all exotics from warmer parts of the world, they are not able to live in the open air in the winter.”

[[File:0943.jpg|thumb|Fig. 23, Anonymous, “Plan of a small Green-House” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): figs. 32 and 33.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 1848, “A Chapter on Green-Houses” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 258)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Chapter on Green-Houses,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 257–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9NAIUCAQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are many of our readers who enjoy the luxury of [[greenhouse|green-houses]], [[hothouse|hot-houses]], and [[conservatory|conservatories]], — large, beautifully constructed, heated with hot water pipes, paved with marble, and filled with every rare and beautiful exotic worth having, from the bird-like air plants of Guiana to the jewel-like Fuchsias of Mexico. They have taste, and much ‘money in their purses.’ . . .
:“The idea that comes straightway into one’s head, when a [[greenhouse|green-house]] is mentioned, is something with a half roof stuck against a [[wall]], and glazed all over,—what gardeners call a lean-to or shed-roofed [[greenhouse|green-house]]. This is a very good form where economy alone is to be thought of; but not in the least will it please the eye of taste. We dislike it, because there is something incomplete about it; it is, in fact, only half a [[greenhouse|green-house]].
:“We must have, then, the idea, in a complete form, by having the whole roof—what in garden architecture is called a ‘span-roof’—which, indeed, is nothing more than the common form of the roof of a house, sloping both ways from the ridge pole to the eaves.
:“A [[greenhouse|green-house]] may be of any size, from ten to as many hundred feet; but let us now, for the sake of having something definite before us, choose to plan one 15 by 20 feet. We will suppose it attached to a cottage in the country, extending out 20 feet, either on the south, or the east, or the west side.” [Fig. 23]

[[File:0914.jpg|thumb|Fig. 24, Anonymous, “A Country House in the Pointed Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 304, fig. 133.]]
*<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 448–49, 454),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America. . .'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ''[[Conservatory]]'' or the ''[[greenhouse|Green-House]]'' is an elegant and delightful appendage to the villa or mansion, when there is a taste for plants among the different members of a family. Those who have not enjoyed it, can hardly imagine the pleasure afforded by a well-chosen collection of exotic plants, which, amid the genial warmth of an artificial climate, continue to put forth their lovely blossoms, and exhale their delicious perfumes, when all out-of-door nature is chill and desolate. The many hours of pleasant and healthy exercise and recreation afforded to the ladies of a family, where they take an interest themselves in the growth and vigor of the plants, are certainly no trifling considerations where the country residence is the place of habitation throughout the whole year. . .
:“The difference between the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and [[conservatory]] is, that in the former, the plants are all kept in [[pot]]s and arranged on stages, both to meet the eye agreeably, and for more convenient growth; while in the [[conservatory]], the plants are grown in a [[bed]] or [[border]] of soil precisely as in the open air. . . .
:“A small [[greenhouse|green-house]], or plant cabinet, as it is sometimes called, eight or ten feet square, communicating with the parlor, and constructed in a simple style, may be erected.”

[[File:0790.jpg|thumb|Fig. 25, [[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & Green House,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 307)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[greenhouse|green-house]] [Design XXV.] communicates directly with the parlor, and is supposed to have a south aspect—though an east or west exposure is found to answer perfectly well in this climate. It will be easily heated by the same furnace which heats the house—a 10 inch hot-air pipe and a large register, running through the basement, and entering by the floor or side of the [[greenhouse|green-house]]. There should be a large door at the outer end of the [[greenhouse|green-house]], for taking in the plants, and a cistern beneath it, to collect water from the roof for watering them.” [Fig. 24]

[[File:1656.jpg|thumb|Fig. 26. Robert B. Leuchars, Perspective view of a greenhouse, in A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses (1850), 77, fig. 25.]]
*Leuchars, Robert B., 1850, "Structures adapted to particular purposes," in A ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850: 77-78)<ref>Robert B. Leuchars,A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses (New York: Judd, 1850): 77-78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VFTWZGFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The cut which follows (Fig. 25) is a perspective [[view]] of the same house, taken at a considerable distance from it, for the purpose of showing the effect of this plain structure in a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure-ground]].
:. . .a '''green-house''', though plain and inexpensive in its character, may, nevertheless, be made to harmonize well with [[Flower garden|flower-garden]] scenery, and is far superior to the clumsy, shed like erections frequently seen stuck into corners of buildings and dwelling-houses, without reference to the position of the structure, or the purpose for which it was built.
:Fig. 25 shows the appearance of the house, on the proportions which are given in the above plan, . . . which, in our opinion, admits of more room for plants than any other form that can be built at the same cost ; for, although we might adopt a semi-circular form for the end toward the most prominent point of view, it must be remembered that this would add considerably to its cost. Our object here is to give the sketch of the best and cheapest kind of house that can be erected for plant growing, and such is the one here given. This house may be placed in any situation, as regards aspect. It may be attached at one end to any other building, without much injury to its efficiency as a plant-house ; and where it is found absolutely necessary to attach '''green-houses''' to the walls of other buildings, they should, by all means, be constructed after the plan here given, or under some architectural modification of it, avoiding, if possible, that old, and now almost obsolete, system, of laying the roof up to the wall, as in a common grapery, or of making the front of heavy pilasters and massive wood-work, like the orange-houses of the middle ages." [Fig. 26]

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:65)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“PLATE 43.— Designs for a Vinery and '''Green-House''' connected (now being erected near Morristown, N. J.) The vinery to be heated by a hot air flue, and the '''green-house''' by hot water in pipes, both from one fire. The vinery is 18 ft. by 34 ft.; '''green-house''', 16 ft. by 30 ft., and potting room, 11 ft. by 32 ft.; front of grapery 5 ft. high, and of '''green-house''' 8 ft.; elevation of roof 38 degrees, or 91/2 in. to the foot.” [Fig. 25]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1269.jpg|Solomon Drowne, Detailed plan of a [[botanic garden]] at Brown University, n.d. “'''Green House'''” is marked on the bottom left.

Image:0475.jpg|Oscar Alexander Lawson (artist), Ely (engraver), ''Rob[er]t Buist, Nurseryman & Florist'' (calling card), n.d. “'''Green House''', [[Hothouse]] & Ornamental Plants & [[Shrubbery]] carefully packed for exportation.”

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX. “'''Green House'''” is marked on the middle right.

Image:1709.jpg|William Halfpenny and John, “The Plan and Elivation of a '''Green House''' in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 42.

Image:1470.jpg|Philip Miller, “The Ground Plan of the '''Green house'''” and “The Ground Plan of the two Stoves,” in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1764), n.p.

Image:1285a.jpg|George Washington, Plan for the '''greenhouse''' quarters at [[Mount Vernon]], Plan No. 1, c. 1785.

Image:1285b.jpg|George Washington, Plan for the '''greenhouse''' quarters at [[Mount Vernon]], Plan No. 2, c. 1785.

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787. “q. '''Green House'''.”

Image:1954.jpg|Andrew Craigie, Proposed Outbuildings for the Craigie Estate, December 11, 1791. “3 new '''green house'''.”

Image:1044.jpg|Bossenger Foster, Proposed Outbuildings for the Craigie Estate, December 24, 1791. “'''Green house'''” is marked on the right.

Image:2161.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Monticello]]: lodge and '''greenhouse''' designs, plan and elevation'', 1796.

Image:1190.jpg|Samuel McIntire, ''South Front of the '''Green house''' in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.

Image:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]], March 13, 1803. See detail.

Image:0340_detail.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]] [detail], March 13, 1803. “A '''Green house''' built of Bricks. . .”

Image:0861.jpg|William Dandridge Peck, Plan of the [[botanic garden]] of Mr. Curtis, Newbury, Mass., Feb. 19, 1805. “D. '''Greenhouse'''.”

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s '''Green houses''''', [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], June 1806.

Image:2259.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807. “F. '''Green houses'''.”

Image:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton, (Baltimore, MD) [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

Image:1357.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan, [[view]], and section of “a detached '''green-house''',” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 567.

Image:1825.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Greenhouse''' or [[conservatory]] for a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], with a span roof, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 568.

Image:1197.jpg|Robert Squibb, '''Green-House''': front and back [[wall]]s, in ''The Gardener’s Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (1827), frontispiece.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828. “E. '''Green houses'''. . .”

Image:1794.jpg|Anonymous, Mr. S. Sweetser’s '''Green-house''', Cambridgeport, in ''The American Gardener’s Magazine'' 2, no. 1 (January 1836): 3, fig. 1.

Image:1145.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of Laurel Hill [[Cemetery]],” in ''Statues of Old Mortality and His Pony, and of Sir Walter Scott'' (1839). “7, '''Green-house'''.”

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. “M '''green-house'''.”

Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic Garden]]s and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “16. Green-house.”

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “The [[view]] extends along the vista. . . and terminates at the '''green house''', (or alcove,) at ''m''.”

Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

Image:1289.jpg|Alfred Hoffy, ''[[View]] of Robert Buist’s City [[Nursery]] and '''Greenhouses''''', 1846.

Image:1000.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.

Image:1254.jpg|John Notman, ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.

Image:1514.jpg|Anonymous, “The First '''Green-House''' erected in the Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 5 (November 1847): 235, fig. 35.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): opp. 280. “3. Green house.”

Image:1674.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], Sketch of a “Propagating Pit” (or greenhouse) at [[Montgomery Place]], June 17, 1848. “What you describe is rather a small '''greenhouse''' than a pit. . .”

Image:1535.jpg|Anonymous, “Section of '''Green-House''', heated by Polmaise” and “Ground plan of the same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 3 (September 1848): 124, figs. 20 and 21.

Image:1536.jpg|Anonymous, “Polmaise Mode of Heating '''Green-Houses''',” in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 3 (September 1848): 126.

Image:0943.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a small '''Green-House'''” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 259, figs. 32 and 33.

Image:1539.jpg|Anonymous, “A Simple Mode of Heating '''Green-Houses''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 273.

Image:0950.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): pl. opp. 249.

Image:1837.jpg|Anonymous, “A Country House in the Pointed Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 304, figs. 133 and 134.

Image:1583.jpg|Anonymous, A '''greenhouse''' and a [[conservatory]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 5, no. 3 (September 1850): 111, figs. 19 and 20.

Image:0023_detail3.jpg| [[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851 [detail]. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.

Image:0790.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & '''Green House''',” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Grapery and '''Greenhouse''' grounds (22)."

Image:1990.jpg|Benson John Lossing, The '''greenhouse''' at the Beekman estate, in ''The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution'' (1851–52), vol. 2, 815.

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington, c. 1859. “4. '''Green house'''.”
</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0187.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], [[Mount]] Clare, south façade and garden, 1775.

Image:1455.jpg|Anonymous, Interior [[view]] of 1800 Lyman Estate greenhouse, n.d.

Image:1734.jpg|Oscar Alexander Lawson, ''Robert Buist: Nurseryman & Florist'', n.d.

Image:1791.jpg|Anonymous, “Old Landreth Nurseries, 1788–1847,” n.d., in Francis Burke Brandt and Henry Volkmar Gummere, ''Byways and Boulevards in and about Historic Philadelphia'' (1926), 253.

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787–92.

Image:1983.jpg|Jeremiah Paul, ''Robert Morris’ Seat on Schuylkill'', July 20, 1794.

Image:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]],'' c. 1800.

Image:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden]]'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “[[View]] of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:0044_detail2.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', [detail] 1816.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

Image:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30. Green house is located in the center distance of the image.

Image:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

Image:0662.jpg|Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830-40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 296.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, “A '''green-house''' constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–47.

Image:1146.jpg|John T. Hammond (engraver), ''Plan of the Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], near Philadelphia'' [detail], c. 1845

Image:0912.jpg|Anonymous, “Rural Gothic Villa,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 322, fig. 148.

Image:1655.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of a '''greenhouse''', in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of [[Hothouse]]s'' (1850), 76, fig. 24.

Image:1656.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Perspective [[view]] of a '''greenhouse''', in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of [[Hothouse]]s'' (1850), 77, fig. 25.

Image:0794.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Cottage Villa in the Anglo Swiss Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 60, design 52.

Image:0795.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Cottage Villa in the earliest English Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 60, design 53.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, [[View]] Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860. The Greenhouse of the Columbian Institute is the small glass and iron building along the canal.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''[[Vauxhall Garden]] 1803'', 1856.

Image:0743.jpg|John Izard Middleton, '''Greenhouse''', 1813.

Image:1344.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Peach-houses and vineries,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 509, figs. 450a–c.

Image:2032.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, "'''Greenhouse''', David Hosack Estate, [[Hyde Park]], New York" in the ''Hosack Album'', c. 1832.

Image:1492.jpg|Anonymous, "[[View]] of Interior of Grape House," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 5 (November 1846), 206, fig. 57

Image:1498.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cheap Frame for Grapes," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 6 (December 1846), p. 270, fig. 74.

Image:1955.jpg|George William Johnson, Floriculture Building, in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), 230, fig. 51.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0944.jpg|Anonymous, "[[View]] in the Vinery, at Clinton Point," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''The Horticulturist.'' 4, no. 4 (October 1849): pl. opp. 153

Image:1636.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of a pit for winter forcing, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 3.

Image:2116.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''Fountain [[Park]] near Philadelphia. Residence of A. McMakin Esq.'', c. 1850.

Image:1582.jpg|Anonymous, '''Greenhouse''', in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 5, no. 3 (September 1850): 110.

Image:0952a.jpg|Anderson (?), The Vinery at Medary, the country [[seat]] of Henry Ingersoll, Esq., near Philadelphia, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist 6'', (March 1851), frontispiece.

Image:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''[[Belvedere]]'', c. 1858. A '''greenhouse''' is attached to the left of the house.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]

Park

2021-04-12T13:27:15Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Parke) {{break}}
See also: [[Deer park]], [[Public garden]]

==History==
The term park denotes both private and public expanses of ground. 18th-century writers used park to refer exclusively to private grounds often enclosed by [[fence]]s, [[wall]]s, or [[ha-ha]]s; if devoted to keeping deer, it was sometimes called a [[deer park]]. Early 19th-century lexicographers continued to stress the definition of park as an expanse of private property, although [[Noah Webster]] in 1828 noted that parks also designated army encampments, perhaps anticipating the term’s increasing association with [[public ground]]s. Writers also focused upon the material advantages of parks, which included the production of timber in addition to grazing land. It is clear from treatises that parks also fulfilled aesthetic and symbolic functions.

[[File:0994.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton,” c. 1781. According to Hugh Jones, a “large pasture enclosed like a park” surrounded the governor’s residence and was encircled and marked on the plan as "Governor’s Park.”]]
[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], for example, stated in 1826 that a park added “grandeur and dignity to the mansion.” The notion of park as part of a large estate was closely connected to 18th-century British land practices, and, in particular, to the idea that land ownership provided both prestige and economic security.<ref>Joseph S. Wood, ''The New England Village'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PNBEMHX6 view on Zotero].</ref> The concept translated to America despite differences in landholding practices and in the legal system. As landscape gardener [[A. J. Downing]] noted in 1851, Americans generally would have much smaller parks than their British counterparts because inheritable land and money typically were divided among descendants instead of passing only to the first son, as was the case in Great Britain.

One of the earliest documented private parks in North America, dating from the period of British colonization, was the park that surrounded the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia, begun in 1699 [Fig. 1]. Hugh Jones, when describing the grounds of the College of William and Mary (1722), distinguished between the gardens immediately surrounding the building and those located in the larger 150-acre park. 19th-century treatise writers maintained this distinction between gardens that were situated near the house and parks that encompassed the outlying area.

[[File:1731.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia'', June 14, 1796.]]
[[File:0947.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anonymous, ''Study of trees in Park Scenery'', in [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], “Study of Park Trees,” ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 9 (September 1851): pl. opp. 394.]]
Writers of garden treatises, including [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], specified how to arrange the key components of a park—grassy areas, [[wood]]s, rolling hills, and water and how to establish desirable [[view]]s. As styles in gardening changed, so did the arrangement of parks. [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] in 1826 contrasted parks executed in the [[Ancient_style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], which were “subdivided into fields. . . enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s,” with parks done in the [[Modern_style|modern]] or [[natural style]] “to resemble” the landscape of a “scattered forest.” One key aspect of parks executed in the latter style was the introduction of [[plantation]]s or belts of trees to unify the landscape visually with patterns of lines of light and shadow formed by groupings of trees. Practitioners of the [[modern style]], such as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], were concerned with creating discrete boundaries for parks: they often relied upon plantings either to define or to occlude [[view]]s.

Landowners, such as [[William Hamilton]], took the existing topography of their estates and manipulated it to fit the prevailing aesthetic. [[View]]s of late 18th-century estates often featured smooth lawns punctuated with [[clump]]s of trees and [[wood]]s [Fig. 2]. In country house portraits, trees were often important elements—framing the house or drawing the viewer’s attention to the background. This emphasis paralleled treatise writers’ concern with trees as key components in park designs [Fig. 3]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] argued that artfully sited large trees added nobility, dignity, and a sense of age to a park, and he believed that such trees allowed American landscapes to rival those of the English.

Public parks, open landscaped spaces under government control, accommodated a wide variety of functions. Generally located in urban settings, many 18th- and 19th-century parks evolved from land originally set aside for [[common]]s, city [[square]]s, [[bowling green]]s, or other forms of [[pleasure ground]]s. [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] described his plan for the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC, as a “place of general resort.”<ref>For a history of the development of American parks and civic ideology, see David Schuyler, ''The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CFGQ8QT3 view on Zotero]. Also see George F. Chadwick, ''The Park and the Town: Public Landscape in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'' (New York: F. A. Praeger, 1966), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RT78E8W5 view on Zotero], and Galen Cranz, ''The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AFIR853J view on Zotero].</ref> With the growth of towns and cities in the first half of the 19th century and attendant fears of crowding and disease, civic improvement campaigners repeatedly expressed a desire to designate green spaces or parks that could act as “lungs” to bring in fresh air and mitigate toxic urban ills. Moreover, with the marked popularity of rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the 1840s, it became evident that urban populations were interested in open spaces. Public spaces were called parks early in America, but were also described as [[public ground|public grounds]], [[public garden|public gardens]], [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]], or [[Pleasure_garden|pleasure gardens]], to underscore either their accessibility to citizens or their leisure function.

A desire for sites of public commemoration also stimulated the development of public parks. The designation of the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC, as a park was linked intimately with the mission of public education envisioned by its founders. For example, in 1851 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the [[national Mall|Mall]] as a “sylvan museum”—an institution that would shape public taste in landscaping and in the selection of trees and plants.<ref>For more about the history of the Mall, see Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero], and Richard Longstreth, ed., ''The Mall in Washington, 1791–1991'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ACAMFXP view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0484.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, John Bachmann, ''New York City Hall, Park and Environs'', c. 1849.]]
[[File:1808.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Sarah Fairchild, ''Union Park, New York'', c. 1845.]]
As was the case with many city parks, the land for present-day City Hall Park in New York originally was set aside as a [[common]] early in the city’s history. In 1803, when City Hall was erected on a site next to it, this land was designated as a park. Ornamented with [[gate]]s, [[fountain]]s, and plantings, it provided an elegant setting for the public building, according to the descriptions of William Dickinson Martin (1809) and John Lambert (1816), and a printed view of the park area (c. 1849) [Fig. 4]. Similarly, the oval Union Park in New York, often illustrated, had a large central [[fountain]] [Fig. 5]. Both parks featured broad [[walk]]s and trees and [[shrub]]s. In these parks and others, significant goals of civic improvement—clean water, fresh air, green spaces—were united.<ref>Likewise, in Philadelphia, the construction of the Fairmount Waterworks was accompanied by the construction of a designed landscape, which rarely was referred to as a park in this period. For a history of Fairmount Park, see Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin'' 84 (Summer 1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero], and Theo B. White, ''Fairmount, Philadelphia’s Park'' (Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8U8AZ5RJ view on Zotero]. H. M. Pierce Gallagher, in his monograph of Robert Mills, noted that the architect never referred to the site as Fairmount Park, but rather as the Philadelphia Water Works. H. M. Pierce Gallagher, ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781–1855'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), 128, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero]. Michael J. Lewis, “The First Design for Fairmount Park,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 130, no. 3 (July 2006): 283–97, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3V3TEUA view on Zotero].</ref> Bowling Green [Fig. 6] and Battery Park [Fig. 7] are two more New York public parks that date from the early 18th century.
[[File:0052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the Bowling Green'', c.1826.]]
[[File:0477.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.]]

Although New York City’s most important park, Central Park, was not designed until 1856, the idea for large-scale open space for the city dates much earlier. In 1811, the Streets Commission of New York produced a survey of the city, plotted by John Randel Jr., to serve as a template for future development, and it put into place the grid that today still distinguishes the city. This grid also included open spaces, most significantly a “Grand Parade,” 240 acres bounded by Third and Seventh Avenues, and 23rd and 34th Streets, and this area was intended for military exercise, assembly, and, if necessary, “the force destined to defend the City.”<ref>Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, ''Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 421, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8Q56GGX view on Zotero].</ref> The concept of open space in the city was taken up again in the late 1840s and early 1850s, perhaps most notably by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in ''The Horticulturist''. Claiming that the city’s existing parks were inadequate for the task of providing “exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens,” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] pushed for the creation of a large park, more than 500 acres, to be located between 39th Street and the Harlem River. He proposed that it contain, among other attractions, carriage rides, monumental sculpture, water works, and [[walk|walks]] set within green fields. Although [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] did not live to see this vision realized, his proposal anticipated Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux’s Central Park, and, more generally, the American park movement.<ref>For an overview of the history of the park, see Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, ''The Park and the People: A History of Central Park'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFRVMGF9/ view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Penn, William, April 9, 1687, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 47)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden" (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . tis pitty a pale did not cross ye neck half way towards ye south point, for the beginning of a '''Park'''.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (1956: 67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it, with a good house and apartments for the Indian Master and his scholars, and outhouses; and a large pasture enclosed like a '''park''' with about 150 acres of land adjoining, for occasional uses.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, June 26, 1744, describing a garden near Albany, NY (1948: 63)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M——s [Milne] and I dined att his house and were handsomly entertained with good viands and wine. After dinner he showed us his garden and '''parks''', and M——s [Milne] got into one of his long harangues of farming and improvement of ground.”

*Fisher, Daniel, May 25, 1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:802)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . descending from the House is a neat little '''Park''' tho’ I am told there are no Deer in it.”

*Burnaby, Rev. Andrew, 1760, describing a park and garden near the Passaic River, NJ (1775: 57)<ref>Andrew Burnaby, ''Travels through the Middle Settlements in North-America, in the Years 1759 and 1760'', 2nd ed. (London: Printed for T. Payne, 1775), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R59XPKD2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I went down two miles farther to the '''park''' and gardens of. . . colonel Peter Schuyler. In the gardens is a very large collection of citrons, oranges, limes, lemons, balsams of Peru, aloes, pomegranates, and other tropical plants; and in the '''park''' I saw several American and English deer, and three or four elks or moose-deer.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, December 31, 1773, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 59)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mrs. Carter told the Colonel that he must not think her setled (for they have been for a long time from this place in the City ''Williamsburg'', and only left it about a year and a half ago) till he made her a '''park''' and stock’d it.”

[[File:0051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Strickland, “The Woodlands,” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.]]
*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], April 1779, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A2)<ref>Karen Madsen, Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have just been making some considerable Improvements at [[The Woodlands]]. . . You may recollect the Ground is Hill ’n Dale [[wood|Woodland]] and plain and therefore well enough calculated to make a small '''parke''', and I am endeavoring to give it as much as possible a '''park'''ish Look.” [Fig. 8]

*Chastellux, François Jean, Marquis de, 1780–82, describing a garden on the Pamunkey River, VA (1787: 2:12)<ref>François Jean Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782'', 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . embellished with a garden, laid out in the [[English style]]. It is even pretended, that this kind of '''park''', through which the river flows, yields not in beauty to those, the model of which the French have received from England, and are now imitating with such success.”

*Washington, George, August 18, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:184)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Began with James and Tom to work on my '''Park''' fencing.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1789: 381)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A small '''park''' on the margin of the river, where the English fallow-deer, and the American wild-deer are seen through the thickets, alternately with the vessels as they are sailing along, add a romantic and [[picturesque]] appearance to the whole scenery.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Department of States contiguous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the '''park''' and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique [[walk]] and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, academies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 164)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“H. Grand [[Avenue]], 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a [[slope]] from the houses on each side. This [[Avenue]] leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the
:“I. President’s '''park''' and the
:“K. well-improved field.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)
:“The north side of [[Monticello]] below the Thoroughfare roundabout quite down to the river, and all Montalto above the thoroughfare to be converted into '''park''' & riding grounds, connected at the Thoroughfare by a [[bridge]], open, under which the public road may be made to pass so as not to cut off the communication between the lower & upper '''park''' grounds.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[wood]]s, [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables; with a [[Yard]] between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or '''park''', & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]].
: "The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the '''Park'''-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . The '''park''' [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its [[fence]]s where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.
: ". . . One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the '''park''', by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this [[walk]], one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion. . .
: "The <u>Stable [[yard|Yard]]</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer walls <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & '''park''' [[lawn]].”

*Foster, Sir Augustus John, c. 1807, describing Montpelier, plantation of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1954: 142)<ref>Sir Augustus John Foster, ''Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–1806–1807 and 1811–1812'', ed. Richard Beale Davis (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7FU8NDF4/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are some very fine [[wood]]s about Montpellier, but no [[pleasure ground]]s, though Mr. Madison talks of some day laying out space for an English '''park''', which he might render very beautiful from the easy graceful descent of his hills into the plains below.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], March 17, 1807, describing the White House, Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“My idea is to carry the road below the hill under a [[Wall]] about 8 feet high opposite to the center of the president’s house. At this point, I should propose, at a future day to thrown an [[Arch]], or [[Arch]]es over the road in order to procure a private communication between the [[pleasure ground]] of the president’s house and the '''park''' which reaches to the river, and which will probably be also planted, and perhaps be open to the public.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“St. Paul’s is on the same street, a little North of Trinity on the West side also, with an elegant steeple, tho’ too large for the rest of the building. It stands on a large triangular area, called the '''Park''', rail’d in, & ornamented with trees & [[walk]]s. Bridewell, the Alms House & County Jail, stand on the North Side of the '''Park''', on the East is the New Theatre.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (1816: 2:58)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Court-house on a larger scale, and more worthy of the improved state of the city, is now building at the end of the '''Park''', between the Broadway and Chatham-street, in a style of magnificence unequalled in many of the larger cities of Europe. . . The '''Park''', though not remarkable for its size, is, however, of service, by displaying the surrounding buildings to greater advantage; and is also a relief to the confined appearance of the streets in general. It consists of about four acres planted with elms, planes, willows, and catalpas; and the surrounding foot-[[walk]] is encompassed by rows of poplars: the whole is enclosed by a wooden paling. Neither the '''Park''' nor the Battery is very much resorted to by the fashionable citizens of New York, as they have become too common.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing the State House, Boston, MA (1816: 2:330)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“The new state-house is, perhaps, more indebted to its situation for the handsome appearance which it exhibits, than to any merit of the building itself. It is built upon part of the rising ground upon which Beacon Hill is situated, and fronts the '''park''', an extensive common planted with a double row of trees along the [[border]]s. . .
:“The '''Park''' was formerly a large [[common]], but has recently been enclosed, and the [[border]]s planted with trees. On the east side there has been for many years a [[mall]], or [[walk]], planted with a double row of large trees, somewhat resembling that in St. James’s '''Park''', but scarcely half its length. It affords the inhabitants an excellent [[promenade]] in fine weather. At the bottom of the '''park''' is a branch of the harbour; and along the shore, to the westward, are several extensive rope-[[walk]]s built upon piers.”

*Hodgeson, Adam, 1819, describing Natchez, MS (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Their houses are spacious and handsome and their grounds laid out like a forest '''park'''.”

[[File:0716.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref name="Bryant">William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . North of the house was a '''park''', with a few American deer in it and a large herd of spotted deer—a beautiful animal imported from Bengal.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:147)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Coll. is possessed of immence property, he had 400 Ars. of land in a '''park''' to keep Deer, round which was a [[fence]] of 20 rails high, Maise were planted within for sustenance of his deer.”

[[File:0038.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.]]
*Anonymous, June 1829, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (''Casket'' 4: 241)<ref>“City Hall, New York,” ''Casket, or Flowers of Literature, Wit & Sentiment'' 4, no. 6 (June 1829): 241, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XVBZVBJS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The City Hall of New York, is situated at the northern extremity, or base, of a triangular enclosure of four acres, called the ‘'''''Park'''''.’ The eastern and western sides are respectively bounded by Chatham street and Broadway, which here meet in a point near St. Paul’s church.
:“The approach from the south along Broadway, is peculiarly striking. The front and west end of the building present an angular [[view]] between the luxuriant foliage of trees surrounding the '''Park'''; while the brilliant whiteness of the facade, in contrast with the placid verdure of the [[lawn]], in front, produces a luminous and aerial effect that fascinates every spectator.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:1830.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Sedgley--J. Fishers Esqr. opposite Eaglesfield 28th. October'', 1816.]]
*Anonymous, June 1829, describing Sedgeley, seat of James C. Fisher and William Crammond, near Philadelphia, PA (''Casket'' 4: 265)<ref>“Sedgely Park, the Seat of James C. Fisher, Esq.,” ''Casket, or the Flowers of Literature, Wit & Sentiment'' 4, no. 6 (June 1829): 265, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8Q67BD4S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The natural advantages of Sedgeley '''Park''' are not frequently equalled even upon the banks of the romantic [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]]. From the height upon which the mansion is erected, it commands an interesting and extensive [[view]]. . .
:“In the arrangement of the grounds the proprietor has been peculiarly happy. The '''park''' exhibits the marks of cultivation and taste, and the mansion is beautifully shaded with the native and luxuriant forest trees of the country.” [Fig. 11]

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 84)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The general appearance of the whole grounds, should be that of a well-managed '''park''', and the lots only so far ornamented with [[shrub]]s and flowers, as to constitute rich [[border]]s to the [[avenue]]s and pathways, without giving to them the aspect of a dense and wild [[coppice]], or a neglected garden, whose trees and plants have so multiplied and interlaced their roots and branches, as to completely destroy all that airiness, grace, and luxuriance of growth, which good taste demands.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 29, 1832, describing the Jefferson Barracks, Jacksonville, IL (1975: 353)<ref name="Bryant"></ref>
:“. . . the Jefferson Barracks, a military station of the United States. . . It is situated in a fine natural '''park''' of noble trees principally black oak which extends I am told for some miles back from the shore. The trees are at considerable distances from each other and the tops are spreading and full of foliage.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Cincinnati, OH (1838: 2:51)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a [[terrace]] which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most '''park''' like [[eminence]]s form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 5)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most distinguished amateur and patron of gardening, in every sense of the word, in this state, was the late [[Dr. Hosack]]. [[Hyde Park|Hyde '''Park''']], on the Hudson, the [[seat]] of this gentleman, has been probably the best specimen of a highly improved residence in the United States. . . the '''park''' large, well wooded, and intersected by a fine stream.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1838: 22)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and '''parks''', and [[avenue]]s, and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing New York, NY (1840: 1:151)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The present City Hall was erected in 1803, at an expense of half a million of dollars. . . When the trees of the '''park''' are in full leaf, it is difficult to get an entire [[view]] of it.
:“The '''park''' is the centre of New York, and its two most thronged and finest [[avenue]]s from the two sides of it. Broadway, the much crowded and much praised Broadway, the Corso, the Toledo, the Regent Street, of New York, pours its tide of population past the western side of the verdant triangle, and, just at the '''park''', its crowd and its bustle are thickest.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the '''Park''', which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a '''park''', or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

[[File:0982.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, L. S. Punderson, ''Public [[Square]], New Haven'', 1862.]]
*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (1842: 94)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“New Haven, known as the City of Elms, is a fine town. Many of its streets (as its alias sufficiently imports) are planted with rows of grand old elm-trees; and the same natural ornaments surround Yale College, an establishment of considerable [[eminence]] and reputation. The various departments of this Institution are erected in a kind of '''park''' or [[common]] in the middle of the town, where they are dimly visible among the shadowing trees. The effect is very like that of an old cathedral [[yard]] in England; and when their branches are in full leaf, must be extremely [[picturesque]].” [Fig. 12]

[[File:0992.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Charles B. Lawrence, attr., ''[[Point Breeze]], the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817–20]]
*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1844, describing [[Point Breeze]], the estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (1844: 102–3)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, NJ: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''park''' and grounds of the Count comprise about fourteen hundred acres, which, from a wild and impoverished tract, he has converted into a place of beauty, blending the charms of [[wood|woodland]] and [[plantation]] scenery with a delightful water-[[prospect]]. . . While here, his time was occupied in planning and executing improvements upon his grounds. He did not mingle in society; but was frequently seen walking through his '''park''', attending to his workmen, or, with hatchet in hand, lopping branches from the trees.” [Fig. 13]

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the deer-'''park''', surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the '''Park''' itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full [[view]]from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, describing Geneseo, [[seat]] of James S. Wadsworth, Genesee River Valley, NY (''Horticulturist'' 3: 164–65)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The Meadow Park at Geneseo,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 163–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G6VXPK69 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And what a [[prospect]]! The whole of that part of the valley embraced by the eye—say a thousand acres—is a '''''park''''', full of the finest oaks,—and such oaks as you may have dreamed of, (if you love trees,) or, perhaps, have seen in pictures by CLAUDE LORRAINE, or our own DURAND; but not in the least like those which you meet every day in your woodland [[walk]]s through the country at large. Or rather, there are thousands of such as you may have seen half a dozen examples of in your own country. . .
:“No underwood, no bushes, no [[thicket]]s; nothing but single specimens or groups of giant old oaks, (mingled with, here and there, an elm) with level glades of broad [[meadow]] beneath them! An Englishman will hardly be convinced that it is not a '''park''', planted by the skilful hand of man hundreds of years ago.
:“This great [[meadow]] '''park''' is filled with herds of the finest cattle—the pride of the home-farm.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing Livingston Manor, seat of Mary Livingston, on the Hudson River, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 46)<ref name="Downing Treatise">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion stands in the midst of a fine '''park''', rising gradually from the level of a rich inland country, and commanding [[prospect]]s for sixty miles around. The '''park''' is, perhaps, the most remarkable in America, for the noble simplicity of its character, and the perfect order in which it is kept. The turf is, everywhere, short and velvet-like, the gravel-roads scrupulously firm and smooth, and near the house are the largest and most superb evergreens.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing St. John’s Park, New York, NY (1850: 332)<ref name="Loudon 1850">J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“856. ''[[Public Garden]]s''. . .
:“''At New York''. . . St. John’s '''Park''' is of considerable extent, and has lately been thrown open to the inhabitants: it is tastefully and very judiciously planted, with the ornamental trees and [[shrub]]s indigenous to the country. (''Gard. Mag''., vol. iii. p. 347.)”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), September 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 412)<ref>C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 9 (September 1850): 406–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XHZHRHEU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The new and elegant mansion, so long vacant, is now occupied by the proprietor, and an air of liveliness, which they did not before possess, is now communicated to the '''park''', the [[pleasure-ground]] and the garden. . . The vast expanse of '''park''', which adds so much to the character of the old English residence, would possess only half the attraction it now does, but for the herds of deer which traverse its bounds, giving life and animation to the scene.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s of Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 54–55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My object in this Plan has been three-fold:
:“1st: To form a national '''Park''', which should be an ornament to the Capital of the United States; 2nd: To give an example of the [[natural style]] of [[Landscape Gardening]] which may have an influence on the general taste of the Country. . .
:“'''1st: The President’s Park or Parade''' “This comprises the open Ground directly south of the President’s House. Adopting suggestions made me at Washington I propose to keep the large area of this ground open, as a place for parade or military reviews, as well as public festivities or celebrations. A circular carriage [[drive]] 40 feet wide and nearly a mile long shaded by an [[avenue]] of Elms, surrounds the Parade, while a series of foot-paths, 10 feet wide, winding through thickets of trees and [[shrub]]s, forms the boundary to this '''park''', and would make an agreeable shaded [[promenade]] for pedestrians. . .
:“'''2nd: Monument Park'''
:“This comprises the fine [[plot]] of ground surrounding the [[Washington_Monument_(Washington,_D.C.)|Washington monument]] and bordered by the Potomac. To reach it from the President’s '''Park''' I propose to cross the canal by a wire suspension [[bridge]], sufficiently strong for carriages, which would permit vessels of moderate size to pass under it, and would be an ornamental feature in the grounds. I propose to plant Monument '''Park''' wholly with ''American'' trees, of large growth, disposed in open groups, so as to al[l]ow of fine [[vista]]s of the Potomac river. . .
:“'''4th: Smithsonian Park or [[Pleasure Ground]]s'''
:“An arrangement of choice trees in the [[natural style]], the [[plot]]s near the Institution would be thickly planted with the rarest trees and [[shrub]]s, to give greater seclusion and beauty to its immediate precincts. . .
:“'''6th: The [[Botanic Garden]]. . .'''
:“The pleasing natural undulations of surface, where they occur, I propose to retain, instead of expending money in reducing them to a level. The surface of the '''Parks''', generally, should be kept in grass or [[lawn]], and mown by the mowing machine used in England, by which, with a man and horse, the labor of six men can be done in one day. . .
[[File:0023.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.]]
:“A national '''Park''' like this, laid out and planted in a thorough manner, would exercise as much influence on the public taste as [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, has done. Though only twenty years have elapsed since that spot was laid out, the lesson there taught has been so largely influential that at the present moment the United States, while they have no public '''parks''', are acknowledged to possess the finest rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the world. The [[Public Ground]]s at Washington treated in the manner I have here suggested, would undoubtedly become a Public School of Instruction in every thing that relates to the tasteful arrangement of '''parks''' and grounds, and the growth and culture of trees, while they would serve, more than anything else that could be devised, to embellish and give interest to the Capital. The straight lines and broad [[Avenue]]s of the streets of Washington would be pleasantly relieved and contrasted by the beauty of curved lines and natural groups of trees in the various '''parks'''. By its numerous public buildings and broad [[Avenue]]s, Washington will one day command the attention of every stranger, and if its un-improved [[public ground]]s are tastefully improved they will form the most perfect background or setting to the City, concealing many of its defects and heightening all its beauties.” [Fig. 14]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The New-York Park” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 345–49)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The New-York Park,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 345–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2XEW44DT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE leading topic of town gossip and newspaper paragraphs just now, in New-York, is the new '''park''' proposed by MAYOR KINGSLAND. Deluded New-York has, until lately, contented itself with the little door-[[yard]]s of space—mere grass [[plat]]s of verdure, which form the [[square]]s of the city, in the mistaken idea that they are parks. . .
:“Thanking MAYOR KINGSLAND most heartily for his proposed new '''park''', the only objection we make to it is that it is ''too small''. One hundred and sixty acres of '''park''' for a city that will soon contain three-quarters of a million of people? It is only a child’s play-ground. . .
:“Looking at the present government of the city as about to provide, in the Peoples’ '''Park''', a breathing zone, and healthful place for exercise for a city of half a million of souls, we trust they will not be content with the limited number of acres already proposed. Five hundred acres is the smallest area that should be reserved for the future wants of such a city, now, while it may be obtained. ''Five hundred acres'' may be selected between 39th-street and the Harlem river, including a varied surface of land, a good deal of which is yet waste area, so that the whole may be purchased at something like a million of dollars. In that area there would be space enough to have broad reaches of '''park''' and [[pleasure-ground]]s, with a real feeling of the breadth and beauty of green fields, the perfume and freshness of nature. In its midst would be located the great distributing reservoirs of the Croton aqueduct, formed into lovely [[lake]]s of limpid water, covering many acres, and heightening the charm of the sylvan accessories by the finest natural contrast. In such a '''park''', the citizens who would take excursions in carriages, or on horseback, could have the substantial delights of country roads and country scenery, and forget for a time the rattle of the pavements and the glare of brick [[wall]]s. Pedestrians would find quiet and secluded [[walk]]s when they wished to be solitary, and broad [[alley]]s filled with thousands of happy faces, when they would be gay. The thoughtful denizen of the town would go out there in the morning to hold converse with the whispering trees, and the wearied tradesmen in the evening, to enjoy an hour of happiness by mingling in the open space with ‘all the world.’
:“The many beauties and utilities which would gradually grow out of a great '''park''' like this, in a great city like New-York, suggest themselves immediately and forcibly. Where would be found so fitting a position for noble works of art, the [[statue]]s, monuments, and buildings commemorative at once of the great men of the nation, of the history of the age and country, and the genius of our highest artists?
:“We have said nothing of the social influence of such a great '''park''' in New-York. But this is really the most interesting phase of the whole matter. . .
:“Even upon the lower platform of liberty and education that the masses stand in Europe, we see the elevating influences of a wide popular enjoyment of galleries of art, public libraries, '''parks''' and gardens, which have raised the people in ''social'' civilization and social culture to a far higher level than we have yet attained in republican America. And yet this broad ground of popular refinement must be taken in republican America, for it belongs of right more truly here, than elsewhere. It is republican in its very idea and tendency. It takes up popular education where the common school and ballot-box leave it, and raises up the working-man to the same level of enjoyment with the man of leisure and accomplishment. The higher social and artistic elements of every man’s nature lie dormant within him, and every laborer is a possible gentleman, not by the possession of money or fine clothes—but through the refining influence of intellectual and moral culture.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 1851, “State and Prosperity of Horticulture” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 540)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The State and Prospects of Horticulture,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XR68IJEG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From [[cemetery|cemeteries]] we naturally rise to public '''parks''' and gardens. As yet our countrymen have almost entirely over-looked the sanitary value and importance of these breathing places for large cities, or the powerful part which they may be made to play in refining, elevating, and affording enjoyment to the people at large. . . The plan [for a [[public ground]] in Washington] embraces four or five miles of carriage-[[drive]]—[[walk]]s for pedestrians—[[pond]]s of water, [[fountain]]s and [[statue]]s—[[picturesque]] groupings of trees and [[shrub]]s, and a complete collection of all the trees that belong to North America. It will, if carried out as it has been undertaken, undoubtedly give a great impetus to the popular taste in [[landscape-gardening]] and the culture of ornamental trees; and as the climate of Washington is one peculiarly adapted to this purpose—this national '''park''' may be made a sylvan museum such as it would be difficult to equal in beauty and variety in any part of the world.”

[[File:0459.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.]]
*Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing a '''park''' at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about.” [Fig. 15]

===Citations===
*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', *PARCUS, a large inclosure, privileged for wild beasts of chase, either by the king’s grant, or by prescription.
:“*The word is originally ''Celtic'', it signifies an inclosure, or place shut up with [[wall]]s.
:“Manwood defines a '''''park''''' a place of privilege for beasts of venery, and other wild beasts of the forest, and of chase, ''tam sylvestres quam campestres''.—A '''''park''''' differs from a forest in that, as Crompton observes, a subject may hold a '''''park''''' by prescription, or the king’s grant, which he cannot do by a forest. See FOREST.
:“A '''''park''''' differs from a chase also; for that a '''''park''''' must be enclosed; if it lie open, it is a good cause of seizing it into the king’s hand; as a free chase may be, if it be enclosed. Nor can the owner have any action against such as hunt in his '''''park''''', if it lie open. See CHASE.
:“Du Cange refers the invention of '''''parks''''' to king Henry I. of England; but Spelman shews, it is much more ancient; and was in use among the Anglo-Saxons. Zosimus assures us, the ancient kings of Persia had '''''parks'''''.
:“'''PARK''' is also used for a moveable pallisade set up in the fields to inclose sheep in to feed, and rest in during the night. See HURDLES.
:“The shepherds shift their '''''park''''', from time to time, to dung the ground, one part after another.”

*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 157, 182–83)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A garden is intended to walk or to sit in, which are circumstances not considered in riding; a '''park''' comprehends all the uses of the other two; and these uses determine the ''proportional extent'' of each; a large garden would be but a small '''park'''; and the circumference of a considerable '''park''' but a short riding.
:“A '''''park''''' and a garden are more nearly allied, and can therefore be accommodated to each other, without any disparagement to either. . .
:“The affinity of the two subjects is so close, that it would be difficult to draw the exact line of separation between them: gardens have lately encroached very much both in extent and in style on the character of a '''park'''; but still there are scenes in the one, which are out of the reach of the other; the small sequestered spots which are agreable in a garden, would be trivial in a '''park'''; and the spacious [[lawn]]s which are among the noblest features of the latter, would in the former fatigue by their want of variety; even such as being of a moderate extent may be admitted into either, will seem bare and naked, if not broken in the one; and lose much of their greatness, if broken in the other. The proportion of a part to the whole, is a measure of its dimensions: it often determines the proper size for an object, as well as the space fit to be allotted to a scene; and regulates the style which ought to be assigned to either.
:“But whatever distinctions the extent may occasion between '''park''' and garden, a state of highly cultivated nature is consistent with each of their characters; and may in both be of the same kind, though in different degrees. The same species of preservation, of ornament, and of scenery, may be introduced; and though a large portion of a '''park''' may be rude; and the most romantic scenes are not incompatible with its character.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', pa’rk. s. A piece of ground inclosed and stored with deer and other beasts of chase.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 13, 93–94)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away [[hedge]]s to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked [[lawn]], before [[plantation]]s are made to give it the appearance of a '''park'''; and where ground is subdivided by [[sunk fence]]s, imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expence of actual confinement. . .
:“The chief beauty of a '''park''' consists in uniform verdure; ''undulating'' lines contrasting with each other in variety of forms; trees so grouped as to produce light and shade to display the varied surface of the ground; and an undivided range of pasture. . .
:“The ''farm'', on the contrary, is for ever changing the colour of its surface in motley and discordant hues; it is subdivided by straight lines of [[fence]]s. The trees can only be ranged in formal rows along the [[hedge]]s; and these the farmer claims a right to cut, prune, and disfigure.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1812, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (1812: 378)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (Edinburgh: D. Willison for A. Constable, 1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEMUHDCC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It may, however, be humbly suggested, that the '''Park''', or the [[Lawn]], should never be daubed too full of groups, or of single plants. When there are too many put in, the whole '''park''' acquires a confined air and appearance; and, whatever be the intrinsic worth of the plants individually considered, the eye turns from the appearance with dislike.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1021, 1028)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7265. ''The '''park''''' is a space devoted to the growth of timber, pasturage for deer, cattle, and sheep, and for adding grandeur and dignity to the mansion. On its extent and beauty, and on the magnitude and architectural design of the house, chiefly depend the reputation and character of the residence. In the [[geometric style]], the more distant or concealed parts were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad stripes or double rows, enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s, and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with wood, enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage. In the [[modern style]], the scenery of a '''park''' is intended to resemble that of a scattered forest, the more polished glades and regular shapes of [[lawn]] being near the house, and the rougher parts towards the extremities. The paddocks or small enclosures are generally placed between the family stables and the farm, and form a sort of intermediate character. . . .
:“7313. ''Public '''parks''', or equestrian promenades'', are valuable appendages to large cities. Extent and a free air are the principle requisites, and the roads should be arranged so as to produce few intersections; but at the same time so as carriages may make either the tour of the whole scene, or adopt a shorter tour at pleasure. In the course of long roads, there ought to be occasional bays or side expansions to admit of carriages separating from the course, halting or turning. Where such [[promenade]]s are very extensive, they are furnished with places of accommodation and refreshment, both for men and horses; this is a valued part of their arrangement for occasional visitors from a distance, or in hired vehicles.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', ''n''. [Sax. ''parruc'', ''pearruc''; Scot. ''parrok''; W. ''parc''; Fr. id.; It. ''parco''; Sp. ''parque''; Ir. ''pairc''; G. Sw. ''park''; D. ''perk''. . .]
:“A large piece of ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase, in England, by the king’s grant or by prescription. To constitute a '''park''', three things are required; a royal grant or license; inclosure by pales, a [[wall]] or [[hedge]]; and beasts of chase, as deer, &c.
:“'''''Park''' of artillery, or artillery '''park''''', a place in the rear of both lines of an army for encamping the artillery, which is formed in lines, the guns in front, the ammunition-wagons behind the guns. . . ''Encyc''.
:“'''''Park''' of provisions'', the place where the sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, and that where the bread wagons are stationed.”

*Holley, O. L., 1843, ''The New York Register for 1843'' (1843: 240)<ref>O. L. Holley, ''The New York Register for 1843 containing an Almanac with political, statistical, and other information relating to the State of New York and the United States'', (Albany: J. Disturnell, 1843): 240, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KCVFBZZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:BLOOMINGDALE LUNATIC ASYLUM
:(Connected with the New-York Hospital.)
:The Bloomingdale Lunatic Asylum is pleasantly situated near the banks of the Hudson River, distant seven miles from the city of New-York, and has attached to it forty acres of land, laid out in gardens, [[pleasure ground]]s, gravel [[walk]]s and farm lots, well adapted to the unfortunate inmates.
:The building is erected on one of the most elevated and healthy sites on the Island, and sufficiently retired for the comfort and convenience of the patients.

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 418)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', in the modern acceptation of the word, is an extensive adorned inclosure surrounding the house and gardens, and affording pasturage either to deer or cattle.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, “A Talk About Public Parks and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 156–57)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Talk About Public Parks and Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 153–58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZD8Q6ZN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Make the public '''parks''' or [[pleasure ground]]s attractive by their [[lawn]]s, fine trees, shady [[walk]]s and beautiful [[shrub]]s and flowers, by fine music, and the certainty of ‘meeting everybody,’ and you draw the whole moving population of the town there daily. . .
:“you must remember that there is no forced intercourse in the daily reunions in a [[public garden]] or '''park'''. There is room and space enough for pleasant little groups or circles of all tastes and sizes, and no one is necessarily brought into contact with uncongenial spirits; while the daily meeting of families, who ''ought'' to sympathise, from natural congeniality, will be more likely to bring them together than any other social gatherings. Then the advantage to our fair country-women— health and spirits, of exercise in the pure open air, amid the groups of fresh foliage and flowers, with a chat with friends, and pleasures shared with them, as compared with a listless lounge upon a sofa at home, over the last new novel or pattern of embroidery! . . .
:“Judging from the crowds of people in carriages, and on foot, which I find constantly thronging Green-wood and [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], I think it is plain enough how much our citizens, of all classes, would enjoy public '''parks''' on a similar scale. Indeed, the only drawback to these beautiful and highly kept [[cemetery|cemeteries]], to my taste, is the gala-day air of recreation they present. People seem to go there to enjoy themselves, and not to indulge in any serious recollections or regrets.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 31, 95, 109–11, 115–16, 169, 173, 219, 333)<ref name="Downing Treatise"></ref>
:“It must not be forgotten that, during all this period, or nearly six centuries, '''''parks''''' were common in England. . .
:“Although these '''parks''' were more devoted to the preservation of game and the pleasures of the chase than to any other purpose, their existence was, we conceive, not wholly owing to this cause—but we look upon them as indicating that love of nature and that desire to retain beautiful portions of it as part of a residence, which form the ground-work of the taste for the [[Modern_style|modern]] or [[landscape gardening]], since the latter is only an epitome of nature with the charms judiciously heightened by art.
:“And as the ''[[Avenue]]'', or the straight line, is the leading form in the [[geometric style|geometric]] arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest '''park'''—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles square, is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[wood]]s. . .
:“One of the loveliest charms of a fine '''park''' is, undoubtedly, variation or undulation of surface. Everything, accordingly, which tends to preserve and strengthen this pleasing character, should be kept constantly in [[view]]. . .
:“Where the grounds of the residence to be planted are level, or nearly so, and it is desirable to confine the [[view]], on any or all sides, to the [[lawn]] or '''park''' itself, the boundary groups and masses must be so connected together as, from the most striking part or parts of the [[prospect]] (near the house for example) to answer this end. . .
:“But where the house is so elevated as to command a more extensive [[view]] than is comprised in the demesne itself, another course should be adopted. The grounds planted must be made to connect themselves with the surrounding scenery. . . Where the '''park''' joins natural [[wood]]s, connexion is still easier, and where it bounds upon one of our noble rivers, [[lake]]s, or other large sheets of water, of course connexion is not expected; for sudden contrast and transition is there both natural and beautiful. . .
:“Were it not that of late it [the linden tree] is so liable to insects, we could hardly say too much in its praise as a fine ornament for streets and public '''parks'''. There, its regular form corresponds well with the formality of the architecture; its shade affords cool and pleasant [[walk]]s, and the delightful odor of its blossoms is doubly grateful in the confined air of the city. . .
:“The beech is quite handsome and graceful when young, and when large it forms one of the heaviest and grandest of ''beautiful'' '''park''' trees. . .
:“When the Black walnut stands alone on a deep fertile soil it becomes a truly majestic tree; and its lower branches often sweep the ground in a graceful curve, which gives additional beauty to its whole expression. It is admirably adapted to extensive [[lawn]]s, '''parks''', or [[plantation]]s, where there is no want of room for the attainment of its full size and fair proportions. . .
:“In places of large extent there may be scenes in different portions of the '''park''' of totally different character; one simply beautiful, abounding with graceful and flowing lines, and another highly [[picturesque]], and full of spirited breaks and variations.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1849, “On the Mistakes of Citizens in Country Life” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 309)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Mistakes of Citizens in Country Life,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 7 (January 1849): 305–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4J7CTS94 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If you wish for rural beauty, at a cheap rate, either on the grand or the moderate scale, choose a spot where the two features of home scenery are trees and grass. You may have five hundred acres of natural '''park'''—that is to say, fine old [[wood]]s, tastefully opened, and threaded with [[walk]]s and [[drive]]s, for less cost, in preparation and annual outlay, than it will require to maintain five acres of artificial [[pleasure-ground]]s. A pretty little natural glen, filled with old trees, and made alive by a clear perennial stream, is often a cheaper and more unwearying source of enjoyment than the gayest [[flower garden]]. Not that we mean to disparage beautiful '''parks''', [[pleasure-ground]]s, or [[flower garden]]s; we only wish our readers, about settling in the country, to understand that they do not constitute the highest and most expressive kind of rural beauty,—as they certainly do the most ''expensive''.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1850: 329)<ref name="Loudon 1850"></ref>
:“841. ''[[landscape gardening|Landscape-Gardening]]'' is practised in the United States on a comparatively limited scale; because, in a country where all men have equal rights, and where every man, however humble, has a house and garden of his own, it is not likely that there should be many large '''parks'''. The only splendid examples of '''park''' and [[hothouse]] gardening that, we trust, will ever be found in the United States, and ultimately in every other country, are such as will be formed by towns and villages, or other communities, for the joint use and enjoyment of all the inhabitants or members.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 311–12)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on the October Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (January 1849): 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A ''true'' country house should also have some appearance of [[Rustic_style|rusticity]]—not vulgarity—but a keeping with all which surround it. Not castellated, nor magnificent; neither ostentatious nor pretending, but plain, dignified, quiet and unobtrusive; yet of ample dimensions, and exceeding convenience. Then, in '''park''' or [[lawn]], on hill or plain, flanked with mossy foliage, and well kept grounds, it becomes a perfect picture in a finished landscape.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], June 1850, “Our Country Villages” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 540)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Our Country Villages,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The indispensable desiderata in rural villages of this kind [newly planned in the suburbs of a great city], are the following: 1st, a large open space, [[common]], or '''park''', situated in the middle of the village—not less than 20 acres; and better, if 50 or more in extent. This should be well planted with groups of trees, and kept as a [[lawn]]. The expense of mowing it would be paid by the grass in some cases; and in others a considerable part of the space might be enclosed with a wire [[fence]], and fed by sheep or cows, like many of the public '''parks''' in England.
:“This '''park''' would be the nucleus or ''heart of the village'', and would give it an essentially rural character. Around it should be grouped all the best cottages and residences of the place; and this would be secured by selling no lots fronting upon it of less than one-fourth of an acre in extent. . .
:“After such a village was built, and the central '''park''' planted a few years, the inhabitants would not be contented with the mere [[meadow]] and trees, usually called a '''park''' in this country. By submitting to a small annual tax per family, they could turn the whole '''park''', if small, or considerable portions, here and there, if large, into [[pleasure-ground]]s. In the latter, there would be collected, by the combined means of the village, all the rare, hardy [[shrub]]s, trees and plants usually found in the private grounds of any amateur in America.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1851, “The Management of Large Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 106–7)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The Management of Large Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 105–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HKQH76RW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The great and distinguishing beauty of England, as every one knows, is its '''parks'''. And yet the English '''parks''' are only very large [[meadow]]s, studded with great oaks and elms—and grazed—''profitably grazed'', by deer, cattle and sheep. We believe it is a commonly received idea in this country, with those who have not travelled abroad, that English '''parks''' are portions of highly dressed scenery—at least that they are kept short by frequent mowing, etc. It is an entire mistake. The mown [[lawn]] with its polished garden scenery, is confined to the [[pleasure ground]]s proper—a spot of greater or less size, immediately surrounding the house, and wholly separated from the '''park''' by a [[terrace]] [[wall]], or an iron [[fence]], or some handsome architectural barrier. The '''park''', which generally comes quite up to the house on one side, receives no other attention than such as belongs to the care of the animals that graze in it. As most of these '''parks''' afford excellent pasturage, and though apparently one wide, unbroken surface, they are really subdivided into large fields, by wire or other invisible [[fence]]s, they actually pay a very fair income to the proprietor, in the shape of good beef, mutton and venison. . .
:“Of course, any thing like English '''parks''', so far as regards ''extent'', is almost out of the question here; simply because land and fortunes are wisely divided here, instead of being kept in large bodies, intact, as in England. Still, as the first class country-[[seat]]s of the Hudson now command from $50,000 to $75,000, it is evident that there is a growing taste for space and beauty in the private domains of republicans. What we wish to suggest now, is, simply, that the greatest beauty and satisfaction may be had here, as in England—(for the plan really suits our limited means better,) by treating the bulk of the ornamental portion as open '''park''' pasture—and thus getting the greatest space and beauty at the least original expenditure, and with the largest annual profit. . .
:“All that is to be borne in mind is, that the '''park''' may be as large as you can afford to purchase—for it may be kept up at a profit—while the [[pleasure-ground]]s and garden scenery, may, with this management, be compressed into the smallest space actually deemed necessary to the place—thereby lessening labor, and bestowing that labor, in a concentrated space, where it will tell.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1385.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a '''Park''',” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII.

File:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a '''Park''' Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

File:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a '''Park''' Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

File:0994.jpg|Anonymous, “Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton,” c. 1781. According to Hugh Jones, a "large pasture enclosed like a '''park'''" surrounded the governor’s residence and was encircled and marked on the plan as "Governor’s Park.”

File:0994_detail.jpg|Anonymous, "Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton" [detail], c. 1781.

File:2296.jpg|A. P. Folie, “Plan of the town of Baltimore and it’s environs,” 1792. "Howard's '''Park'''" inscribed at top left.

File:2253.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), “A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America,” 1797.

File:0039.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, ''Plan of [[Public garden/Public ground|Grounds]] adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822.

File:2000.jpg|Robert Cary Long Jr., Washington Monument and Howard's '''Park''', c. 1829.

File:0811.jpg|William Smith after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of St. John’s Chapel, From the '''Park''''', 1829.

File:1116.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, ''The '''Park''' and City Hall, New York'', in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol 1, pl. 49.

File:1808.jpg|Sarah Fairchild, ''Union '''Park''', New York'', c. 1845.

File:0363.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the [[Meadow]] '''Park''' at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'', 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Hyde '''Park''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0484.jpg|John Bachmann, ''New York City Hall, '''Park''' and Environs'', c. 1849.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union '''Park''', New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

File:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File:0947.jpg|Anonymous, ''Study of trees in '''Park''' Scenery'', in [[A. J. Downing]], “Study of Park Trees,” ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 9 (September 1851): pl. opp. 394.

File:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley '''Park''', Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Ever-green '''Parks''' (19-20)."

File:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File: 0023_detail4.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'' [detail], 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.

File:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. The park is the shaded open area in the center of the plan.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the [[Bridge]] at Gray’s Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792—94.

File:2254.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[The Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of William Hamilton, Esq.'', 1793.

File:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

File:1731.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia'', June 14, 1796.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:1830.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Sedgley--J. Fishers Esqr. opposite Eaglesfield 28th. October'', 1816.

File:0992.jpg|Charles B. Lawrence, attr., ''[[Point Breeze]], the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817—20.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill River]]'', c. 1824—26.

File:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall '''Park''' From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

File:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the Bowling Green'', c. 1826.

File:0665.jpg|Anonymous, Bonaparte’s residence and the surrounding '''park''', c. 1830.

File:1100.jpg|Robert Walter Weir, “Lunatic Asylum, New York,” Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, in ''New York Mirror'' (February 1, 1834): opp. 241.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

File:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Natural_style|natural style]]'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

File:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “Bowling Green [[Fountain]],” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York: Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. 30.

File:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

File:0351.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], “Presidents [[Arch]] at the end of Penna [[Avenue]],” 1851.

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.

File:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

File:0982.jpg|L. S. Punderson, ''Public [[Square]], New Haven'', 1862.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1383.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

File:1389.jpg|Batty Langley, “Variety of Lawns, or Openings, before a grand Front of a Building, into a '''Park''', Forest, Common, &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.

File:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

File:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

File:2082.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Eaglesfield from the northeast, May 11th, 1817'', 1817.

File:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825—28.

File:1987_1.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Sedgeley Park, 1828–1836.

File:1987_2.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Sedgeley Park, 1828–1836.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “Front [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

File:0726.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''The Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1841.

File:0483.jpg|Anonymous, ''Croton Water Celebration 1842'', 1842.

File:2283.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), ''[[View]] of the Great Conflagration at New York July 19th 1845'', 1845.

File:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), ''Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York'', c. 1845.

File:1437.jpg|C. Bachman, ''New York'', c. 1848.

File:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

File: 1239_detail1.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'' [detail], 1836.

File: 1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Grove

2021-04-12T13:25:06Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Thicket]], [[Wilderness]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:0605.jpg|thumb|left|550 px|Fig. 1, Lieut. Birch, ''Plan of St. Augustine, Fla.'', 1819.]]
The term grove referred to both natural and planted arrangements of trees, as indicated by [[Noah Webster]]’s definition of 1828. American gardeners such as [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) realized the potential of indigenous vegetation and simply thinned existing trees to create so-called “natural” groves. Trees could also be planted where none existed to create “artificial” groves. Whether natural or artificial, groves of trees were an important element in the ornamental landscape, serving aesthetic and agricultural purposes. As Samuel Deane explained in the ''New-England Farmer'' (1790), groves could provide shade and windbreaks as well as syrup, firewood, and fruit. As a formal element, groves defined [[border]]s of gardens, created backdrops, and, as seen in the sketch of St. Augustine’s orange grove [Fig. 1], offered sites for collecting specific plants.

While generally composed of trees, groves sometimes included [[shrub]]s and flowers. These plants were also found in [[wood]]s, [[shrubberies]], and [[wilderness]]es, thus blurring the lines of distinctions between these features—several treatise writers and lexicographers defined groves, for example, as small [[wood]]s. The overlapping and indistinct uses of the terms “grove,” “[[wilderness]],” and “[[shrubbery]]” are exemplified by George Washington’s notations on the garden at [[Mount Vernon]]. In 1782, he wrote that he would immediately plant groups of “[[shrub]]s and ornamental trees,” and decide later which constituted “the grove and which the [[wilderness]],” implying that the grove would ultimately be the less thickly planted of the two. To add to the confusion, Washington on another occasion referred to the arrangement of trees and [[shrub]]s just south of his house as both a grove and a [[shrubbery]]. Texts from the 19th century mentioned [[shrub]]s and flowers in groves less frequently, because these types of plants were increasingly associated with [[shrubberies]]. Thus, as time passed, the distinction between the terms became more clearly drawn.

When attempting to distinguish groves from other features that employed trees (particularly [[wood]]s and [[clump]]s), treatise writers often focused on the question of whether groves should contain undergrowth. Various opinions emerged. Batty Langley argued in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728) for the inclusion of flowering [[shrub]]s with evergreens and deciduous trees. Thomas Whately, however, in ''Observations of Modern Gardening'' (1770), believed that a grove consisted of trees without undergrowth in contrast to [[wood]]s or [[clump]]s, which did contain undergrowth. Philip Miller, in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), considered undergrowth as one factor that distinguished a “closed” grove from an “open” one. The “open” form of the feature was made by planting large trees at a distance that permitted tree tops to knit together to create a shady canopy for the [[walk]]s below. The “closed” type was composed of a denser planting of trees, [[shrub]]s, and flowers that could be arranged in figures cut through and circumscribed by [[walk]]s.

[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.]]
[[File:2282.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, NY [detail], n.d. A “Public Grove” is situated on either side of the “[[Common]] Ground.”]]

The appellations “open” and “closed,” however, were not common in American discourse, despite [[Noah Webster|Noah Webster's]] inclusion of such distinctions in his definition. Although these adjectives were not employed to a significant degree, groves fitting these characteristics can be identified. [[Thomas Jefferson]], in his 1807 account of [[Monticello]], described his intention to trim the lower limbs of the trees in his grove, composed of a mixture of hardwoods and evergreens, “so as to give the appearance of open ground,” suggesting an “open” grove [Fig. 2]. [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]], in 1742, evoked the sense of a “closed” grove when she delineated her collection of trees and flowers. Likewise, in 1776 George Washington suggested a similar type of grove for [[Mount Vernon]], which he described as an arrangement of flowering trees and evergreens underplanted with flowering [[shrub]]s.

[[File:2255.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, [[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793.]]
Washington’s account of this “closed” grove also provides a significant clue as to the arrangement of plants. In his 1776 letter to Lund Washington, he specified that the trees “be Planted without any order or regularity,” an aesthetic in keeping with the recommendations of Langley, whose treatises were owned by Washington. The texts of Langley and Miller exemplify the gradual shift away from formal or rectilinear arrangements of trees toward more irregular or “[[natural style|natural]]” designs. 17th-century groves might be planted in [[Geometric_style|geometrical]], or otherwise such patterned figures as “the star, the direct Cross, St. Andrew’s Cross,” described by A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville (1712). By contrast, |Langley insisted that groves be planted with “regular Irregularity; not planting them. . . with their Trees in straight Lines ranging every Way, but in a rural Manner, as if they had receiv’d their Situation from Nature itself.” In contrast to authors of earlier treatises, 19th-century American writers, including Samuel Deane (1790), [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) and the anonymous author of the ''New England Farmer'' (1828), advocated regular arrangements. Few if any signs, however, indicate that Americans made “closed” groves in [[Geometric_style|geometrical]] figures, such as those described in James. [[Pierre Pharoux]]’s unexecuted plans for the new town Esperanza, New York [Fig. 3], and for Baron von Steuben’s estate in Mohawk Valley, New York [Fig. 4], are rare exceptions.

[[File:0730.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, William Russell Birch, “The Grove in Springland,” before 1805.]]

In either the regular or irregular arrangement, groves were often designed to accommodate garden structures or decorative elements. William Bentley (1791), for example, called attention to the [[pond]] with [[Statue|statuary]] found in the midst of the grove at Pleasant Hill, Joseph Barrell’s estate in Charlestown, Massachusetts; Margaret Bayard Smith (1809) recorded that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] intended to place a monument to a friend in the midst of a grove at [[Monticello]]. William Russell Birch situated a Gothic chapel in the grove at Springland [Fig. 5].

In addition to providing settings for decorative objects, groves sometimes displayed rare or unusual tree specimens. At [[Mount Vernon]], Washington contrasted his northern grove, to be made up entirely of locust trees, with his southern grove, to be planted with “clever,” “curious,” and “ornamental” trees and [[shrub]]s. At [[The Woodlands]], [[William Hamilton]] also filled his groves with rare ornamental trees.

[[File:0059.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Spring house—elevation and plan, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.]]
[[File:0134.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Common]]s'', c. 1768.]]
Groves provided shade and settings for [[walk]]s that linked buildings in a unified composition. They sheltered or highlighted important architectural features. Groves of evergreens or shade trees were well suited for graves and church settings because of the associations with perpetual life. [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney]] and [[Charles Willson Peale]] both spoke of the aura of solemnity found in the deep shade and quiet of their respective groves. Alexander Hamilton (1744) called the “darkened and shaded” grove very “romantick.” Architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] depicted a [[temple]] deep in a grove, a scene that recalled idealized landscapes associated with the classical past [Fig. 6]. Funerary associations of the grove, dating back to antiquity, made the feature an especially appropriate setting for commemorative monuments and landscape [[cemeteries]].

Groves also connoted cultivation and improvement. They were frequently featured in images, such as Christian Remick’s ''Prospective View of part of the Commons'' (1768) [Fig. 7]. In [[Timothy Dwight]]’s descriptions of the cultivated American landscape, for example, he repeatedly called attention to groves as marking the transition from the wilder or unplanned landscape to the “improved” or worked landscape. Even [[A. J. Downing]], who avoided the term in his treatise, found it useful in describing his ideal [[park]] for the city of New York in 1851.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1612, describing Native American life in America (quoted in Billings 1975: 215)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed., ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Some times from 2 to 100 of these houses [are] togither [''sic''], or but a little separated by '''groves''' of trees. Neare their habitations is [a] little small [[wood]], or old trees on the ground, by reason of their burning of them for fire.”

*[[Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1742, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]], Charleston, SC (1972: 36)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“You may wonder how I could in this gay season think of planting a Cedar '''grove''', which rather reflects an Autumnal gloom and solemnity than the freshness and gayty of spring. But so it is. I have begun it last week and intend to make it an Emblem not of a lady, but of a compliment which your good Aunt was pleased to make to the person her partiality has made happy by giving her a place in her esteem and friendship. I intend then to connect in my '''grove''' the solemnity (not the solidity) of summer or autumn with the cheerfulness and pleasures of spring, for it shall be filled with all kind of flowers, as well wild as Garden flowers, with seats of Camomoil and here and there a fruit tree—oranges, nectrons, Plumbs, &c., &c.”

*Norris, Isaac, 22 June 1743, describing Fairhill, seat of Isaac Norris, near Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Norris Letter Book, 1719–56)
:“. . . opening my [[wood]]s into '''groves''', enlarging my fishponds and beautifying my springs.”

*Moore, Francis, 1744, describing the [[Trustees’ Garden]], Savannah, GA (quoted in Marye 1933: 15)<ref>Florence (Nisbet) Marye and Philip Thornton Marye, ''Garden History of Georgia, 1733–1933'', ed. Hattie C. Rainwater and Loraine M. Cooney (Atlanta: Peachtree Garden Club, 1933), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GNC4U42D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the North-part of the Garden is left standing a '''Grove''' of Part of the old [[Wood]] as it was before the arrival of the Colony there. The Trees in the '''Grove''' are mostly Bay, Sassafras, Evergreen Oak, Pellitory, Hickary [''sic''], American Ash, and the Laurel Tulip.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, July 14, 1744, describing a house in Rhode Island (1948: 98)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . we passed by an old fashioned wooden house att the end of a lane, darkened and shaded over with a thick '''grove''' of tall trees. This appeared to me very romantick and brought into my mind some romantick descriptions of rural scenes in Spencer’s Fairy Queen.”

*Washington, George, August 19, 1776, in a letter to Lund Washington, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 7)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Plant Trees in the room of all dead ones in proper time this Fall. and as I mean to have '''groves''' of Trees at each end of the dwelling House, that at the South end to range in a line from the South East Corner to Colo. Fairfax’s, extending as low as another line from the Stable to the dry Well, and towards the Coach House . . . from the No. Et. Corner of the other end of the House to range so as to show the Barn &ca. in the Neck. . . these Trees to be Planted without any order or regularity (but pretty thick, as they can at any time be thin’d) and to consist that at the North end, of locusts altogether. and that at the South, of all the clever kind of Trees (especially flowering ones) that can be got, such as Crab apple, Poplar, Dogwood, Sasafras, Laurel, Willow (especially yellow and Weeping Willow, twigs of which may be got from Philadelphia) and many others which I do not recollect at present; those to be interspersed here and there with ever greens such as Holly, Pine, and Cedar, also Ivy; to these may be added the Wild flowering [[Shrub]]s of the larger kind, such as the fringe Trees and several other kinds that might be mentioned.”

*Rush, Dr. Benjamin, July 15, 1782, describing the country [[seat]] of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 87)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground contiguous to this shed was cut into beautiful [[walk]]s and divided with cedar and pine branches into artificial '''groves'''. The whole, both the buildings and [[walk]]s, were accommodated with [[seat]]s.”

*Washington, George, December 25, 1782, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 87–88)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I wish that the afore-mentioned [[shrub]]s and ornamental and curious trees may be planted at both ends that I may determine hereafter from circumstances and appearances which shall be the '''grove''' and which the [[wilderness]]. It is easy to extirpate Trees from any spot but time only can bring them to maturity.”

[[File:0036.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Thomas Lee Shippen, Plan of Westover, 1783. The grove is marked at “&c” at upper left quadrant.]]
*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The crooked line markd x [on the accompanying drawing] shews you where the garden is which is very large and exceedingly beautiful indeed. The one opposite to it &c is the place where there is a pretty '''grove''' neatly kept, from which the walk thro’ one of the pretty [[gate]]s markd g leads you to the improved grounds before the house.” [Fig. 8]

*Washington, George, 1785 and 1786, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:99, 107, 304)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[March 7, 1785] Planted all my Cedars, all my Papaw, and two Honey locust Trees in my [[Shrubberies]] and two of the latter in my '''groves'''—one at each (side) of the House and a large Holly tree on the Point going to the Sein landing. . .
:“Finished Plowing the Ground adjoining the Pine '''Grove''', designed for Clover & Orchard grass Seed. . .
:“[March 24, 1785] Finding the Trees round the [[Walk]]s in my wildernesses rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
:“Laid off the [[Walk]]s in my '''Groves''', at each end of the House. . .
:“[April 6, 1786] Transplanted 46 of the large Magnolio of So. Carolina from the box brought by G. A. Washington last year—viz.—6 at the head of each of the Serpentine [[Walk]]s next the Circle—26 in the [[Shrubbery]] or '''grove''' at the South end of the House & 8 in that at the No. end. The ground was so wet, more could not at this time be planted there.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:262)<ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“It was so lately laid out in its present form that it has not assumed that air of grandeur which time will give it. The trees are yet small, but most judiciously arranged. The artificial [[mound]]s of earth, and depressions, and small '''groves''' in the [[square]]s have a most delightful effect.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:275–77)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>
:“As we were walking on the northern side of the Garden, upon a beautiful glacis, we found ourselves on the borders of a '''grove''' of wood and upon the brow of a steep hill. . . At a distance, we could just see three very high arched [[bridge]]s, one beyond the other. . . We saw them through the '''grove''', the branches of the trees partly concealing them, which produced the more romantic and delightful effect. As we advanced on the brow of this hill, we observed a small foot-path, which led by several windings into the '''grove'''. We followed it; and though we saw that it was the work of art, yet it was a most happy imitation of nature. It conducted us along the declivity of the hill, which on every side was strewed with flowers in the most artless manner, and evidently seemed to be the bounty of nature without the aid of human care. At length we seemed to be lost in the [[wood]]s, but saw in the distance an antique building, to which our path led us. . . At this [[hermitage]] we came into a spacious graveled [[walk]], which directed its course further along the '''grove''', which was tall [[wood]] interspersed with close thickets of different growth. As we advanced, we found our gravel [[walk]] dividing itself into numerous branches, leading into different parts of the '''grove'''. We directed our course nearly north, though some of our company turned into the other [[walk]]s, but were soon out of sight, and thought proper to return and follow us. We at length came to a considerable [[eminence]], which was adorned with an infinite variety of [[bed]]s of flowers and artificial '''groves''' of flowering [[shrub]]s. On the further side of the eminence was a [[fence]], beyond which we perceived an extensive but narrow opening. When we came to the [[fence]], we were delightfully astonished with the [[view]] of one of the finest [[cascade]]s in America. . . The distance we judged to be about a quarter of a mile, which being seen through the narrow opening in the tall '''grove''', and the fine mist that rose incessantly from the rocks below, had a most delightful effect.”

*Adams, Abigail, November 21, 1790, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (1841: 2:207)<ref>Abigail Adams, ''Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams'', ed. Charles Francis Adams, 3rd ed. (Boston: C. C. Little and J. Brown, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5USKR5MS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Bush Hill, as it is called, though by the way there remains neither bush nor [[shrub]] upon it, and very few trees, except the pine '''grove''' behind it,— yet Bush Hill is a very beautiful place.”

*[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 72–73)<ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious '''grove''' of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a [[view]] of the inlet. A cool area surrounded the low but convenient buildings, from whence, through the '''groves''', was a spacious [[avenue]] into the island, terminated by a large savanna. . .
:“Our rural table was spread under the shadow of Oaks, Palms, and Sweet Bays, fanned by the lively salubrious breezes wafted from the spicy '''groves'''. Our music was the responsive love-lays of the painted nonpareil, and the alert and gay mock-bird; whilst the brilliant humming-bird darted through the flowery '''groves''', suspended in air, and drank nectar from the flowers of the yellow Jasmine, Lonicera, Andromeda, and sweet Azalea.”

*[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing an Indian village in Florida (1928: 96)<ref name="Bartram"></ref>
:“There was a large Orange '''grove''' at the upper end of their village; the trees were large, carefully pruned, and the ground under them clean, open, and airy.”

[[File:0722.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Barrell Farm,” Pleasant Hill, 1817. A “Poplar Grove” was located on axis with main house, between the fish pond on the Barrell property and the river.]]
*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. A young '''grove''' is growing in the back ground, in the middle of which is a [[pond]], decorated with four ships at anchor, & a marble figure in the centre. The [[Chinese manner]] is mixed with the European in the [[Summer house]] which fronts the House, below the [[Flower Garden]].” [Fig. 9]

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1794, describing Greenfield Hill, CT (quoted in Clarke 1993: 1:386)<ref name="Clarke">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero].</ref>
::“On yon bright plain, with beauty gay,
::Where waters wind, and cattle play,
::Where gardens, '''groves''', and [[orchard]]s bloom,
::Unconscious of her coming doom,
::Once Fairfield smil’d. The tidy dome,
::Of pleasure, and of peace, the home,
::There rose; and there the glittering spire,
::Secure from sacrilegious fire.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:5–6)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Very few of them [country houses] are without a small garden; but it is rare to observe one, that has a '''grove''' adjoining, or that is surrounded with trees; it is the custom of the country to have no [[wood]] near the houses. Customs are sometimes founded in reason, but it is difficult to conjecture the design of this practice in a country, where the heat in summer is altogether intolerable, and where the structure of the houses is designedly adapted to exclude that excessive heat.*
:“*The ''reason is'', because the country was universally wooded, when the building of these houses was first begun; and in a country thus wooded, to clear the space round the dwelling-house was just as natural, as to plant round the house in a country otherwise bare of [[wood]].— ''Translator''.”

*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the estate of Adrian Valeck, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and [[square]]s bordered with [[espalier]]s, on which. . . the greatest variety of fruit trees, the choicest fruits from the best [[nursery|nurseries]] in this country and Europe have been attentively and successfully cultivated. . . Behind the garden in a '''grove''' and [[shrubbery]] or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1987: 2:145)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>
:“We then walked over the [[pleasure ground]]s in front and a little back of the house. It is formed into [[walk]]s, in every direction, with [[border]]s of flowering [[shrub]]s and trees. Between are [[lawn]]s of green grass, frequently mowed to make them convenient for walking, and at different distances numerous copse of native trees, interspersed with artificial '''groves''', which are set with trees collected from all parts of the world.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1807, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The canvas at large [of a Garden or pleasure ground] must be '''Grove''', of the largest trees, (poplar, oak, elm, maple, ash, hickory, chestnut, Linden, Weymouth pine, sycamore) trimmed very high, so as to give it the appearance of open ground, yet not so far apart but that they may cover the ground with close shade.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], March 17, 1807, describing the White House, Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In removing the ground, it would certainly be necessary to go down in front of the colonnade to the level of about one foot below the bases of the [[Column]]s but, it will certainly not deprive this colonnade of any part of its beauty to pass behind a few gentle Knolls and '''groves''' or [[Clump]]s in its front, and much expense of removing earth would be thereby saved.”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 1, 1809, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1906: 73)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As we passed the graveyard, which is about half way down the mountain, in a sequestered spot, he told me he there meant to place a small gothic building,—higher up, where a beautiful little [[mound]] was covered with a '''grove''' of trees, he meant to place a monument to his friend Wythe.”

*Cuming, Fortesque, 1810, describing a seat in Pittsburgh, PA (1810: 227)<ref>Fortescue Cuming, ''Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country'' (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Eichbaum, 1810), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFUIGI3M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“What adds to the beauty of Mr. Tannehill’s [[seat]] is, a handsome '''grove''' of about two acres of young black oaks, northwest of his dwelling, through the middle of which runs a long frame [[bowery]], on whose end fronting the road, is seen this motto, ‘''1808, Dedicated to Virtue, Liberty, and Independence''’ Here a portion of the citizens meet on each 4th of July, to hail with joyful hearts the day that gave birth to the liberties and happiness of their country. On the opposite side of the road to the [[bowery]], is a spring issuing from the side of the hill, whose water trickles down a rich clover patch, through which is a deep hollow with several small [[cascade]]s, overhung with the willow, and fruit trees of various kinds.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:51)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I am often pleased with the solemn '''groves''' skirting [[meadow]]s in majestic silence and cool appearance.”

[[File:1051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.]]
*Silliman, Benjamin, 1819, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 14–15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the boat or [[summerhouse|summer house]], several paths diverge. . . the first passes round the [[lake]], and generally out of sight of it, for a quarter of a mile, until descending a very steep bank, through a '''grove''' of evergreens, so dark as to be almost impervious to the rays of the sun, even at noon day.” [Fig. 10]

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA(1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He took me to the seat of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled [[walk]], by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a '''grove''' of young forest trees on the top of [an] [[eminence]] in the midst of which was a [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] [[temple]].”

*Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>“Neglected Grave Yards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 39 (April 17, 1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the burial grounds of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a '''grove''' sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living [[hedge]] of hawthorn.
:“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a village near New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:81–82)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the left and diagonally from the dwelling house we noticed a very neat, pretty village, containing about forty small snow-white cottages, all precisely alike, built around a pleasant [[square]], in the centre of which, was a '''grove''' or cluster of magnificent sycamores.”

*Martineau, Harriet, May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KEG83GHS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the neighbourhood of Mobile, my relative, who has a true English love of gardening, had introduced the practice [of gardens]; and I there saw villas and cottages surrounded with a luxuriant growth of Cherokee roses, honeysuckles, and myrtles, while '''groves''' of orange-trees appeared in the background.”

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding [[avenue]] through a fine '''grove''' of ancient deciduous trees. The first view of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the '''grove''', was truly magnificent.”

*B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 381)<ref>J. B., “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We noticed with pleasure, that most of the vicinity of Portland was highly decorated with numerous shade trees, in '''groves''', groups, and single, which the good taste of the proprietors of the soil have spared as yet. Near the city is an extensive, and one of the finest '''groves''' of oaks we have ever seen.”

*Featherstonhaugh, George William, August 20, 1837, describing Pendleton, SC (quoted in Jones 1957: 126–27)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I went in the carriage with the ladies to the Episcopal Church at Pendleton, a neat [[temple]] prettily situated in a shady '''grove'''.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1839, describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front of the cottage, and extending to the limits of the garden, on the west, ornamental [[shrub]]s and forest trees are thickly planted, and are making a rapid and healthy growth; in a few years they will form a dense and shady '''grove'''.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1840: 348)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake, and River: Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (London: George Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[picturesque]] and beautiful [[burial ground|burial-place]] occupies a '''grove''', formerly an academic and sylvan retreat for the students of Harvard College, near by.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 24, 1843, describing St. Anastasia, FL (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:161)<ref name="Clarke"></ref>
:“In another part of the same island, which we visited afterward, is a dwelling-house situated amid orange-'''groves'''. Closely planted rows of the sour orange, the native tree of the country, intersect and shelter [[orchard]]s of the sweet orange, the lemon, and the lime.”

[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280.]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine '''grove''' of large trees, several detached [[clump]]s of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in [[avenue]]s along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The '''groves''' are fitted up with seats and [[summer house]]s, and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them. . .
:“The work-shop and lumber-yard are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine '''grove''', in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin alley.” [Fig. 11]

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), March 1849, describing the residence of Gen. Elias W. Leavenworth, Syracuse, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 98)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Several Gardens & Nurseries in Western New York,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 3 (March 1849): 97–105, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T6A833UU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . this [the fruit garden] and the house occupy about half of the ground: the other half has been made a most beautiful '''grove'''; this was done by a judicious cutting away of whole trees in some places, and by pruning and thinning the branches in others, leaving the whole a [[picturesque]] mass, which years of time and labor could not have produced.”

*Gordon, Alexander, June 1849, describing the residence of Mr. Valcouraam, near New Orleans, LA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 247–48)<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Remarks on Gardens and Gardening in Louisiana,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 6 (June 1849): 245–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HNZQV4FE/q/gardens%20and%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For instance, within a few minutes walk from where I now write, I could find magnificent '''groves''' of magnolias (now in full bloom,) with an abundance of choice trees and [[shrub]]s. All that would be required to form the scene into a perfect ''facsimile'' of an English [[shrubbery]] would be to introduce [[walk]]s, and judiciously thin out and regulate the mass.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing John Notman's plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—'''groves''', [[arbour]]s, [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The New-York Park” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 346–47)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The New-York Park,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 345–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2XEW44DT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That because it is needful in civilized life for men to live in cities,—yes, and unfortunately too, for children to be born and educated without a daily sight of the blessed horizon,—it is not, therefore, needful for them to be so miserly as to live utterly divorced from all pleasant and healthful intercourse with gardens and green fields. He [Mayor Kingsland] informs them that cool umbrageous '''groves''' have not forsworn themselves within town limits, and that half a million of people have a ''right'' to ask for the ‘greatest happiness’ of [[park]]s and [[pleasure ground]]s, as well as for paving stones and gas lights. . .
:“In the broad area of such a verdant zone would gradually grow up, as the wealth of the city increases, winter gardens of glass, like the great Crystal Palace, where the whole people could luxuriate in '''groves''' of the palms and spice trees of the tropics, at the same moment that sleighing parties glided swiftly and noiselessly over the snow covered surface of the country-like [[avenue]]s of the wintry park without.”

===Citations===
[[File:1054.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Michael van der Gucht, “Designs of Groves of a Middle Height,” A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 4c, n.p.]]
*Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712: 48–49)<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens'', trans. John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''The French'' call a '''Grove''' ''Bosquet'', from the ''Italian'' Word ''Bosquetto'', a little [[Wood]] of small Extent, as much as to say, a Nosegay, or Bunch of Green.
:“''[[WOOD]]S'' and '''Groves''' make the ''Relievo'' of Gardens, and serve infinitely to improve the flat Parts, as [[Parterre]]s and [[Bowling-green]]s. Care should be taken to place them so, that they may not hinder the Beauty of the [[Prospect]]. . .
:“Their most usual Forms are the Star, the direct Cross, S. ''Andrew’s'' Cross, and the Goose-Foot; they nevertheless admit the following Designs, as Cloisters, [[Labyrinth]]s, Quincunces, [[Bowling-green]]s, Halls, Cabinets, circular and [[square]] Compartiments, Halls for Comedy, Covered Halls, Natural and Artificial [[Arbor]]s, [[Fountain]]s, Isles, [[cascade|Cascades]], Water-Galleries, Green-Galleries, ''&c''.” [Fig. 12]

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: Introduction, 195–203)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr. New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Their [Nobility and Gentry of England] ''Wildernesses'' and '''''Groves''''' (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the ''Heat of Summer'', when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun''.
:“Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place '''''Groves''''' and open ''Wildernesses'' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . .
:“Their '''GROVES''' (whenever they planted any) were always regular, ''like unto [[Orchard]]s'', which is entirely wrong; for when we come to ''copy'', or ''imitate Nature'', we should trace her Steps with the greatest Accuracy that can be. And therefore when we plant '''''Groves''' of Forest or other Trees'', we have nothing more to regard, than that the outside Lines be agreeable to the Figure of the '''Grove''', and that no three Trees together range in a strait [''sic''] Line; excepting now and then by Chance, to cause Variety. . .
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''.
:“I. THAT the grand Front of a Building lie open upon an elegant [[Lawn]] or Plain of Grass, adorn’d with beautiful [[Statue]]s, (of which hereafter in their Place,) terminated on its Sides with open '''Groves'''. . .
:“VIII. That Shady [[Walk]]s be planted from the End-[[View]]s of a House, and terminate in those open '''Groves''' that enclose the Sides of the plain [[Parterre]], that thereby you may enter into immediate Shade, as soon as out of the House, without being heated by the Scorching Rays of the Sun. . .
:“IX. That all the Trees of your Shady [[Walk]]s and '''Groves''' be planted with Sweet-Brier, White Jessemine, and Honey-Suckles, environ’d at Bottom with a small Circle of Dwarf-Stock, Candy-Turf, and Pinks. . .
:“XVIII. That the Intersection of [[Walk]]s be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, '''Groves''', Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering [[Shrub]]s, of Forest Trees, [[Bason]]s, [[Fountain]]s, [[Sun-Dial]]s, and [[Obelisk]]s. . .
:“XXV. '''Groves''' of Standard Ever-Greens, as Yew, Holly, Box, and Bay-Trees, are very pleasant, especially when a delightful [[Fountain]] is plac’d in their Center. . .
[[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208.]]
:“XXXII. In the Planting of '''Groves''', you must observe a regular Irregularity; not planting them according to the common Method like an [[Orchard]], with their Trees in straight Lines ranging every Way, but in a rural Manner, as if they had receiv’d their Situation from Nature itself.
:“XXXIII. Plant in and about your several '''Groves''', and other Parts of your Garden, good store of Black-Cherry and other Trees that produce Food for Birds, which will not a little add to the Pleasure thereof. . .
:“XXXV. The several kinds of Forest-Trees make beautiful '''Groves''', as also doth many Ever-Greens, or both mix’d together; but none more beautiful than that noble Tree the Pine.” [Fig. 13]

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 588–90)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GROVES''' are the greatest Ornaments to a Garden; nor can a Garden be complete which has not one or more of these. In small Gardens there is scarce room to admit of '''Groves''' of any Extent; yet in these there should be at least one contrived, which should be as large as the Ground will allow it: and where these are small, there is more Skill required in the Disposition, to give them the Appearance of being larger than they really are. . .
:“These '''Groves''' are not only great Ornaments to Gardens, but are also the greatest Relief against the violent Heats of the Sun, affording Shade to walk under, in the hottest Part of the Day, when the other Parts of the Garden are useless; so that every Garden is defective which has not Shade.
:“'''Groves''' are of two Sorts: viz. open and close '''Groves''': Open '''Groves''' are such as have large shady Trees, which stand at such Distances, as that their Branches may approach so near each other, as to prevent the Rays of the Sun from penetrating through them: but as such Trees are a long time in growing to a proper Size for affording a Shade; so where new '''Groves''' are planted, the Trees must be placed closer together, in order to have Shade as soon as possible: but in planting of these '''Groves''', it is much the best Way to dispose all the Trees irregularly, which will give them a greater Magnificence, and also form a shade sooner, than when the Trees are planted in Lines; for when the Sun shines between the Rows of Trees, as it must do some Part of the Day in Summer, the [[Walk]]s between them will be exposed to the Heat, at such times, until the Branches of these Trees meet, whereas, in the irregular [[Plantation]]s, the Trees intervene, and obstruct the direct Rays of the Sun.
:“When a Person, who is to lay out a Garden, is so happy as to meet with large full-grown Trees upon the Spot, they should remain inviolate, if possible; for it will be better to put up with many Inconveniencies, than to destroy these. . . so that nothing but that of offending the Habitation, by being so near as to occasion great Damps, should tempt the cutting of them down. . .
:“Close '''Groves''' have frequently large Trees standing in them; but the Ground is filled under these with [[Shrub]]s, or Underwood; so that the [[Walk]]s which are made in them are private, and screened from Winds; whereby they are rendered agreeable for walking, at such times when the Air is too violent or cold for walking in the more exposed Parts of the Garden.
:“These are often contrived so as to bound the open '''Groves''', and frequently to hide the [[Wall]]s, or other Inclosures of the Garden: and when they are properly laid out, with dry [[Walk]]s winding through them, and on the Sides of these sweet-smelling [[Shrub]]s and Flowers irregularly planted, they have a charming Effect: for here a Person may walk in private sheltered from the Inclemency of cold or violent Winds; and enjoy the greatest Sweets of the vegetable Kingdom: therefore where it can be admitted, if they are continued round the whole Inclosure of the Garden, there will be a much greater Extent of [[Walk]]: and these Shrubs will appear the best Boundary, where there are not fine [[Prospect]]s to be gained.
:“These close '''Groves''' are by the ''French'' termed ''Bosquets'', from the ''Italian'' word ''Bosquetto'', which signifies a little [[Wood]]: and in most of the ''French'' Gardens there are many of them planted; but these are reduced to regular Figures, as Ovals, Triangles, [[Square]]s, and Stars: but these have neither the Beauty or Use which those have that are made irregularly, and whose [[Walk]]s are not shut up on each Side by [[Hedge]]s, which prevents the Eye from seeing the [[Quarter]]s; and these want the Fragrancy of the Shrubs and Flowers, which are the great Delight of these private [[Walk]]s; add to this, the keeping of the [[Hedge]]s in good Order is attended with a great Expence; which is a capital Thing to be considered in the making of Gardens.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 649–51)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The disposition of '''groves''' is a consideration not enough regarded: we err in it greatly; we plant the trees too close, and we make the [[walk]]s too narrow. The person who goes into them to be free from the sun is choaked for want of air; and the same closeness occasions a continual damp, very dangerous at such seasons. Every thing in them is gloomy and disagreeable. Instead of this, a kind of cheerfulness may be diffused even there; and we may have solitude, shade, and retirement, without a savage darkness of dreary wet. . .
:“Let the [[plantation]] be made of selected trees, as we have proposed, and let them have good distance: they will grow more vigorously, and the [[walk]] will be more wholesome.
:“This space of planting will also give reason for flowering [[shrub]]s, which may be scattered here and there about the [[walk]], and will thrive nearly as well as in the open air.
:“Thus may the '''groves''' be constructed ornamentally to the other parts of the garden, elegant and pleasing in themselves, and fit to form recesses in which to place [[Statue|statutes]] [''sic''], [[temple]]s, and other structures. . .
:“A ragged outside of a '''grove''' contrasts the trim cheerfulness of an even [[walk]]; and one gives the other lustre. The only rule is, that they be used with moderation and discretion; for they must be considered as foils and extravagancies, not as the essential and regular part of a garden.”

*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 36, 46–48)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Every [[plantation]] must be either a ''[[wood]]'', a '''''grove''''', a ''[[clump]]'', or a ''single tree''. “A wood is composed of both trees and underwood, covering a considerable space. A '''grove''' consists of trees without underwood; a [[clump]] differs from either only in extent. . .
:“The prevailing character of a [[wood]] is generally grandeur. . . But the character of a '''grove''' is ''beauty''; fine trees are lovely objects; a '''grove''' is an assemblage of them; in which every individual retains much of its own peculiar elegance; and whatever it loses, is transferred to the superior beauty of the whole. To a '''grove''', therefore, which admits of endless variety in the disposition of the trees, differences in their shapes and their greens are seldom very important, and sometimes they are detrimental. . .
:“Though a '''grove''' be beautiful as an object, it is besides delightful as a spot to [[walk]] or to sit in; and the choice and the disposition of the trees for effects ''within'', are therefore a principal consideration. Mere irregularity alone will not please; strict order is there more agreable than absolute confusion; and some meaning better than none. . . . The distances therefore should be strikingly different: the trees should gather into groupes, or stand in various irregular lines, and describe several figures: the intervals between them should be contracted both in shape and in dimensions: a large space should in someplaces be quite open: in others the trees should be so close together, as hardly to leave a passage between them; and in others as far apart as the connexion will allow. In the forms and the varieties of these groupes, these lines, and these openings, principally consists the interior beauty of a '''grove'''.”

*Squibb, Robert, 1787, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787; repr., 1980: 51)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/98BZAHB3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If you plant the orange trees for a [[hedge]], about ten feet will be a good distance; but if intended for an [[orchard]] or a '''grove''', twenty feet will not be too much.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GROVE''', gro’ve. s. A [[walk]] covered by trees meeting above.”

*Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 116)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GROVE''', a row or [[walk]] of trees planted close, for ornament and shade.
:“Formerly a '''grove''' made in regular lines, was considered as most ornamental. But modern improvers are rather disgusted with the uniformity of a '''grove''', and prefer those which appear as if they were the work of nature or chance. As taste alters from time to time, I shall not undertake to determine which are most grand or beautiful. As my great object is real improvement and advantage, I shall here attend to '''groves''' in regular lines.
:“'''Groves''' in gardens are both ornamental and useful. They shade the [[walk]]s in the borders; so that we may walk in gardens with pleasure, in the hottest part of the day. It is scarcely needful to say these garden '''groves''' should consist of fruit-trees; and they should be of the smaller kinds, in a garden of a small size. A double row has the best effect, one near the [[wall]], the other on the opposite side of the [[walk]].
:“In other situations '''groves''' of larger trees are preferred. Lanes and [[avenue]]s leading to mansion houses and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both sides: If only on one, it should be the southermost, on account of the advantage of shade. . .
:“It would be advantageous to the publick, as well as to the owners of adjoining farms, if all our roads were lined with '''groves'''. They might be either within or without the fences. In the latter case, government might interpose, and secure to the planters those which stood in the roads; and oblige farmers to plant in the roads against their own lands. . .
:“If the country were well stocked with these '''groves''', their perspiration would help to abate the scorching heat of the sun, by moistening the atmosphere. They would serve to impede the force of high driving winds and storms in summer, which often tear our tender vegetables, or lay our crops flat to the ground. Our buildings would be also in less danger from them. The winds in winter would not be so keen and violent. The force of sea winds on our fruit-trees would be abated. The snows that fall would be more even on the ground. Roads would be less blocked up, and seldomer rendered impassable by them. But for these last purposes, '''groves''' of evergreens will have the greatest effect.
:“'''Groves''' should be planted thick at first, that the above advantages may be had from them while young. When the trees become so large as to be crowded, they should be thinned.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:119, 145)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“by ''Timber '''Grove''''' [is meant], a collection of timber trees only, placed in close order. . .
:“THE TIMBER '''GROVE''' is the prevailing ''plantation'' of modern time. [[WOOD]]S or [[Copse|COPPICES]] are seldom attempted: indeed, until of late years, [[clump]]s of Scotch Firs seem to have engaged, in a great measure, the attention of the planter.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 58–59, 63–64)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Straight ranges of the most stately trees, are sometimes arranged on grass-ground in different parts, in contrast with irregular plantations; and produce a most agreeable effect, which though prohibited in many [[modern style|modern]] designs, always exhibit an air of grandeur; being arranged sometimes in single rows, others double, or two ranges at certain distances, forming a grand [[walk]]; in other parts, several regular ranges of trees together in the manner of '''groves'''; the whole combined, forming a diversity, pleasing to the senses, and condusive to health, by exciting to the salutary exercise of walking. . .
: "The planting in '''groves''' and avenues should consist principally of the tree kind, and such as are of straight and handsome growth, with the most branchy, full, regular heads, and may be both of the deciduous and ever-green tribes; but generally arranged separately: '''groves''' and [[avenue]]s, should always be in some spacious open space, formed into grass-ground, either before or after planting the trees; and in planting the '''groves''', it is most eligible to arrange the trees in lines, in some places straight rows, others in gentle bendings, or easy sweeps, having the rows at some considerable distance, that the trees may have full scope to display their branchy heads regularly around; and in some places may have close '''groves''' to form a perfect shade. . .
:“It very frequently happens, that on the spot or tract, which is designed for a [[pleasure-ground]], are found large stately trees of considerable standing, properly situated to be introduced into the design; and sometimes numbers in suitable assemblages, for constituting '''groves''', or [[thicket]]s, and some for single standing groups or [[clump]]s, &c. which will prove of considerable advantage; these should be preserved with the utmost care, as it would require many years to form the like with young [[plantation]]s; and although the trees should stand ever so close, irregular, or straggling, with proper address in thinning and regulating them where necessary, they may be made to become beautifully ornamental to the place, and to prevent a considerable expense.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1812, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (1812: 40–42, 259–61)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (Edinburgh: D. Willison for A. Constable, 1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEMUHDCC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But '''groves''' are most generally planted in the environs of a mansion-house, in [[park]]s, and ornamental grounds; and they often form the chief artificial features of a place. Here, indeed, if the place be extensive, they are most in character; and, if contrasted with [[wood]]s, [[copse]]s, and [[thicket]]s, produce great interest. But in such cases, a '''grove''' should never be, or at least appear to be, diminutive. Its situation should always be such, as to exhibit the greatest possible magnitude, when grown up, as well as in its infancy. That the '''grove''' may appear to most advantage, it is necessary that it occupy the hang of a hill, or the swell of a rising ground: thus situated, it shows a greatly enlarged canopy of foliage. When placed on level ground, the '''grove''' necessarily requires to be more extended in length and in breadth, to produce the same good effects.
:“We do not wish that our observations respecting '''grove''' plantations, should be understood as affecting those [[clump]]s, small patches of planting, or groups of trees that are merely intended to beautify the [[park]] or the [[lawn]]. Were such [[clump]]s planted for any other purpose, we doubtless would consider them as very improper appendages: but when properly pruned and thinned, they are very ornamental. The trees in such [[clump]]s, however, should never be pruned up in imitation of '''grove''' trees, but should be feathered from the bottom upwards. . .
:“It has already been observed, that a '''grove''' is a [[plantation]] of trees, whatever be their kind or kinds, which are intended to be trained up with straight tall trunks. This circumstance will partly determine its extent. If the eye can penetrate through a [[plantation]], it produces a feeling of nakedness. A '''grove''', then, should be of such an extent, or so particularly situated, that, from no side shall the eye be able to penetrate to the other, even were the trees arrived at their full stature, and properly trained. This circumstance shows also the propriety of removing the situation of the '''grove''' to a considerable distance from the site of the mansion-house: It would be no mark of an improved taste to narrow the [[prospect]], by placing a '''grove''' in an improper direction. . .
:“A '''Grove''', then, may be constituted of a mixture of trees, like ordinary mixed [[plantation]]s,—or, more properly, in the form of masses; in which respect, indeed, they may be considered as ordinary [[plantation]]s. Indeed, they differ from them hardly in any thing, excepting that the principals are to be placed rather more closely together. The principals of a deciduous '''grove''' should be placed at the distance of six feet; and the interstices filled up with nurses of larch or firs, till the trees in the whole '''grove''' be only from three to four feet apart.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 479)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''''grove''''' is distinguished from a ''[[wood]]'', by being without underwood. Like the [[clump]], it may be intersected by the garden-[[walk]]s. . .
:“A '''grove''' may have a fine effect on a level; but a '''grove''' rooted in unequal ground, gently curving along the side of a hill, is capable of more various beauty, by the [[view]]s and openings from the interior.”

[[File:1183.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Groves", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 943, figs. 629a and b.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6813. ''With respect to the disposition of the trees within the [[plantation]]'', they may be placed regularly in rows, [[square]]s, parallelograms, or quincunx; irregularly in the manner of groups; without undergrowths, as in '''''groves''''' (''fig. 629. a, b''); with undergrowths, as in [[wood]]s (''c''); all undergrowths, as in ''[[copse]]-[[wood]]s'' (''d''). Or they may form ''[[avenue]]s'' ''(fig. 630. a''); double [[avenue]]s (''b''); [[avenue]]s intersecting in the manner of a Greek cross (''c''); of a martyr’s cross (''d''); of a star (''e''); or of a cross patée, or duck’s foot (''patée d’oye'') (''f'').” [Fig. 14]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GROVE''', ''n''. [Sax. ''groef'', ''graf'', a ''grave'', a cave, a '''''grove'''''; Goth. ''groba''; from cutting an [[avenue]], or from the resemblance of an [[avenue]] to a channel.]
:“1. In ''gardening'', a small [[wood]] or cluster of trees with a shaded [[avenue]], or a wood impervious to the rays of the sun. A '''grove''' is either open or close; open, when consisting of large trees whose branches shade the ground below; close, when consisting of trees and underwood, which defend the [[avenue]]s from the rays of the sun and from violent winds. ''Encyc''.
:“2. A [[wood]] of small extent. In America, the word is applied to a [[wood]] of natural growth in the field, as well as to planted trees in a garden, but only to a [[wood]] of small extent and not to a forest.”

*Anonymous, December 26, 1828, “Groves” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Groves,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 22 (December 26, 1828): 181, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PFNNIWBZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GROVES'''.
:“These are both ornamental and useful. To plant heights of ground, the sides and tops of which are generally not very good for tillage or pasture, adds much to the beauty of a landscape; and is at the same time highly useful, as it regards the quantities of firewood which may be produced from such spots. Planting rows of trees along highways is also pleasant for shade to the traveller, and profitable to the owner of the soil. The same may be observed, in regard to lanes, and to passages from the highway to the mansion-house. Sugar-maple trees, planted round the [[border]]s of [[meadow]]s, and some straggling ones in them, are very pleasant and profitable, as they do no injury to the growth of the grass. Wherever trees can be planted in pastures and along [[fence]]s, without doing injury to the growths of the adjoining fields by their shade, this part of rural economy ought never to be omitted.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, ''The Boston Common'' (1838: 39–40)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A dense '''grove''' of large evergreen trees of several species, might be planted in the centre of a [[park]] or [[green]], as large or larger than the [[Boston Common|Common]], to great advantage. It would form a beautiful ornament to the landscape, by the contrast of its foliage with that of the deciduous trees, in the summer—and in the winter, by the display of deep verdure when all else was desolated. In the cooler parts of the year, it would furnish a pleasant retreat from the rough winds of the season, and furnish an incentive to out-of-door exercise to those who might otherwise forego its advantages. . .
:“the disposition of the trees on the [[Boston Common|Common]] is apt to strike one as too stiff and formal, for the greatest degree of beauty. The science of [[landscape gardening]], our ignorance of which is so easily explained by the small amount of wealth with a comparatively new country can afford to devote to its practice, would have dictated differently. Had its principles been regarded, we should have seen trees of various foliage, here standing alone, and there intermingled in [[copse]]s and '''groves'''— arranged, indeed, so as to imitate nature herself, in her [[picturesque]]ness as well as her beauty.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:5)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The one [cottage in Design I] here described, stands about fifty yards from the road, fronts eastnorth-east, and is nearly surrounded by fruit trees, which are preferred to forest trees by those who wish to combine utility with ornament, though for shade and ornament, the latter are generally chosen. A '''grove''' affords, to a house, a natural protection in both Summer and Winter.”

*Jaques, George, January 1852, “Landscape Gardening in New-England” (''Horticulturist'' 7: 36)<ref>George Jaques, “Landscape Gardening in New-England,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A man of refinement would in these days, scarcely tolerate a geometrical arrangement of grounds of this extent. Such places admit of a winding carriage-way, leading through a fine [[lawn]] studded with groups of trees, irregularly circuitous [[walk]]s, bordered with various [[shrubbery]]; here and there a massive forest tree, standing in its full development singly upon the [[lawn]]; a [[summerhouse]] embowered in the midst of a little retired '''grove'''; arabesque forms of flower [[bed]]s occasionally inserted in the midst of the smooth green of a grass-[[plot]]; a [[vase]], pretty even when empty, but better over-flowing with water, which it costs not much to bring in a leaden pipe from some neighboring hill:—such are among the charms which almost seem to make a little paradise of home.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2282.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, NY [detail], n.d. A “Public '''Grove'''” is situated on either side of the “[[Common]] Ground.”

File:1425.jpg| Michael van der Gucht, “The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper” and “The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), 124.

File:1426.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “The [[Parterre]] C drawn & Squar’d over upon Paper,” “The same [[Parterre]] C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground,” and “The Grove V & ye [[Bowling green|Bowling-green]] X design’d upon paper,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), 130.

File:1054.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “Designs of '''Groves''' of a Middle Height,” A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 4c, n.p.

File:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. '''Groves''' are indicated at R, O, N, and Y.

File:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

File:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

File:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768. '''Grove''' is written at the top left on this plan, along with a tally of specific trees.

File:2255.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793. The groves are indicated with "i” in the center of the image.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box '''Grove''''', c. 1800.

File:0728.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Plan of Springland'', c. 1800. “'''Grove'''” is inscribed in the center, just above the rotunda, along the yellow path.

File:0736.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''[[View]] of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan'', c. 1800. "Seated in the '''Grove'''" inscribed in the left corner.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, ''The '''Grove''', [[Seat]] of G.A. Hall, Esquire'', c. 1800.

File:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800. '''Grove''' is inscribed on bottom left.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0734.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Front of the Aviary/'''Grove''', Springland'', before 1805.

File:0730.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The '''Grove''' in Springland,” before 1805.

File:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806. "'''Grove'''" inscribed at center right.

File:0291.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Ample Grove'', c. 1810–25. "'''grove'''" is inscribed on top right.

File:0722.jpg|Anonymous, “Barrell Farm,” Pleasant Hill, 1817. A “Poplar '''Grove'''” was located on axis with main house, between the fish [[pond]] on the Barrell property and the river.

File:0605.jpg|Lieut. Birch, ''Plan of St. Augustine, Fla.'', 1819. “Fish orange '''grove'''” is inscribed left of center.

File:1183.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "'''Groves'''", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 943, figs. 629a and 629b.

File:2037.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, "'''Grove''' of Poplars with a Memorial Bust, David Hosack Estate, Hyde Park, New York," c. 1832.

File:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf. “Sycamore '''Grove'''."

File:1087.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay-'''Grove''' Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 26.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851." Locust '''Grove''' Drive (18)."

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of an [[Avenue]] with its [[Wilderness]]es on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . House opening to the North upon a plain [[Parterre]] of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

File:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

File:0036.jpg|Thomas Lee Shippen, Plan of Westover, 1783. The '''grove''' is marked at “&c” at upper left quadrant.

File:0069.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

File:2271.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, 1794, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, HM 2028

File:2274.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Courthouse [[Square]] in Esperanza, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, 1795, HM 2028.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, “The Father of His Country,”'' 1797.

File:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), c. 1800.

File:1977.jpg|Charles Varlé (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna’s Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280.

File:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.

File:0783.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Waldwic Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, 31.

File:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout’s plan, 1867.
</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0867.jpg|Matthaeus Seutter, “Plan von neu Ebenezer,” 1747.

File:0059.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Spring house—elevation and plan, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.

File:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Walk

2021-04-12T13:23:35Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

==History==
[[File:0226.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.]]
As an integral element of circulation routes through the designed landscape, walk is one of the most common terms in American garden descriptions. Walks were highly varied in their composition, arrangement, and plantings. While widths varied, a narrow walk limited to foot traffic was often called a path, while a broad, straight walk lined with trees was often called an [[avenue]]. Walks were configured in numerous ways and composed of different materials such as brick, shell, gravel, packed dirt, tan (or tan bark), and turf. From most images of walks it is difficult to discern their composition, but contrary to brick paving, which was popular only in colonial revival gardens, textual references appear to indicate that gravel was a surface commonly used. <span id="Forsyth_cite"></span>William Forsyth in his 1802 treatise recommended sand or sea-coal ashes on a foundation of brick rubble or gravel for building a walk in a [[kitchen garden]]. He noted the ease of maintenance of such surfaces, which were weeded simply by raking ([[#Forsyth|view text]]). It is interesting to note that despite changing trends in garden styles, treatises remained remarkably consistent in their advice and instruction. Entire passages were frequently borrowed or adapted from earlier publications.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:1192.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.]]
[[File:0091.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “Walks in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”]]
Walks were planted in a variety of ways. They could have [[border]]s of low [[shrubbery]] or plants, as in a painting by Charles Fraser [Fig. 1], or be lined with [[pot]]s or [[statue]]s, as at [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York in 1816. Lombardy poplars and other tall, straight trees accentuated the linearity of axial walks and the formality of urban [[avenue]]s, including Pennsylvania Ave. in Washington, DC [Fig. 2]. Such spreading shade trees as elm, myrtle, and live oak formed arching canopies over walks, <span id="d'Argenville_cite"></span>an effect that John James in his 1712 translation of A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville called “Close” walks ([[#d'Argenville|view text]]). Although this term does not appear to be used in America, the technique, which framed [[view]]s and invited cooling strolls, was described at sites such as [[Boston Common]].

While their form varied widely, walks served essentially the same functions: to provide passage and to direct movement through the garden; to focus a viewer’s gaze toward an object, building, or [[prospect]]; and to structure and divide the garden. In colonial gardens, the walk was often the principal structuring element of the space, dividing a small garden adjacent to a structure into regular geometric shapes, such as the walks depicted in an unidentified late 18th-century garden [Fig. 3]. In more naturalistic and [[picturesque]] designs that became popular in the 19th century, walks created routes by which visitors were led to carefully sited garden structures or to crafted [[vista]]s, as described in [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson’s]] c. 1804 plan for his mountaintop landscape [Fig. 4] or [[A. J. Downing|A. J. Downing’s]] 1849 plan for a country [[seat]]. In addition, walks offered a means to organize the visual logic of a site by directing a visitor’s gaze to distant [[view]]s or focal points within the garden, such as [[obelisk]]s, [[pavilion]]s, [[gate]]s, or [[seat]]s. Walks could also create the illusion of distance if their designers manipulated their dimensions and layout. This resulted in an impression of greater depth, a particularly useful effect in smaller urban lots. The dimensions of walks were determined by the scale of their settings and their use. Forsyth (1802), for instance, recommended that walks be wide enough to admit a cart in [[kitchen garden]]s, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>and Joseph Breck (1851) cautioned designers to leave enough room for persons to “walk comfortably in a social manner” ([[#Breck|view text]]).

[[File:0404.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.]]
[[File:0254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child,'' c. 1798–1810.]]
[[File:2256.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.]]
In pictorial representations, walks served many of these same functions. In a perspective view of a building’s front façade, the viewer is often encouraged to focus upon the main entrance located at the terminus of a central walk or [[avenue]] [Fig. 5]. In the backgrounds of portraits, particularly those from the second half of the 18th century, artists often depicted glimpses through a window of their sitters' gardens, in which walks were presented in perspective with converging sides to suggest the illusion of depth [Fig. 6]. In aerial views, walks were often the principle means of indicating the location and existence of a garden, since plants, changing topography, and surface treatments were less easily rendered in plan. In other images, the walk invites the viewer to dwell upon a destination, such as a garden [[seat]] or viewing point, or to venture further into the unseen garden, as in John Trumbull’s 1793 plan for Yale College [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]]. In all of these types of images, tracing the line of the walk conveys a sense of movement through the landscape, much as a visitor might have experienced surprising “discoveries” of [[view]]s.

In addition to being a common feature in early American gardens, walks were also the setting for much recorded activity. <span id="Byrd_cite"></span>William Byrd II in his diary (1732) frequently mentioned his own perambulations in the garden, either alone or with gentlemen guests after he had entertained them with a meal ([[#Byrd|view text]]). [[Charles Willson Peale]] described strolling through the gardens of Annapolis, Maryland, in language that echoes published accounts of British and European tours.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero.] </ref> Walks were social venues in public landscape designs such as [[Boston Common]], the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, a levee in New Orleans, the Battery Park in New York, Fairmount Park in Philadelphia [Fig. 7], and the [[avenue]]s of Washington, DC. They were places to see and be seen, and images of them in the second quarter of the 19th century portray their rising popularity as [[promenade]]s for the general populace. Numerous descriptions and treatises of this period also praised the health-giving properties of these walks and the virtues of fresh air and exercise, particularly for the infirm, mentally ill, and urban poor.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1629, describing the Charles River in Massachusetts (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“in the maine you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, '''Walkes''', [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s, one adjoyning to another, leaving every of them invironed with two, three, foure, or six, or so many rowes of well growne trees as you will, ready growne to your hands, to defend them from ill weather.”

*Penn, William, March 19, 1685, in a letter to James Harrison, regarding Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 59)<ref name="Thomforde">Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“If Ralph this fall, could gett twenty yound populars, about 18 inch round beheaded, to twenty foot, to plant in a '''walk''' below ye Steps to ye water It were not emiss. perhaps to 15 foot long for a Round head, may do as well, plant ym in ye 8 mo. [October] is well.”

*Penn, William, October 15, 1685, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 54)<ref name="Thomforde"></ref>
:“I desire a. . . handsome '''walk''' to ye house of Gravel, or paved wth pitt stones—smooth stones.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1724, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:48)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . stands the Palace or Governor’s House, a magnificent structure built at the publick Expense, finished and beautified with [[Gate]]s, fine Gardens, Offices, '''Walks''', a fine [[Canal]], [[Orchard]]s, and with a great number of the best arms nicely posited by the ingenious Contrivance of the accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*<div id="Byrd"></div>Byrd, William, II, September 28, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1970: 357–58, 360)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. by John Spencer Bassett (New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 [[Terrace]] '''Walks''' that fall in [[Slope]]s one below another. . .
<p></p>
:“The afternoon was devoted to the ladys, who shew’d me one of their most beautiful '''Walks'''. They conducted me thro’ a Shady Lane to the Landing, and by the way made me drink some very fine Water that issued from a Marble [[Fountain]], and ran incessantly.” [[#Byrd_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, February 2, 1734, describing property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“To Be Let or Sold. . . On the island is a New Dwelling House &c. built on a high Bluff, which commands an entire [[prospect]] of the Harbour, from the Barr to the Town. A delightful [[Wilderness]] with shady '''Walks''' and [[arbor|Arbours]], cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground, where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced, and planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees, capable of being made a very good Vineyard.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. by Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“From the back door is a spacious '''walk''' a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpenting manner with flowers.”

*Moore, Francis, 1744, describing the [[Trustees’_Garden|Trustees' Garden]], Savannah, GA (quoted in Marye and Marye 1933: 15)<ref>Florence Marye (Nisbet) and Philip Thornton Marye, ''Garden History of Georgia, 1733–1933'', ed. by Hattie C. Rainwater and Loraine M. Cooney (Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Garden Club, 1933), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GNC4U42D view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Garden is laid out with Cross-'''walks''' planted with Orange-trees, but the last Winter a good deal of Snow having fallen, had killed those upon the Top of the Hill down to their Roots, but they being cut down, sprouted again, as I saw when I returned to Savannah.”

*Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16: 375)
:“passing a a long spacious '''walk''', set on each side with trees, on the summit of a gradual ascent, we saw the proprietor’s house, & walkt in the gardens, where besides the beautiful '''walk''', ornamented with evergreens, we saw fruit trees. . . [with] oranges, limes, lemons, citrons. . . Spruce [[hedge]]s cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad '''walk''' of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel '''walk''', to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . .”

*Grant, Anne, 1769, describing Oswego, NY (1809: 236)<ref>Anne MacVicar Grant, ''Memoirs of an American Lady: With Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as They Existed Prior to the Revolution'' (New York: S. Campbell, 1809), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z7JD6GEV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“A [[summerhouse|summer house]] in a tree, a fish-[[pond]], and a gravel-'''walk''', were finished before the end of May.”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 117)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre '''walk''' is terminated by a small green [[mount]], close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive [[view]] of the bay, and the adjacent country.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 109)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Area of the Triangle made by the Wash-House, Stable, & School-House is perfectly levil, & designed for a [[bowling green|bowling-Green]], laid out in rectangular '''Walks''' which are paved with Brick, & covered over with burnt Oyster-Shells.”

*Adams, John, February 23, 1777, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 139)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“There is a most beautiful '''walk''' from the house down to the water; there is a descent not far from the house; you have a fine garden then you descend a few steps and have another fine garden; you go down a few more and have another.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 405)<ref>Fred Shelley, “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At this Front of the College is a large Court Yard, ornamented with Gravel '''Walks''', Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass.”

*Rush, Dr. Benjamin, July 15, 1782, describing the country seat of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 87)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground contiguous to this shed was cut into beautiful '''walks''' and divided with cedar and pine branches into artificial [[grove]]s. The whole, both the buildings and '''walks''', were accommodated with [[seat]]s.”

*Washington, George, February 28, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 99–100)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My Gardens have gravel '''walks''' (as you possibly may recollect) in the usual Style, but if a better composition has been discovered for these, I should gladly adopt it. the matter however which I wish principally to be informed in, is, whether your '''walks''' are designed for Carriages, and if so, how they are prepared, to resist the impression of the Wheels. I am making a serpentine road to my door, and have doubts. . . whether any thing short of solid pavement will answer.”

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:96, 97)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“[February 28] Planted all the Mulberry trees, Maple trees, & Black gums in my Serpentine '''walks''' and the Poplars on the right '''walk'''—the Sap of which and the Mulberry appeared to be moving. Also planted 4 trees from H. Hole the name unknown but of a brittle wood which has the smell of Mulberry. . .
<p></p>
:“[March 2]. . . Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine '''walks'''—the remainder of the fringe trees in the Shrubberies—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each [[clump]]—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees.”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 2, 1787, describing Middletown, CT (1987: 215–16)<ref name="Cutler 87">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the northern end of the city is a '''walk''' of two rows of buttonwood trees, from the front [[gate]] of a gentleman’s house down to a summer-house on the bank of the river, by far the most beautiful I ever saw. He permits the people of the city to improve it as a [[mall]].”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref name="Cutler 87"></ref>
:“The numerous '''walks''' are well graveled and rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s ‘Line of Beauty’ is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of [[Samuel Vaughan|Mr. Sam’l Vaughan, Esq.]], for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 2, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Dinner we took a '''walk''' on the [[Mall]] as it is called which is a very excellent: Gravel '''walk''' about half a Mile in Lenth with Trees on each side which is kept in very good order and is by far the best thing of the kind I have yet seen in america.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789: 331)
:“The state house [[yard]], is a neat, elegant and spacious public '''walk''', ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The serpentine gravel '''walks''', which are irregularly regular, seem to point different ways; they however terminate in one object.”

*[[L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Departments of State contigous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the [[park]] and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique '''walk''' and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, accademies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. [[#Fig_8_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel '''walk''' should lead thro [sic] the [[Shrubbery]] to those buildings. . .
<p></p>
:“The yellow is intended to express the gravel '''walks'''—& the green the grass and planting. . .
<p></p>
:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs. . .
<p></p>
:“The ground in front of the Buildings to be divided by two broad '''walks''' leading up to the Chapel and Lecture Rooms, and the sides of the '''walks''' to be planted with Elms or other Forest Trees. . .
<p></p>
:“Behind the buildings, the '''walks''' may be irregular and winding, beginning behind the two Chapels, and corresponding to the two broad ones in their front.” [Fig. 8]

*Drayton, John, 1793, describing the Battery Park, New York, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:130)<ref name="Deák">Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After passing these islands [Governor’s, etc.], we came opposite the battery; which is at the extreme point of the town. . . It has no merlons, or embrasuers; but the guns. . . are placed upon carriages on a stone platform ''en barbette'', some few feet above the level of the water. Between the guns, and the water is a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform: and going round the ground upon which the battery is placed. Some little distance behind the guns, two rows of elm trees are planted; which in a short time will afford an agreeable shade.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1977: 165)<ref>
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground on the West front is laid out in a level [[lawn]] bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine '''walk''', shaded by weeping Willows.”

*Brooks, Joshua, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 18)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At the back of the house is a covered staircase to the kitchen or cellar. Here many male and female negroes were at work digging and carrying away the ground to make a level grass plot with a gravel '''walk''' around it, at one end of which is an ice house.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14 and 18)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass '''walk''' and is skirted on each side by [[bed]]s devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own. . .
<p></p>
:“Among the varied enjoyments of this settlement [Bethlehem], is a pleasant '''walk''' on the banks of the river Lehigh. Nature has furnished a shade, by means of the trees, which grow near the margin. But, this is improved by a row of locust trees between them and the road or '''walk'''.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, ‘People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited’, ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983), 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and [[summer house]]s at the termination of each '''walk''', [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

*Pintard, John, 1801, describing New Orleans, LA (quoted in Sterling 1951: 231)<ref>David Lee Sterling, “New Orleans, 1801: An Account by John Pintard,” ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 34 (1951): 217–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8A58JVVT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The only public '''walk''' is the leveé, which is externally thronged with all sorts & conditions of people. It is far from an eligible [[promenade]] for the ladies—who are obliged to frequent it for exercise—It is about 8 feet wide, the [[slope]] towards the river presents all the shipping of the harbour with their usual concomitants of noisey [''sic''] drunken labourers & sailors.”

*Anonymous, 1801, describing in the ''Supplement to the Warner & Hanna Directory'' Chatsworth’s Gardens, Baltimore, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“CHATSWORTH’S GARDENS, Situated in a westerly direction, about half a mile from town, at the intersection of Green and Saratoga streets. The present proprietor, Mr. Mang, has been but a short time there—the arrangement of these Gardens are said to be extremely neat, such as forming pleasant [[summer house]], serpentine '''walks''', shady [[grove]]s, and every other rural appearance, which may give a pleasing relaxation to the leisure hours of the industrious citizen.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 1806, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 323)<ref>
Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level '''walks''' successively along it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill & intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>Garden</u> consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of '''walk''', & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. The outer side of the '''walk''' is adorned here & there, by scattered forest trees, thick & thin. It is bounded, partly as is described—partly by the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] & a creek exhibiting a Mill & where it is scarcely noticed, by a common post & rail. The '''walk''' is said to be a mile long—perhaps it is something less. One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this '''walk''', one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion.”

*Anonymous, January 2, 1808, describing in the ''Washington Expositor'' the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 99–100)<ref name ="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At present these large appropriations afford an increase to the pasturage of the city, more beneficial to the poor citizens, than their culture in the ordinary courses. . . by laying off those in their occupancy so as to afford ample '''walks''' open at seasonable hours and under proper regulations to the public, it will give to the city, much earlier than there is otherwise reasonable cause to hope for, agreeable [[promenade]]s, as conducive to the health of the inhabitants, as to the beauty of the places.”

*Graydon, Alexander, 1811, describing the garden of Israel Pemberton, Philadelphia, PA (1811: 34–35)<ref>Alexander Graydon, ''Memoirs of a Life Chiefly Passed in Pennsylvania within the Last Sixty Years'' (Harrisburg, PA: John Wyeth, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SIZFRZVI/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . laid out in the old fashioned style of uniformity, with '''walks''' and allies nodding to their brothers, and decorated with a number of evergreens, carefully clipped into pyramidal and conical forms.”

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Lengthways of the house, and thro’ the hall, is a '''walk''', which extends on a [[terrace]] at each end for some way.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 272–73)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January) (1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The house is a spacious and noble building. . . It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a '''walk''' of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other '''walks''', on all of which are growing trees and [[shrubbery]] of various kinds.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (1816: 2:61)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The [[Vauxhall_Garden|Vauxhall garden]] is situated in the Bowery Road about two miles from the City Hall. It is a neat [[plantation]], with gravel '''walks''' adorned with shrubs, trees, busts, and [[statue]]s.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Savannah, GA (1816: 2:265–66)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“This range of buildings extends nearly three quarters of a mile along the town; and opposite to it is a beautiful '''walk''' or [[mall]], planted with a double row of trees, the same as those at Charleston— (''Melia Azedarach'', or Pride of India). . .
<p></p>
:“About the centre of the '''walk''', and just on the verge of the cliff, stands the Exchange, a large brick building, which contains some public offices; and an assembly-room, where a concert and ball are held once a fortnight during the winter.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], August 14, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing his painting of [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al. 1991: 3:435)<ref>Lillian B. Miller, et al., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'' vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I have been so long neglecting the [[view]] I am about in the Garden that the Tree’s & Shrubery have grown so high that I cannot represent them truely without almost hiding the '''walks''', therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make others smaller.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43–45)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] '''walks''' & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The '''Walks''' are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, June 13, 1820, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 104)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My husband had secretly, cut a long and beautiful shady '''walk''', by our spring along the margin of Forman’s Creek to the Irishmen’s dam. It was a most agreeable surprise and highly pleased all our company. The Ivy was in bloom on each side, the '''walk''', which with the Hemlock Spruce gave it a very pretty effect.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled '''walk''', by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] [[eminence]].”

*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“Four '''walks''' have been laid out, one on Pennsylvania Avenue, one on Maryland Avenue, one opposite the circular road around the west side of the Capitol, and one in the center of the ground leading to the [[pond]]. The three '''walks''' on the sides of the garden are 20 feet wide, with [[border]]s of 26 feet, in which to plant trees and shrubs; the center '''walk''' or road is 15 feet wide; the whole is well graveled.”

*Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . .
<p></p>
:“The hill-side was laid off in [[terrace]]s and winding '''walks'''.”

*Bacon, Edmund, c. 1825, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, V (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The grounds, around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were '''walks''', and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early in the spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful [[lawn]] of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.”

*Hunt, Henry, William Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing a proposed memorial in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)

:“Cool and shady '''walks''' will be formed in the neighborhood of the Capitol; the science of Botany encouraged; and a delightful scene from the Capitol created to please the eye of the stranger and citizen.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 439)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The refreshing shade of the numerous '''walks''', all swept as clean as a parlour floor, add to the charms of this place. Many of these '''walks''' are tastefully ornamented with Orange, Lemon, Shad-dock, Neriums, and other exotics; among which we observed a Myrtle 10 years old, and raised from seed.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hudson Square, New York, NY (1832: 2:160)<ref name="Trollope">Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“it will give some idea of the care bestowed on its decoration, to know that the gravel for the '''walks''' was conveyed by barges from Boston, not as ballast, but as freight.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hoboken, NJ (1832: 2:167)<ref name="Trollope"></ref>

:“A gentleman who possessed a handsome mansion and grounds there, also possessed the right of ferry, and to render this productive, he has restricted his [[pleasure ground]]s to a few beautiful acres, laying out the remainder simply and tastefully as a public '''walk'''. It is hardly possible to imagine one of greater attraction; a broad belt of light underwood and flowering shrubs, studded at intervals with lofty forest trees, runs for two miles along a cliff which overhangs the matchless Hudson.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the house, gravelled '''walks''' diverge and extend in opposite directions nearly half a mile, exhibiting a diversified scenery of hills and dales, now descending a sloping declivity on the verge of a precipice, again ascending to a commanding plain, opening a scene of unrivalled beauty.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:88)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“On a firm, smooth, gravelled '''walk''' elevated about four feet, by a gradual ascent from the street—one side open to the river, and the other lined with the ‘Pride of China,’ or India tree, we pursued our way to Chartres-street, the ‘Broadway’ of New-Orleans.”

*Anonymous, January 1, 1836, “Leaves from My Note Book” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 32–33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from My Note Book,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 29–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is one thing about the improvements in New York I very much like, and which, as you are a man of influence, I hope you will endeavor to impress on the Bostonians;—the disposition to ornament the streets with rows of trees, thus giving to them an air of freshness and beauty very much wanting in our large cities and in country towns, for nothing adds more to beauty than rows of trees along the public '''walks''', which may be placed there for a trifling expense.
<p></p>
:“The Battery, St. John’s Park, Washington Square, and many other public '''walks''' exhibit the taste of the New Yorkers in this respect, and their practice of making every open and beautiful piece of ground an object of ornament to the city, and a pleasant resort for the inhabitants, is worthy of observation.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–38)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and [[square]]s and public '''walks'''; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which ‘blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;’ or a few public [[square]]s, remembrances though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the ‘city of brotherly love’ shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1838, describing Portland, ME ([Adams] 1838: 31)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“An equally striking indication of the spirit of improvement peculiar to these times is the public '''walk''' recently laid out in Portland. This '''walk''', consisting of a carriage and foot way, shaded with trees, is nearly two miles in length, extending in an oval form around a hill, on which is the telegraph [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|observatory]], and commanding a [[view]] of the adjacent scenery, which may be classed among the best in the country.”

*Hovey, C. M., November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled; a '''walk''' from thence conducts directly, in a straight line, nearly to the edge of the river, where it terminates in a rustic [[arch]] and [[vase]] on the [[lawn]]; on each side of the '''walk''' there is turf, with circles of flowers at the distance of ten or twelve feet; these are each backed by a line of buckthorn [[hedge]]s, with a [[view]] to screen both the fruit garden on the east, and the vegetable garden on the west, from sight.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Saratoga, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:424)<ref name="Deák"></ref>

:“When the gentleman has swallowed his muriate and four carbonates in proper quantity, a smooth serpentine '''walk''' leads to the summit of a prettily wooded hill, where he may either grind himself round a circular rail-road in a self-moving chair, or ramble off to the shade, for a little meditation.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel '''walks''', and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref name="Buckingham">James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-'''walks''' or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public '''walk''', where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Rochester, NY (2:215)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A large piece of ground immediately overlooking the principal Falls of the Genesee, and called the Falls Promenade, is about to be laid out as a public '''walk''' and garden, and will be a fine ornament to the town.”

*Hovey, C. M., September 1841, describing the residence of R. F. Carman, Fort Washington, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 326)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes Made During a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington and intermediate places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 9 (September 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS/q/notes%20made view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] is laid out in angular shaped [[bed]]s of small size, occupying a [[square]] of about one hundred feet, with the '''walks''' edged with box. The only fault we have to find with the plan is the narrowness of the '''walks''', not being above two feet wide, and, consequently, not allowing two to '''walk''' abreast. The same error we saw committed at other places. It should be laid down as a rule, never to make the '''walks''' less than three feet wide, and if three and a half, it will be better.”

*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1842: 153–54)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The President’s mansion is more like an English club-house, both within and without, than any other kind of establishment with which I can compare it. The ornamental ground about it has been laid out in garden '''walks'''; they are pretty, and agreeable to the eye; though they have that uncomfortable air of having been made yesterday, which is far from favourable to the display of such beauties.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1844, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 24)<ref>
Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the brick '''walks''', for use when the ground is soft or covered with snow, have been extended; other '''walks''' have been laid out through the different [[grove]]s, and covered with tan, and their extension, now in progress, will give us more than a mile in the men’s division, and nearly as much in that appropriated to the females. These '''walks''' have been so located as to embrace our finest and most diversified [[view]]s, to wind through the [[wood]]s and [[clump]]s of trees which are scattered through the enclosure; and among them, it is hoped, will soon be seen summer-houses, rustic [[seat]]s, and other objects of interest, to tempt the patients voluntarily to prolong their '''walks''', and to spend a greater portion of their time out of the wards, and engaged in some agreeable occupation.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private '''walk'''. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0995.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “The Espalier Walk in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1847, describing Wodenethe, residence of Henry Winthrop Sargent, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 1: 504)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC9R5CZQ/q/wodenethe view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Our FRONTISPIECE gives a glimpse of this ''Vinery'', at the termination of the main '''walk''' of the fruit-garden. This '''walk''' is 428 feet long, and is bordered with an [[espalier]] rail, upon which many of the choicest peaches, grapes, plums, etc., are trained—not from necessity or for greater protection, as in gardens farther north, for all those fruits ripen perfectly on common standards here, but to give an illustration of this more perfect kind of culture, and to obtain fruit of a larger size and higher color than standards usually produce.” [Fig. 9]

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight '''walks''' with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 445)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the first place, the [[nursery]] is laid out in angular divisions, diverging from a common centre. These divisions are separated from each other by wide '''walks''' and [[avenue]]s, on each side of which is a [[border]] some eight or nine feet wide. These [[border]]s are planted with specimen trees, inside of which are the [[quarter]]s for the [[nursery]] stock.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The house is situated some distance back from the road, as you approach in front, you pass through a fine iron [[gateway]] and '''walk''' strait until about halfway to the house. The '''walk''' then branches off and forms a circular in front of the residence. There are also small circulars on each side. All of these are laid out in flower and cedars and the balance of the [[yard]] in front is filed up with cedars and forest trees.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''walks''' will be made in every direction and as some compensation for filling up the beautiful vale south of the Monument a capacious fountain will be placed in the centre of the '''walk''' leading into Bank street, from which [[fountain]] a [[jet d’eau]] will rise, fully thirty feet in height.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5, 537)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with '''walks''', crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge: For there may be therein '''walkes''' eyther open or close, eyther pub-like or private. . . for the fairer and larger your allies and '''walkes''' be, the more grace your Garden shall have, the lesse harme the herbes and flowers shall receive, by passing by them that grow next unto the allies sides, and the better shall your Weeders cleanse both the [[bed]]s and the allies. . . .
<p></p>
:“Having an [[Orchard]] containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large '''walke''' betweene the [[wall]] and it. . . and by compassing your [[Orchard]] on the inside with a [[hedge]] (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low shrubs or bushes).”

*<div id="d'Argenville"></div>Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J., 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 40–41),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . '', trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712; repr., London: Farnborough, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' in Gardens, like Streets in a Town, serve to communicate between Place and Place, and are as so many Guidances and Means to conduct us throughout a Garden. . .
<p></p>
:“Among the several Sorts of '''Walks''', I shall take Notice of the Close and the Open, the Single and the Double.
<p></p>
:“The Close are those formed by Trees or Palisades, which joining together at Top, shut out even the Sight of the Sky, and by their Obscurity give a Coolness not penetrable by the greatest Heat of the Sun.
<p></p>
:“These '''Walks''' are very delightful in hot Weather, when you may '''walk''' under the Shade of them in the very middle of the Day. . .
<p></p>
:“’Tis a general Rule to keep open the principal '''Walks''', such as those that face a Building, [[Pavilion]], [[Cascade]], or the like; and these likewise should be kept wider than the others, that from the End of the '''Walk''' you may see Part of the Front of a House, or some other handsome Object. . .
<p></p>
:“SINGLE '''Walks''' are those that consist but of two Rows of Trees or Palisades, to distinguish them from double '''Walks''' that have four, which form three [[Alley]]s close together, a large one in the Middle, and two on the Sides that accompany it, and are called Counter-'''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“As to the Names and different Figures of '''Walks''', they may all be included in these that follow: The Parallel-'''walk''', the Strait-'''walk''', the Cross-'''walk''', the Winding or Circular-'''walk''', the '''Walk''' returned [[square]], and the Diagonal or Thwart-'''walk''', in respect of that at Right Angles.” [[#d'Argenville_cite|back up to History]]

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 3:46)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . '', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“And why, is not a level easy '''Walk''' of Gravel or Sand shaded over with Trees, and running thro’ a Corn Field or Pasture Ground, as pleasing as the largest '''Walk''' in the most magnificent Garden one can think of?”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a [[Temple]], made for a Person of Quality, and propos’d to have been placed in the Center of four '''Walks'''; so that a [[Portico]] might front each '''Walk'''. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn’d with Niches and crown’d with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J.Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“VIII. That shady '''Walks''' be planted from the End-[[View]]s of a House, and terminate in those open [[Grove]]s that enclose the Sides of the plain [[Parterre]], that thereby you may enter into immediate Shade, as soon as out of the House, without being heated by the Scorching Rays of the Sun. . .
<p></p>
:“IX. That all the Trees of your shady '''Walks''' and [[Grove]]s be planted with Sweet-Brier, White Jessemine, and Honey-Suckles, environ’d at Bottom with a small Circle of Dwarf-Stock, Candy-Turf, and Pinks. . .
<p></p>
:“XIV. That the '''Walks''' leading up the [[Slope]] of a [[Mount]], have their Breadth contracted at the Top, full on half Part; and if that contracted Part be enclosed on the Sides with a [[Hedge]] whose Leaves are of a light Green, ’twill seemingly add a great Addition to the Length of the '''Walk''', when view’d from the other End.
<p></p>
:“XV. That all '''Walks''' whose Lengths are short, and lead away from any Point of [[View]], be made narrower at their further Ends than at the hither Part; for by Inclination of their Sides, they appear to be of a much greater Length than they really are; and the further End of every long '''Walk''', [[Avenue]], ''&c''. appears to be much narrower than that End where you stand.
<p></p>
:“And the Reason is, that notwithstanding the Sides of such '''Walks''' are parallel to each other, yet as the Breadth of the further End is seen under a lesser Angle, than the Breadth of that Part where you stand, it will therefore appear as if contracted, altho’ the Sides are actually parallel; for equal Objects always appear under equal Angles, Q. E. D.
<p></p>
:“XVI. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
<p></p>
:“XVII. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country.
<p></p>
:“XVIII. That the Intersections of '''Walks''' be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, [[Grove]]s, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest Trees, Basons, [[Fountain]]s, Sun-Dials, and [[Obelisk]]s. . .
<p></p>
:L“XXI. Such '''Walks''' as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[Aviary/Bird_cage/Birdhouse|aviary]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular [[Hedge]]s ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance. . .
<p></p>
:“XXIV. [[Canal]]s, Fish-[[Pond]]s, ''&c''. are most beautiful when environ’d with a '''Walk''' of stately Pines, and terminate at each End with a fine [[Grove]] of Forest-Trees, or Ever-Greens. . .
<p></p>
:“XXVI. All Grass-'''Walks''' should be laid with the same Curvature as Gravel-'''Walks''', and particularly in wet and cold Lands; for, by their being made flat or level from Side to Side, they soon settle into Holes in the Middle, by often walking on, and therein retain Wet, ''&c''. which a circular surfaced '''Walk''' resists. The Proportion for the Heights of the Crown, or middle Part of any Grass or Gravel-'''Walk''', is as five is to one, that is, if the '''Walk''' be five Foot in Breadth, the Height of the Middle, above the Level of the Sides, must be one Inch; if ten Foot, two Inches; fifteen Foot, three Inches, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“XXIX. Little '''Walks''' by purling Streams in [[Meadow]]s, and through Corn-fields, [[Thicket]]s, ''&c''. are delightful Entertainments.
<p></p>
:“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.
<p></p>
:“The entire Breadth of every [[Avenue]] should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand '''Walk''', must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-'''Walks''' on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of [[Avenue]]s fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand '''Walk''' be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[AVENUE]]. . .
<p></p>
:All ''[[avenue]]s'', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an ''avenue'' to an house, whatever the length of the '''walk''' is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better. . .
<p></p>
:“[[AVENUE]], in gardening, is a '''walk''', planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE. . .
<p></p>
:“GRASS ''[[plot]]s'', and '''''walks''''', make a considerable article in gardening, ''&c''. See '''WALK''', ''&c''.
<p></p>
:“Grass, or ''green-[[plot]]s'' are had either by sowing of hayseed, or laying of turf: for the first, which is the cheapest way, the seed of the finest upland pastures is to be chose, well sifted and cleansed.
<p></p>
:“For the second, the turf should be cut on a down, or [[green]], or [[common]], or sheep-'''walk''', where the ''grass'' is short and fine; if there be any knobs, or roughnesses, the place must be cleansed and rolled after a shower, before it be cut up. The turf is cut in [[square]]s, marked out with lines, raised with a knife, and rolled up; about three inches thick. The [[quarter]]s, or verges are to be prepared with a fine coat of poor earth to lay the turf on; and after laying, the turf must be well watered, rolled, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“GRAVEL '''''walk''''', in gardening.—To lay, or form a '''walk''' with ''gravel'', all the good soil is to be pared away, below the roots of any grass, or weeds; then the place to be filled two or three inches with coarse gravel unsearsed, laying it highest in the middle; then rolling it. . .
<p></p>
:“Note, the sides next the [[bed]]s should be laid a foot and an half, or two foot with turf, from whence the heat of the sun cannot be reflected as from gravel, to the prejudice of the neighbouring flowers.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1503–4)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Gravel-'''walks''' are very necessary near the House; because, being soon dry after Rain, they are proper for walking on, in all Seasons. But then these should be but few, and those ought to be large and magnificient, proportionable to the Grandeur of the House and Garden. The principal of these '''Walks''' should be elevated parallel with the House, so as to form a [[Terrace]]: this should extend itself each way, in proportion to the Width of the Garden; so that from this there may be a Communication with the Sand-'''walks''', without going on the Grass; or there should be Side-'''Walks''' of Gravel to lead to them, that there may be a dry '''Walk''' continued quite through the Gardens. But there is not a more ridiculous Sight, than that of a straight Gravel-'''walk''', leading to the Front of the House, intersecting the Grass, so as to make it appear like the stiff formal Grass [[plot]]s frequently made in little Court-yards by Persons of low Taste.
<p></p>
:“Grass-'''walks''' in a Garden are both ornamental and delightful in Summer-time and dry Weather.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard. . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc. '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The next thing to be observed is to continue a dry '''walk''', which should lead quite round the whole garden, for as Gardens are designed to promote the exercise of walking, the greater the extent of this dry '''walk''', the better it will answer the Intent. . . and such '''walks''', if laid either with Gravel or Sand, may lead through different [[Plantation]]s, gently winding about in an easy natural way, which will be more agreeable than those long strait '''walks''', which are too frequently seen in gardens.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Sometimes grass-'''walks''' are used, but these are rather improper for general use in Kitchen-gardens, especially in such parts of the garden where wheel-barrows are obliged to come often, which would cut and greatly deface them; besides, they are apt to be wet and disagreeable in all wet weather, and in winter; . . .
<p></p>
:“But when necessary to have the whole space of the Kitchen-garden employed for real use. . . and have a '''walk''' round the garden, not more than a yard wide; allowing the same width for the middle-'''walks''', or so as to admit of wheel-barrows passing to bring in the manure, &c. and may either have a four feet wide [[border]] all round each [[quarter]], next the '''walks''', or not, as you shall think proper; laying the '''walks''' neatly with any gravelly materials, or with coal-ashes, so as to have dry walking, and wheeling with a barrow in all weathers.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . ,'' 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALK''', wa’k. s. . . a length of space, or circuit through which one '''walks'''; an [[avenue]] set with trees; way, road, range, place of wandering.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:33, 55, 124–26)<ref>
Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''''walks''''' come next under construction [i.e. after [[wall]]s], and they are to be begun from the best [[wall]]; the [[border]] of which being regularly levelled and settled, the '''walk''' is to be governed by it. . .
<p></p>
:“The ''number'' and ''breadth'' of the '''walks''' must in a measure be determined by the quantity of allotted ground. . . But better be few and wide, than many and contracted. If the garden is small, one good '''walk''' all round is sufficient; and if long and narrow, the cross '''walks''' should not be many: six, or eight feet, is not too wide in a moderate sized garden. . .
<p></p>
:“''Grass plats'' and '''walks''' should be mowed, as often as there is the least hold for the scythe, for they lose much of their beauty, when the grass gets any thing long; leaves should not be suffered to remain on them as it stains the grass. . .
<p></p>
:“About the house some ''shady'' '''walks''' ought always to be provided, by thick planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering shrubs, and ''evergreens'', of which the ''laurel'' will be found most useful. . .
<p></p>
:“The '''''walks''''' should always be wide, some (in general) serpentine, and contrived as much as possible upon a ''level'', as walking up and down hills can hardly be called pleasure. That they may be extensive, they should skirt the grounds and seldom go across them. In small [[pleasure ground]]s the ''edges'' of the '''walks''' should be regularly planted with flowers, and long ones occasionally so, or with the most dwarf shrubs; and neat sheltered compartments of ''flowers'', (every now and then to be met with) have a pretty effect. If the '''walks''' are extended to distant [[plantation]]s of ''forest trees'', every opportunity should be taken, to introduce something of the herbaceous ''flowery'' kind, which will prove the more pleasing, as found in unexpected situations: The outer '''walk''' of [[pleasure ground]]s and [[plantation]]s, should every now and then break into open [[view]]s of the country, and to parts of the internal space, made pleasing, if not striking, by some ornaments of art and nature.”

*<div id="Forsyth"></div>Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 148)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In laying out the [[quarter]]s, you must be guided in a great measure by the form and size of the garden; but do not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part of the ground will be taken up with '''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“The middle '''walks''' should be about seven feet, which is wide enough to admit a cart; and the others about three or four feet broad; with a [[border]] on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the '''walk''' and the fruit-trees. '''Walks''' in [[kitchen garden]]s are generally gravelled, and but seldom laid with turf, as the frequent wheeling and treading soon destroys the grass and renders them very unsightly: But a binding sand makes good '''walks''' and they are easily kept; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a horse-hoe. . . by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the preference to sea-coal ashes, which in my opinion make the best '''walks''' for a [[kitchen garden]], and they are easier kept than any other, being firm and dry, and cleaner to '''walk''' on than sand, especially after frost.
<p></p>
:“The bottoms of the '''walks''' should be filled up with brick rubbish, chippings of stones, or gravel and stones; those raked off the [[quarter]]s will do very well, and by using them you will save carriage.
<p></p>
:“If the soil be stiff and wet, or subject to detain the moisture, there must be under ground drains made to carry off the water.” [[#Forsyth_cite|back up to History]]

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 83)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A gravel '''walk''' is an artificial convenience, and that it should be protected, is one of its first requisites: therefore, so long as good taste and good sense shall coincide, the eye will be pleased where the mind is satisfied.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:260)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE '''WALK''', in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the '''walk''' to lead the eye from [[view]] to view; in order that, while the tone of health is preserved, by the favourite exercise of nature, the mind may be thrown into unison, by the harmony of the surrounding objects.
<p></p>
:“THE direction of the '''walk''' ought to be guided by the points of [[view]] to which it leads, and the nature of the ground it passes over: it ought to be made subservient to the natural impediments— the Ground, [[Wood]], and Water—which fall in its way, without appearing to have any direction of its own. It can seldom, with propriety, run any distance, in a straight line; a thing which rarely occurs in a ''natural '''walk'''''.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 123)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This [March] is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well, or sow grass seed very thick, rake it in and roll the ground soon as it is dry.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59–60, 63)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the distribution of gravel-'''walks'''. . . first a magnificent one, from fifteen to twenty or thirty feet wide, should range immediately close and parallel to the front of the house, and be conducted directly across the [[lawn]] into the nearest side shrubberies; from this main '''walk''', other smaller ones, from five to ten or fifteen feet wide, according to the extent of the ground, should branch off at proper intervals, directed in the serpentine way. . . some leading through the ''outer'' boundary [[plantation]]s, as already hinted. . . others into the internal divisions, and others carried along the boundary [[plantation]] of the main [[lawn]]; all of which '''walks''' being conducted through the different parts, in order to afford the convenience of shade and retirement occasionally, as well as to enjoy the variety of the trees, shrubs, and flowers, variously presenting themselves at different turnings. . .
<p></p>
:“Sometimes, similar to the ancient designs, a spacious gravel '''walk''' is extended in a perpendicular line immediately from the front of the house, dividing the [[lawn]], or extended on both boundaries and in other directions, with a wide [[border]] on each side, either straight or sometimes a little serpentined, and planted with the most curious low flowering shrubs, ever-greens, and herbaceous flowering plants.
<p></p>
:“All these gravel-'''walks''' should be laid with the best gravel, six or eight inches deep, at least; but if more the better. . .
<p></p>
:“As to [[avenue]]s and '''walks''' of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, [[avenue]]s and grass '''walks''', planted with fine ever-green trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the [[avenue]], though sometimes grand '''walks''' of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in [[avenue]]s and '''walks''', at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

*Mease, James, c. 1813 (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 149–52)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn"></ref>

:“'''Walks''' are either of grass or gravel. The former are best made in March, the latter in April; and the sooner in March the grass ones are commenced the better. . .
<p></p>
:“Grass '''walks''' are troublesome and attended with a constant demand for labour in cutting every new growth of the herbage; besides, in rainy weather, and early in the morning before the dew of the night has been drawn off by the sun, they are damp and productive of colds: yet, where gravel is difficult to be had, they will often be resorted to, and therefore it may be of use to say a few words here upon the manner of making them. . .
<p></p>
:“Gravel '''walks''' however should be preferred, and if possible accomplished. . . The course of the '''walks''' being marked out by stumps and lines, the earth should be dug out of them to the depth of eight inches, and thrown into the middle of the plats to give them a convexity, which is agreeable to the eye. That done, rake the bottom of the '''walk''' quite level, and lay on the gravel so that the '''walks''' shall be at their edges three inches lower than the surface of the plats on either side, as when otherwise they have a mean and flat appearance.
<p></p>
:“If [[edging]]s are to be made to separate the earth from the gravel, especially if of stone, or [[wood]], or box, they should be done first, and they will be a good rule to lay the '''walks''' by.”

*[[Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M24K832A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Vol. 3] [[Wilderness|WILDERNESS]]. . .
<p></p>
:“As to the '''walks''', those that have the appearance of meanders, where the eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all others, and these should now and then lead into an open circular piece of grass; in the centre of which may be placed either an [[obelisk]], [[statue]], or [[fountain]]; and, if in the middle of the [[wilderness]] there is contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may be erected a dome or banqueting house, surrounded with a green [[plot]] of grass, it will be of a considerable addition to the beauty of the whole. From the sides of the '''walks''' and openings, the trees should rise gradually one above another to the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing trees, so that the heads of all the trees may appear to [[view]], while their stems will be hid from the sight. . .
<p></p>
:“But beside the grand '''walks''' and openings, there should be some smaller '''walks''' through the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where persons may retire for privacy; and by the sides of those private '''walks''' may also be scattered some wood flowers and plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good effect.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 463–64)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The '''Walk'''''.—A common principle is, especially where the field is small, to carry a gravel-'''walk''''''Bold text''' completely round, so near the outward boundary as to leave only an intervening [[border]] for flowers and shrubs. As this method produces the longest tract without sharp returns, and admits many expedients for concealing the opposite boundaries, there seems no reason for departing from it, except to lead the spectator to some object that would otherwise escape him, or to keep some intractable deformity out of sight. . .
<p></p>
:“the '''walk''', by curving round them, will take that variety of direction which essentially conduces to a series of interesting effects; allowing parts without any common relation, independent scenes, and fragments of scenes, to be seen only progressively; and disclosing entire [[prospect]]s at the most advantageous station.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 19 and 33)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March] Make new '''walks''' where wanted— clean and roll your gravel and grass '''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“This is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well or sow grass seed very thick, and rake it in and roll the ground as soon as it is dry. Clean grass and gravel '''walks''': the latter may be dug, turning the top to the bottom, which will destroy the weeds and moss, roll them well afterwards. Weed all your flower [[border]]s well, and prepare more for next month.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:'''''Walks''', Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong [[Square]]'', instead of a ''[[Square]] of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 796, fig. 549.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 796)<ref>
J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6105. '''''Walks'''''. In most styles of [[parterre]]s these are formed of gravel; but in the modern sort. . . which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug [[bed]]s (1 and 2), and surrounded by [[shrubbery]]. . . [Fig. 10]
<p></p>
:“6106. ''In extensive and irregular [[parterre]]s'', one gravel-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as '''walks''' by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting '''walks''' of the same width, of gravel and smaller '''walks''' for displaying particular details. The main '''walk''', however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box''.—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden '''walks''' and flower [[bed]]s. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“GRAV’EL-'''WALK''', ''n''. A '''walk''' or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall]]s''. . .
<p></p>
:“'''WALK''', ''n''. ''wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.
<p></p>
:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning '''''walk'''''; an evening '''''walk'''''. ''Pope''.
<p></p>
:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long '''''walk''''';a short '''''walk'''''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant '''''walks'''''.
<p></p>
:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 410–11)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To these remarks for small [[plot]]s of ground, we would add a few common place rules, such as, that straight lines particularly for short distances, unless terminating in bold curves, are not pleasing to the eye; narrow '''walks''', unless winding at short intervals through [[wood]]s, are by no means desirable. . .
<p></p>
:“An [[arbor]] or [[trellis]] covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a '''walk''', which should branch off close round the [[trellis]], to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few shrubs might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 128)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A frequent error in landscape gardens, is a multiplicity and confusion of objects. So many things are crowded together, that the spectator does not know to which to direct his attention first. The '''walks''' are often so numerous and so intricate, that they only serve to perplex. This may be easily avoided by adopting as a rule, that there shall be but one principal or leading '''walk''' throughout the whole. It may, by easy curves, be conducted in sight of every material object of [[view]], and return finally to the place of entrance. In this way the same scene need never be exhibited twice. From this main '''walk''' there may be branches, to exhibit different scenes in detail; but it ought to be an invariable rule, that these episodal '''walks''' should never be one half the width of the principal '''walk''', and should always branch off nearly at right angles from it, so that a stranger may never mistake one of them for the main '''walk'''. Where flowers are introduced they should commonly be in [[bed]]s near the '''walk''', while the taller shrubs and trees should be placed back more at a distance.
<p></p>
:“At favorable points, and those only, should the [[view]] be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The '''walk''' should be so directed as not to exhibit these [[view]]s except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a '''walk''' should always exist from some cause either real or apparent.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''walks''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should if possible be wide enough for two persons to '''walk''' abreast, in order to give a social effect, which should always be the first consideration in the flower garden.”

*[[Robert_Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 11, 32)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For perspicuity, admit that the area to be enclosed [for a [[flower garden]]] should be from one to three acres, a circumambient '''walk''' should be traced at some distance within the [[fence]], by which the whole is enclosed; the inferior '''walks''' should partly circumscribe and intersect the general surface in an easy serpentine and sweeping manner, and at such distances as would allow an agreeable [[view]] of the flowers when walking for exercise. '''Walks''' may be in breadth from three to twenty feet, although from four to ten feet is generally adopted. . . covered with gravel, and then firmly rolled with a heavy roller. . .
<p></p>
:“Grass verges for '''walks''' and [[border]]s, although frequently used, are, by no means, desirable, except where variety is required; they are the most laborious to keep in order, and at best are inelegant, and the only object in their favour is, there being everywhere accessible.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: iii-vii, 34, 68, 76, and 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii-iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“CHIVES. ''Allium schoenoprasum''. . .
:“Plant the roots for edging to a [[walk]] or [[border]], two inches deep, and the same distance apart, in the form you wish them to be. <p></p>
:“SORREL FRENCH. ''Rumex acetosa''. . .
:“You may have it in a [[bed]] any size, the rows being a foot apart, or for [[edging]] along the side of a [[walk]]. . .<p></p>
:“THYME. ''Thumus vulgaris''. . .
:“Plant slips in rows four inches apart, for [[edging]]. It does well for a [[walk]] side, or you may make a [[bed]] the same distance, the rows a foot apart. <p></p>
:“It [[kitchen garden|[a kitchen garden]]] may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. . .”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 102)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In fig. 25, is shown a small piece of ground, on one side of a cottage, in which a [[picturesque]] character is attempted to be maintained. The [[plantation]]s here, are made mostly with shrubs instead of trees, the latter being only sparingly introduced, for the want of room. In the disposition of these shrubs, however, the same attention to [[picturesque]] effect is paid as we have already pointed out in our remarks on grouping ; and by connecting the [[thicket]]s and groups here and there, so as to conceal one '''walk''' from the other, a surprising variety and effect will frequently be produced, in an exceedingly limited spot."

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 406–9)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' may be considered with reference to their direction, their construction, and their management. In a small garden, the direction of the main '''walks''' should generally be governed by the boundary lines; and hence, in a [[plot]] of ground which is [[square]] or oblong, the '''walks''' should be straight and rectangular; the object in such a case being to produce the beauties of regularity and symmetry. On the other hand, when the boundaries of the garden are irregular, the surrounding '''walk''' may be irregular also; the object in this irregularity being to create variety by contrast in the direction. When a garden bounded by straight lines, is so large as to contain an acre or two, and the whole of the interior is to be laid out as a pleasure-ground, then the '''walks''' may be varied in direction; the boundary being concealed by trees and shrubs, or by artificial undulations of the soil. In general, it may be laid down as a principle, that all '''walks''' should be straight when there is no obvious reason why they should be otherwise; and hence, in the case of all winding '''walks''', if there is not a natural and apparently unavoidable reason for their deviating from the straight line, an artificial reason ought to be created. . . All straight '''walks''' should lead to some conspicuous object at the further end of the '''walk''', and facing it, so as to appear to belong to it; and this object should be seen the moment the '''walk''' is entered upon. . . A winding '''walk''', on the contrary, requires no object at the further end to allure the spectator; because every turn has the effect of an object by exciting his curiosity and inducing him to advance to see what is beyond.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 26, 73, 269–70, 620)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[Alley|ALLEYS]] are of two kinds. 1. The narrow '''walks''' which divide the compartments of the [[kitchen garden]]; and 2. Narrow '''walks''' in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. . .
<p></p>
:“[[AVENUE]]. . . These kind of '''walks''' were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present. . .
<p></p>
:“GRAVEL '''WALKS''', like all other '''''Walks''''', (''vide'',) require a good substratum of drainage, and the facing of about five inches deep of gravel. It must have no stones mixed with it larger than good-sized marbles, and about one-fourth of it must be much smaller. If a portion of clay is by nature or art incorporated with the gravel, is will bind more firmly, and present when rolled a more compact and even surface. . .
<p></p>
:“'''WALKS'''. See ''Gravel''. It may be observed here, that of whatever material a '''walk''' is composed, that it is essential to have it well under-drained, and for this purpose an understratum of flints or brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not too much. '''Walks''' so founded, are never wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant winter '''walk''', particularly on tenacious soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, either during rain or after frost; half an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise makes a soft and pleasant summer '''walk''', and from its loose nature, is readily cleared from weeds. If not wanted during summer, it may readily be swept clean off after a few dry days. It is invaluable for covering '''walks''' or footpaths in the [[kitchen garden]], when there is much wheeling of manure or soil. . . —''Gard. Chron''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''; i, beds, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/small%20flower view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, Mr. LOUDON. It is supposed to be formed in a [[plot]] of smooth level [[lawn]], and to be surrounded by a boundary '''walk''', which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering shrubs. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 11]

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''foot-'''walks''''' should be four or five feet wide, and should, when practicable, lead to some object—a [[view]]—or a [[summer house]]—or a fine tree, and continue on, so that the return may be by another path. If at convenient points, rough [[seat]]s are placed, it adds to their pleasures; for one can rest, if necessary.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 114, 342, 530–31)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Walks''''' are laid out for purposes similar to [[Drive]]s, but are much more common, and may be introduced into every scene, however limited. They are intended solely for [[promenade]]s or exercise on foot, and should therefore be dry and firm, if possible, at all seasons when it is desirable to use them. Some may be open to the south, sheltered with evergreens, and made dry and hard for a warm [[promenade]] in winter; others formed of closely mown turf, and thickly shaded by a leafy canopy of verdure, for a cool retreat in the midst of summer. Others again may lead to some sequestered spot, and terminate in a secluded rustic [[seat]], or conduct to some shaded dell or rugged [[eminence]], where an extensive [[prospect]] can be enjoyed. Indeed, the genius of the place must suggest the direction, length, and number of the '''walks''' to be laid out, as no fixed rules can be imposed in a subject so everchanging and different. It should, however, never be forgotten, that the '''walk''' ought always to correspond to the scene it traverses, being rough where the latter is wild and [[picturesque]], sometimes scarcely differing from a common footpath, and more polished as the surrounding objects show evidence of culture and high keeping. . .
<p></p>
:“In our remarks on '''walks''' and roads, we omitted to say anything of the best manner of making gravel '''walks'''. . . A very thin coat of gravel will render a '''walk''' superior to a path which consists only of the natural soil, and such surfacing in our dry climate (though it frequently requires renewing), is often sufficient for distant '''walks''', or those little used except in fine weather. But the approach road, and all '''walks''' immediately about the dwelling, should be laid at least a foot thick with gravel, to insure dryness, and a firm footing at all times and seasons. . .
<p></p>
:“Undoubtedly in almost all examples in the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]] slate-colored gravel. . . is much the most agreeable to the eye, being unobtrusive, just differing sufficiently with soil to be readily recognised as artistical in its effect, while it harmonizes with the color of the ground, and the soft tints of vegetation. A thirst after something new has induced some persons, even in the interior, to substitute, at considerable cost, the white gravel of the sea-shore for the common pit or beach gravel. The change, we think, is, in point of taste, not a happy one. The strong white of this gravel, as the painters would say, disturbs the tone of a simply beautiful landscape, whose prevailing tints are those of the broad [[lawn]] and rich overshadowing trees; and the glare of these snowy white pebbles is not, we confess, so pleasing in our eyes as the cooler and more quiet color of the slate or grey gravel.”

*<div id="Breck"></div>Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Width of '''Walks'''''.—The main '''walk''', or '''walks''', of a [flower] garden, should be laid out on a liberal scale. Nothing detracts so much from the pleasures of the flower-garden as contracted '''walks'''. When we wish to enjoy the company of a friend, in the flower-garden, it is much more agreeable to have him by our side, arm in arm, than to be under the necessity of making the tour of the garden in Indian file. The main '''walks''' should, therefore, be calculated so as to admit two persons to '''walk''' comfortably in a social manner; and, if wide enough for a little one in addition, so much the better. From five to six feet will not be too wide for the main [[avenue]]. The internal compartments, of course, should have much narrower '''walks''', the width of which must be graduated in a degree by the size of the garden.
<p></p>
:“The '''walks''' of the flower-garden should be constructed of such material as will make firm and dry walking at all seasons of the year.” [[#Breck_cite|back up to History]]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated lawns—pleasant '''walks''' amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [sic] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:47)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The little cottage. . . was built last year for Augustus W. Clason, Esq. of Westchester. . . The grounds contain fifteen acres, of which five are wooded with a very old growth, and the rest lie in grass. It is intended to throw '''walks''' through the [[lawn]] and adorn their [[border]]s, but not to set apart any one spot for a garden.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, “Trees in Cities” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 17, no. 2 (February 1851): 50−52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH/q/trees%20in%20cities view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-'''walks'''. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''walk'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-'''walks''' and the carriageway. . .
<p></p>
:“Take as an example [[Boston Common]]. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-'''walks''', and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances form each other. But suppose no tree or '''walk''' were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728. "Rope '''Walks'''" indicated in the center, above "Fort Hill".

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. “[[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha Ha]] '''Walk''' here” inscribed at center top.

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. Straight-lined '''walks''' are indicated at R and across the top linking X and X. Meandering '''walks''' begin at the four entrances marked by b.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. '''Walks''' are seen leading up to the [[mount]] at F.

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of [[View]], [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII. Caption for top figure also reads: “An Arbor in a Fortified Island.”

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady '''walks''' with [[Temple]]s of [[Trellis]] work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An [[Avenue]] in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

File:1398.jpg|Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including Walks'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. "Rope '''Walk'''" is inscribed at middle right.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768. '''Walk''' is written at the top left on this plan.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun<sup>r</sup> Esq<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The '''walk''' meanders across the grounds from the Mansion House at “a” to the [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|ah-ha]] at “g.”

Image:0071.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan for the City of Washington, March 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. There is a tree lined '''walk''' running east west on the central axis of the Mall in the center of the plan. The word "'''walk'''" is inscribed in the description of the plan on the bottom right.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. ". . .a gravel '''walk''' should lead into the [[shrubbery]]. . ."

Image:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1793.

image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

Image:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

Image:0091.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “'''Walks''' in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”

Image:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding '''walk''' surrounding the [[lawn]] before the house.”

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "[[walk|''Walks'']]", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 796, fig. 549.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of [[French_style|French]] [[parterre]] of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 797, fig. 550. ". . .one graven-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf. . . "

Image:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The botanic [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with a gravel-'''walk''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 801, fig. 553.

Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Ferme_ornée/Ornamental_farm|ferme ornée]] with wild and irregular [[hedge]]s, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1023, fig. 722.

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. "A '''walk''' 5 ft. in width, A A, of a semi-elliptical form. . . '''walks''' of 4 ft. width C C C C. . ."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the '''walk'''. . .”

image:1000.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.

Image:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''."

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:0995.jpg|Anonymous, “The Espalier '''Walk''' in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.

Image:0943.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a small [[Greenhouse|Green-House]]” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 259, figs. 32 and 33.

Image:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. “. . .Varied '''walks''', concealed from each other”.

Image:0380.jpg|Anonymous, “The Ravine '''Walk''' at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 350, fig. 40.

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. “. . . and the '''walks''' ''e''.”

image:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[plot]] showing the location of the house, '''walks''', roads &c. in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and [[shrub]] [[border]]s. "

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "O" marks "'''walks'''".

Image:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "T T, foot '''walks'''. . . "

Image:0790.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & [[Greenhouse|Green House]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Willow Spring '''Walk''' (15)."

Image:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. "13. Plank '''Walk''' to Landing", on lower left, leading to n.8 Tomb.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] walks at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

Image:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

Image:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819).

Image:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne Views of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

image:1705.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], [[Kitchen garden]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “. . .on the north, at the surrounding '''walk''' (c). . .”

Image:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''[[View]] of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

Image:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on [[Boston Common]]'', 1837.

Image:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 161.

Image:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

Image:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 24.

Image:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery: or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 37. Steps and '''walks''' leading up to the reservoir seen in the background.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Walks are both the straight and winding paths across the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:1861.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grounds of a cottage orneé'', in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,'' (1844): 102, fig. 25.

Image:1049.jpg|N. Vautin, [[View]] of North Side (Rear) of Longfellow House, June 1845.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage,'' c. 1846. The walk is to the right of the cottage.

Image:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[Montgomery Place]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.

Image:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Seat]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0487.jpg|William Wade, ''Castle Garden: From the Battery'', 1848. ". . .a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform. . ."

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

Image:0374.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grouping to produce the Beautiful'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849), 102, fig. 21.

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric_style|Geometric]] Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''[[View]] of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

Image:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

Image:0366.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Pine Bank,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' , 4th ed. (1849; repr., 1991), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.

Image:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2

Image:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

Image:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye [[View]] of Boston'', c. 1850.

Image:0492.jpg|Anonymous, ''Saratoga Schottisch'', New York, 1851.

Image:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley Park, Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''[[View]] of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

Image:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d., a '''walk''' is visible in the background on the right hand side leading to the buildings.

Image:0703.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Yellow Sulphur Springs, Montgomery County,” n.d.

Image:1191.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of an unidentified garden, 18th century.

Image:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

Image:1192.jpg|Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:1377.jpg|Batty Langley, Garden with a [[canal]], in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1390.jpg|Batty Langley, “The Design of a [[Fountain]] & [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cascade]] after the grand Manner at Versailes,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVII.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A [[prospect]] of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748-50.

Image:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West [[Prospect]] of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

Image:0255.jpg|John Singleton Copley, ''Rebecca Boylston'', 1767.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788-90.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c.1787-93.

Image:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

Image:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

Image:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 1, no. 7 (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

Image:0452.jpg|The Denison Limner (Probably Joseph Steward), ''Captain Elisha Denison'', c. 1790.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753-1824)'', 1792.

Image:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg|William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder (Mary Stoughton Sloss)'', 1793.

Image:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793. A walk is seen across the lawn on the right hand side, between the tree and the summerhouse.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

Image:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, Kitchen Garden [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sedgeley, c. 1799.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0305.jpg|William Russell Birch, “State-House, with a view of Chesnut Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

Image:0173.jpg|Anonymous, ''Overmantel from the Bannister house'', c. 1800-20.

Image:0296.jpg|Anonymous, ''Townscape, Stonington, Connecticut'', 1800-25.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the [[plantation]] of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

Image:0254.jpg|Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child'', c. 1798–1810. A walk is depicted on the right, leading from the house through the garden.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 218, fig. 127.

Image:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

Image:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''[[View]] from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> Manigault,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 79, pl. 19.

Image:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (1808), pl. 2.

Image:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “[[View]] of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 27.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

Image:2082.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Eaglesfield from the northeast, May 11th, 1817'', 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “[[View]] of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “[[Seat]] of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825-28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0675.jpg|Anthony Imbert after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826-28.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830-40.

Image:1244.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.

Image:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

Image:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).

Image:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831-34).

Image:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange [[Terrace]], La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831-34.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0651.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Southeastern [[view]] of Wesleyan University, Middletown,” in ''Connecticut Historical Collections'' (1836), 510.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.

Image:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

Image:0489.jpg|John William Hill (artist), William James Bennett (engraver), ''New York, from Brooklyn Heights'', 1837.

Image:1142.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], Philadelphia'', 1838.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0683.jpg|C. Foster, “Western Baptist Theological Institute, at Covington KY, opposite Cincinnati, Ohio,” in Charles Cist, ''Cincinnati in 1841: Its Early Annals and Future Prospects'' (1841), pl. opp. 270.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949), 132.

Image:0420.jpg|Anonymous, “Franklin College, in Athens, Georgia,” in ''Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion'' 6, no. 19 (May 13, 1854): 297.

Image:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

Image:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840-50.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), ''Map of [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia'', 1843.

Image:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.

Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

Image:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0660.jpg|William S. Jewett, ''[[Mount]] Washington'', 1847.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. (c. 1849).

Image:1943.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of "The Old House" residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams Adams'', 1849.

Image:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

Image:0353.jpg|Anonymous, “Example of the beautiful in Landscape Gardening,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), opp. 273, fig. 15.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith, Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852—54.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image: 2287.jpg|Ernest Crehen, ''Blue Sulphur-Greenbrier, VA'', in John J. Moorman, ''The Virginia Springs of the South and West'', 1859: facing 217.

Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur (c. 1830), ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]

Terrace/Slope

2021-04-12T13:21:59Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

==History==

[[File:0766.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''The Battery New York, By Moonlight'', 1849.]]
The term terrace, used to describe both natural and artificial landscape features, denoted a level area or platform, often slightly raised and of varying dimensions and materials. Although Stephen Switzer (1718) made subtle distinctions between kinds of terraces (terrace walks, great terraces, middle terraces, etc.), those distinctions were not generally followed in American usage. In practice, however, a variety of terrace types were incorporated into landscape designs throughout 18th- and 19th-century America. These included long narrow terraces that formed raised [[walk]]s, platforms of earthen and architectural materials adjacent to buildings, and earthen terraces between slopes in [[Fall/Falling_garden|falling gardens]].

[[File:1048.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Vassall-Carigie-Longfellow House, 1844. A “turf terrace” is noted to the left of the main house.]]
Native American platform mounds, such as the one described as a terrace by <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>[[William Bartram]] in 1791, served as stages for the religious and ruling elite of the southeast before European contact ([[#Bartram|view text]]). Visible for miles, these mounds are remarkable not only as architectural monuments but also as testimonies to the leadership that mobilized a massive labor force needed to move such a vast quantity of earth.

[[File:0896.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Anson G. Phelps’ Villa, North Tarrytown, New York, 1851.]]
[[File:1686.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, “Italian Garden and [[Lake]] at Wellesley near Boston,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.]]
In Anglo-American gardens, long, narrow terraces provided raised [[walk]]s that offered excellent viewing platforms, formed circulation routes through the landscape, and made ideal venues for social promenade, as depicted at the Battery Park in New York by the ''Illustrated London News'' in 1849 [Fig. 1]. In 1718,<span id="Switzer_cite"></span> Switzer declared that gardens without these elevated [[walk]]s “must be esteem’d very deficient.”([[#Switzer|view text]]) Waterside terraces were particularly common in America, because they were created with the fill dredged from rivers and [[canal]]s. Such terraces were built in residential settings, such as the gardens at Maycox Plantation in Virginia, which were described c. 1780–82 by François Jean Chastellux and at the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House in Cambridge [Fig. 2]. In public areas, terraces were found at the Battery Park, described in 1793 by John Drayton, and at the waterfront of Alexandria, Virginia, visited in 1830 by Frances Milton Trollope.

Terraces were also built adjacent to buildings, and were often created from the earth excavated from cellar construction. The term “terrace” referred to raised earthen platforms and to flat roofed structures, both of which were used as balconies, [[promenade]]s, and viewing platforms. These terraces (paved, turfed, graveled, or covered in metal compounds, as advertised in the ''Federal Gazette'' in 1816) were occasionally also ornamented with [[statue|statuary]], vases, urns, and plantings such as flower beds or, more rarely, topiary. Charles Lyell recorded his observations of a highly ornamented terrace in Natchez, Mississippi, in 1846. A paved or turfed terrace extending from the house and often bounded by a balustrade was particularly popular in Italianate architecture of the 1830s and 1840s and was promoted by William H. Ranlett (1849) and [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] (1849). These terraces required substantial investment to construct and, when planted intensively, to maintain [Figs. 3 and 4]. As <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>[[Jane Loudon]] observed in 1845, “[T]hey are chiefly adapted for mansions and places of considerable extent.” ([[#Loudon|view text]]) <span id="Downing_cite"></span> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] suggested that the function of the English paved terrace was often accommodated in America by the [[veranda]] ([[#Downing|view text]]).

[[File:2006.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Joseph Drayton, ''View near Bordenton, from the Gardens of the Count de Survilliers'', c. 1820.]]
[[File:1477.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.]]
Broad terraces located adjacent to a building provided a transition between the built architecture and the grounds, as Batty Langley, [[Bernard M'Mahon]], John Abercrombie, and [[A. J. Downing]] all noted. The terrace also provided a vantage point from which to admire [[view]]s and [[vista]]s. Both Abercrombie (1817) and [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] (1850) discussions of terraces emphasize the importance of selecting sight lines and of building proportionally in order to create an appropriate visual setting for a house, as well as to establish a viewing platform for looking outward. For example, the terrace at [[Point Breeze]], which was described by Trollope and depicted in an anonymous engraving after Thomas Birch [Fig. 5], was placed to take advantage of striking [[vista]]s. Similarly, flat roofs of buildings (such as those at [[Monticello]]; the Waterworks at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia; and the White House in Washington, DC) served as elevated terrace walkways with views of distant scenery. A certificate for the Horticultural Association of the Hudson [Fig. 6] depicts an idealized garden (possibly based on [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] Highland Place) that includes a terrace, seen at right, framing an extended view of the Newburgh Basin.<ref>For a discussion of this image, see Walter L. Creese, ''The Crowning of the American Landscape: Eight Great Spaces and Their Buildings'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 75–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FX78IBSV/q/Creese| view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Charles Bulfinch, Ground plan of the two wings added to the Pleasant Hill, 1818. The “upper terrace” and “lower terrace” link all the buildings.]]
[[File:1042.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, Illustration for chapter entitled: “Of different Terrasses and Stairs, with their most exact Proportions,” 1712.]]
Terraces of varying widths were also employed in sites with a steep grade in order to make for arable and easily navigated level areas, to control erosion, and to create the visual effects made possible by a series of slopes and flats (see [[Fall/Falling_garden|Fall]]). These terraces were supported by earthen slopes or masonry [[wall]]s, supports which were referred to variously as banks, slopes, and terrace walls. They were also sometimes simply called by the more general term, “terrace,” as in William Dickinson Martin’s 1808 description of a “perpendicular terrace” at Salem, North Carolina. Designs for public institutions, such as Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 design for two wings to be added to the seat of Joseph Barrell in order to create the McLean Asylum [Fig. 7], used terraces to frame views of the buildings’ façdes while accommodating the slope of the land. The terraces of a [[Fall/Falling_garden|falling garden]] were generally separated by turfed slopes or, less commonly, masonry [[wall]]s. As <span id="Argenville_cite"></span> Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville (1712) noted, gardens were less susceptible to erosion if their terraces were created by cutting into an existing hillside rather than constructed out of fill ([[#Argenville|view text]]) [Fig. 8].The planting schemes of [[Fall/Falling_garden|falling garden]] terraces varied from simple turf to kitchen and flower beds, although images of terraces rarely showed plantings in detail. Among the few surviving examples is [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson’s]] diagram (c. 1804) for a garden olitory, in which he specified a hedge at the “foot of the terras” designed to accommodate differing heights of the [[lawn]] and [[kitchen garden]]. In 1840, <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>C. M. Hovey referred to the efforts of the Messrs. Winship of Brighton, Massachusetts, to transform the embankment of a railroad right-of-way on Hovey’s land into an attractive terraced garden ([[#Hovey|view text]]). While the use of terraces and slopes to create [[Fall/Falling_garden|falling gardens]] seems to have declined in popularity after the early 19th century, its use continued through mid-century in large formal landscapes of public gardens, such as the University of Virginia, and anywhere uneven or steep topography offered a challenge.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Byrd, William II, September 18, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1910; repr., 1970: 357–58)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. John Spencer Bassett (1910; repr., New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 '''Terrace''' Walks that fall in '''Slopes''' one below another.”

*Grigg, William, October 4, 1736, describing the residence of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:32)<ref> Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/q/lockwood| view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I the Subscriber oblidge myself for Consideration of forty pounds to be well & truly paid me by Thos. Hancock Doe undertake to layout the upper garden [[alley|allys]]. Trim the Beds & fill up all the [[alley|allies]] with such Stuff as Sd Hancock shall order and Gravel the [[walk|Walks]] & prepare and Sodd ye '''Terras''' adjoining with the '''Slope''' on the side next to Mr. Yoemans land, Likewise I oblidge myself to layout the next garden or flatt from the '''Terras''' below and carry on the mold thereto belonging and fill up all the [[walk]]s with Gravel & finish all off Compleat workman like this fall to the satisfaction of said Hancock.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, June 17, 1744, describing New York, NY (1948: 46)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Leutenant Governor had here a house and a chapell, and there are fine gardens and '''terrass''' walks from which one has a very pritty [[view]] of the city.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, [[plantation]] of Charles and Margaret Tilgham Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 138–39)<ref name="Sarudy">Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “About two miles from Baltimore There is an exceeding handsome [[Seat]] called Mount Clare belonging to Mr. Charles Carrel of Annapolis Son of Dr. Carrel. . . took a great deal of Pleasure in looking at the [[bowling Green]] & also at the Garden which is a very large '''Falling Garden'''. . . You step out of the Door into the [[Bowling_green|Bowlg Green]] from which the Garden '''Falls''' & when You stand on the Top of it there is such a Uniformity of Each side as the whole [[plantation|Plantn]] seems to be laid out like a Garden.”

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the terrace [[walk]]s at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the water fall from the spring in the upper level over a '''terrace''' in the form of a [[cascade]]. then conduct it along the foot of the '''terrace''' to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a [[temple]], from which it may go off by the western [[border]] till it falls over another '''terrace''' at the Northern or lower side. let the [[temple]] be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a bath or anything else. the 1st story [[arch]]es on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be Chinese, Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens.” [Fig. 9]

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the front yard of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious '''''Terrace''''', covered finely with Green turf, & about five foot high with a '''slope''' of eight feet, which appears exceeding well to persons coming to the front of the House—
<p> </p>
:“This '''''Terrace''''' is produced along the Front of the House, and ends by the Kitchen; but before the Front-Doors is a broad flight of steps of the same Height, & slope of the '''''Terrace'''''.”

*Chastellux, François Jean Marquis de, 1780–82, describing Maycox Plantation, estate of David Meade, Prince George County, VA (1787: 2:166–67)<ref> François Jean Chastellux, Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782,'' 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UXHRGXKX/q/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Jean| view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mr. Mead’s house is by no means so handsome as that of Westover. . . Mr. Mead’s garden, like that of Westover, is in the nature of a '''terrace''' on the bank of the river.”

*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789 and 1790, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A6, A7)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN/q/madsen?&_suid=1340895272014046677169243049543 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[September 27, 1789]. . . The first moment after Hilton has finished weeding in the Garden as I directed he should set about weeding the '''terrace''' walk as I will endeavour to have it gravelld during the winter. . .
<p> </p>
:“[October 12, 1789]. . . When the '''terrace''' is weeded, the two [[Border]]s leading from the House to the [[Ice House]] Hill should be cleaned. . .
<p> </p>
:“[June 12, 1790]. . . The newly planted trees & shrubs along the '''terrace''' respecting which you know me to be so anxious, may be alive or dead for ought I know.”

*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing the area north of Wrightsborough, GA (1928: 56–57)<ref> William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“many very magnificent monuments of the power and industry of the ancient inhabitants of these lands are visible. I observed a stupendous conical pyramid, or artificial mount of earth, vast tetragon '''terraces''', and a large sunken area, of a cubical form, encompassed with banks of earth; and certain traces of a larger Indian town, the work of a powerful nation, whose period of grandeur perhaps long preceded the discovery of this continent. . .
<p> </p>
:“old Indian settlements, now deserted and overgrown with forests. These are always on or near the banks of rivers, or great swamps, the artificial mounts and terraces elevating them above the surrounding [[grove]]s.” [[#Bartram_cite|back up to History]]

*Smith, William Loughton, 1791, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (1917: 64)<ref> William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'' ed. Albert Matthews, (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5/q/Loughton| view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house is rather an ancient brick building, with a neat garden, at the end of which is a high natural '''terrace''' which commands the Potomac.”

*Drayton, John, 1793, describing the Battery Park, New York, NY (quoted in Deák, 1988: 1:130)<ref> Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The flag staff rises from the midst of a stone tower, and is decorated on the top with a golden ball: and the back part of the ground is laid out in smaller [[walk]]s, '''terraces''', and a [[bowling green]].— Immediately behind this, and overlooking it, is the government house; built at the expence of the state.”

*Twining, Thomas, May 1, 1795, describing Georgetown, VA (1894: 110)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As we stood one evening on the bank of the river before his door, he said, ‘Here I will make a terrace, and we will sit and smoke our hookahs.’”

[[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|450 px|Fig. 10, [[Thomas Jefferson]], “Terras” in a letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” at [[Monticello]] c. 1804. ]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)

:“Garden Olitory. Make the upper '''slope''' [diagram] at a plant a [[hedge]] of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance thus taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the '''terras''' for forward production, the main beds must be reduced from 50 f. to 42 f.” [Fig. 10]

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], May 11, 1805, describing the White House, Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:“The obstructions to the colonnade from the stables, may be prevented by giving them a North door, as horses will easily ascend or descend the '''terras''' on the North side. But the most difficult of all is the adjustment of the new connecting building to the different levels of the three existing buildings. Nothing can be admitted short of the '''terras''' of the offices from the Pres’s House to the [[pavilion]]s each way being absolutely in the level of the floor of the house.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 57—58<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding '''slope''', which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]].”

*Martin, William Dickinson, 1808, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum, 1979">Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide,'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Next, I visited a [[flower garden]] belonging to the female department. . . it is situated on a hill, the East end of which is high & abrupt; some distance down this, they had dug down right in the earth, & drawing the dirt forward threw it on rock, etc., thereby forming a horizontal plane of about thirty feet in circumference; & on the back, rose a perpendicular terrace of some height, which was entirely covered over with a grass peculiar to that vicinage. At the bottom of this '''terrace''' were arranged circular [[seat]]s, which, from the height of the hill in the rear were protected from the sun in an early hour in the afternoon”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 1, 1809, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1906: 68)<ref name="Bayard 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He [[Thomas Jefferson|[Thomas Jefferson]]] took us first to the garden he has commenced since his retirement. It is on the south side of the mountain and commands a most noble view. Little is as yet done. A '''terrace''' of 70 or 80 feet long and about 40 wide is already made and in cultivation. A broad grass [[walk]] leads along the outer edge; the inner part is laid off in beds for vegetables. This '''terrace''' is to be extended in length and another to be made below it. The [[view]] it commands, is at present its greatest beauty.”

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180–82)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A door opens at each end, one into the hall, and opposite, one into the '''terrace''', from whence you have an elegant [[view]] of all the rivers &c. . . . Lengthways of the house, and thro' the hall, is a walk, which extends on a '''terrace''' at each end for some way. . .
<p></p>
:“The grounds are surrounded by a high stone [[wall]], and on each side, at the distance of 1 or 300 yards is a large brick building, one for the Sec. of War and the other of the Navy. The '''terrace''' was to communicate to each building connecting the three.”

*Anonymous, 1816, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' & ''Baltimore Daily Advertiser'' construction items for sale (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 371)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Zinc] can be made use of in cases where lead, tin or copper are employed; such as covering '''terraces'''.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 16, 1817, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (CWF)

:“I shall certainly want a very great quantity [of paint] in the course of the present year, as I have to renew the whole outer painting of this house and the '''terraces''', and to paint that in Bedford which has never been done.”

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, July 17, 1819, describing the effects of a hailstorm at Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, VA (quoted in Chambers 1993: 121)<ref> William Chambers, ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'', (Forest, Va.: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9/q/Chambers view on Zotero].</ref>

:“the planks of the '''terrace''' torn up in places by the violence of the winds.”

*Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum, 1979"/>

:“A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . .
<p> </p>
:“The hill-side was laid off in '''terraces''' and winding [[walk]]s.”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 2, 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (1906: 225)<ref name="Bayard 1906"/>

:“on two other sides running from north to south are the [[Pavillion]]s, or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by '''terraces''', beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The '''terrace''' projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the arches a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Alexandria, VA (1832: 2:93)<ref name="Trollope, 1832"> Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a few weeks’ residence in Alexandria restored my strength sufficiently to enable me to walk to a beautiful little grassy '''terrace''', perfectly out of the town, but very near it, from whence we could watch the various craft that peopled the Potomac between Alexandria and Washington.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing [[Point Breeze]], estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (1832: 2:153)<ref name="Trollope, 1832"/>

:“The country is very flat, but a '''terrace''' of two sides has been raised, commanding a fine reach of the Delaware River; at the point where this '''terrace''' forms a right angle, a lofty chapel has been erected, which looks very much like an observatory.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1838: 1:54)<ref name= "Martineau, 1838"> Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The aspect of [[Hyde Park]] from the river had disappointed me, after all I had heard of it. It looks little more than a white house upon a ridge. I was therefore doubly delighted when I found what this ridge really was. It is a natural '''terrace''', overhanging one of the sweetest reaches of the river; and, though broad and straight at the top, not square and formal, like an artificial embankment, but undulating, sloping, and sweeping between the ridge and the river, and dropped with trees; the whole carpeted with turf, tempting grown people, who happen to have the spirits of children, to run up and down the '''slopes''', and play hide-and-seek in the hollows.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Cincinnati, OH (1838: 2:51)<ref name= "Martineau, 1838"/>

:“The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a '''terrace''' which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most parklike eminences form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a '''terrace''', neatly gravelled.”
[[File:0536.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, George Lehman, “Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay,” 1833.]]

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref> Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Steps and '''terraces''' conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.” [Fig. 11]

[[File:0877.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, Section of a terrace of the Messrs. Winship, 1840.]]

*<div id="Hovey"></div>Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1840, “Some Notes on Gardens, and the state of Horticulture, in Worcester, Mass.,” describing the grounds of Messrs. Winship, Brighton, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 402)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Some Notes on Gardens, and the state of Horticulture, in Worcester, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 11 (November 1840): 401–7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6RNGMU3F view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We recollect of reading, in the last volume of the ''Gardener’s Magazine'', some remarks on treating the ground on the margins of rail-roads, where there were embankments of any extent. These remarks we had marked for insertion in our pages, but had forgotten them until the present moment, when called to our mind as we passed the grounds of the Messrs. Winship, in Brighton. The road passes immediately through the nursery, dividing it in two parts; but these gentlemen have so arranged the sandy embankments with '''terraces''', planted with shrubs, &c., as to render them very ornamental. We only wish that other gentlemen who are able, would take the same pride in improving the embankments where they pass through their lands.
<p></p>
:“The '''terraces''' of the Messrs. Winship are made in the following manner: the distance is from ten to fifteen feet. A [[wall]] is laid of about four feet; then a grass banking of some three to five more, at an angle of forty-five or fifty degrees; this is the first '''terrace''', and the surface, (about five feet wide,) is filled with fine flowering shrubs and herbaceous plants; another grass banking of from five feet more, at the same angle, is thrown up, and the surface prepared and planted out with shrubs and plants. When in the vigor of growth and flowering, these '''terraces''' have a fine effect, contrasted with the barren sand, which happens wherever there is a cut of ordinary depth. We have annexed the following engraving, representing the same.” [Fig. 12] [[#Hovey_cite|back up to History]]

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, VA (CWF)

:“Behind the ‘Bachelor’s Row,’ and on the upper part of the hill is an imposing edifice of brick, called ‘Society Hall.’ It is built of two stories, with a fine [[portico]] of twelve feet wide, running the whole length of the front, and a '''terrace''' of twenty feet wide beyond this.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29 , [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN/q/Notes%20made%20during%20a%20visit view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania Avenue, where the grounds form a semi-circle, of which the [[avenue]] is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular '''terrace''': two other entrances of this part of the grounds are placed at the angles or sides of this semi-circle, which also, by a straight [[walk]], lead up to the broad '''terrace'''. From this lower '''terrace''', a long flight of steps leads to the upper one, upon which the building of the Capitol is placed: on the turf between the [[walk]]s, are oval and circular [[bed]]s, planted with shrubs and roses, and filled with dahlias and other annual flowers.”

*Lyell, Sir. Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the [[English Style|English]], others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen '''terraces''', with statues and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by views into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

[[File:0778.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Frances Palmer]], Italian Bracketed Villa at Oswego, New York, 1851.]]
*Ranlett, William, 1849, describing a proposed villa in Oswego, NY (1849; repr., 1976: 2:14)<ref> William A. Ranlett, ''The Architect,'' 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/q/ranlett view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI, is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of Oswego. . . On the north side which commands a full view of the lake, a balustrade gallery, or '''terrace''', extends the entire front.” [Fig. 13]

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia, PA (''Horticulturist'' 3: 413)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A/q/springbrook view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[kitchen garden]] is separated from the [lawn]] and [[flower garden]] by the Cactus and Orchid-houses. It covers 1 1/2 acres, is well arranged in [[bed]]s and '''terraces''', with a large open cistern of water in its centre—all in excellent order. The quarters are interspersed with dwarf fruit trees, variously pruned and trained, and all in a young bearing state.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Kalorama (Kaleirama), estate of Joel Barlow, Washington, DC (1850: 331)<ref name= "Loudon, 1850"> J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., corr. and improved (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“851. ''Kaleirama'' is about a mile from Washington, on high '''terrace''' ground, and is a very pretty place. . . (''Dom. Man.'', &c., vol. ii. p. 330.)”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing the public gardens in Hoboken, NJ (1850: 332–33)<ref name= "Loudon, 1850"/>

:“856. ''Public Gardens''. . .
<p></p>
:“''Hoboken'', on the North River, about three miles from New York, is a public [[walk]] of great beauty and attraction. . . Through this beautiful little [[wood]], a broad well-gravelled '''terrace''' is led by every point which can exhibit the scenery to advantage; narrower and wilder paths diverge at intervals, some into the deeper shadow of the [[wood]]s, and some shelving gradually to the pretty coves below. . . (''D. M., &c.'', vol. ii. p. 170)”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), September 1851, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Rose Hill, residence of George Leland, Waltham, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 411)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 17, no. 9 (September 1851): 410–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DR542Z2D/q/notes%20on%20gardens%20and%20nurseries view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Descending the steps we reach the garden, which covers and extent of two or more acres in the form of a parallelogram, the end next Newton street. The '''slope''' is laid out in '''terraces''' on the right of the steps, and on the left is located the range of forcing houses, which is 104 feet long, comprising a centre and two wings, the former the [[greenhouse]], twenty-five feet, and the latter vineries, forty feet each.”

{{break}}

===Citations===

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard'ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref> Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard'ner, or Directions for cultivating and right ordering of fruit-gardens and kitchen gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A '''''Terrass''''', is an artificial bank or mount of Earth, commonly supported with a fronting or facing of stone, and raised like a kind of ''Bulwark'' for the ornament of a ''Garden''.”

*<div id="Argenville"></div>Dezallier d'Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 75, 116–18)<ref>A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', trans. John James (1712; repr., Farnborough, England: Gregg International, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/q/The%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20of%20Gardening view on Zotero]</ref>

:“'''TERRASSES''', when rightly situated, are likewise of great Ornament in Gardens, for their Regularity and Opening; especially when they are well built, and beautified with handsome Stairs, and fine Ascents. Sometimes there are made under them, Vaults, Grots, [[Cascade]]s, and Buffets of Water, with an Order of Architecture, and a great many [[Statue]]s in Niches; and, on the Coping above, are set Vases and Flower-pots, orderly ranged and disposed. . .

:“WHEN you meet with a Piece of Ground whose Shelving is very steep, as perhaps of the Hill ''A'', which you would make practicable for a Garden, it may be order’d three several Ways.

:“''First'', By making '''Terrasses''' one above another, at several Heights, and supporting the Earth with sufficient [[Wall]]s of Masonry.

:“''Secondly'', By making such '''Terrasses''', as will support themselves without a [[Wall]], by Means of Banks and '''Slopes''' cut at the Extremity of every '''Terrass'''.

:“THE ''Third Way'' is, to make no '''Terrasses''' in strait Lines, nor long Flats between; but only to contrive Landing-Places, or Rests, at several Heights, and easy Ascents and Flights of Steps for Communication, with Foot-Paces, Counter-Terrasses, Volutes, Rolls, Banks, and '''Slopes''' of Grass, placed and disposed with Symmetry, which are called Amphitheatres. . .

:“OF these three Manners, that with the '''Slopes''' is the least Expence, and that of the Ampitheatre the most magnificent; so that '''Terrass'''-Walls may be reckon’d to hold a Medium between the other two. . .

:“THE Architect, or he that is to give the Design of a Garden, should carefully consider the '''Slope''' and Winding of the Hill, and raise and describe the Profil of it very correctly; that by making the best Advantage of the Situation, and distributing its '''Terrasses''' with Husbandry and Discretion, there may not be a great deal of Earth to remove, but that what is taken from Places that are too high, may serve to raise and make good those that are too low, which should be done with such Prudence and Circumspection, that you should neither be obliged to bring in Earth, nor have any to carry away, when your '''Terrasses''' are finished. . .

:“'''TERRASSES''' should not be made too frequent, nor too near one another, that is, you should always make as few of them as possible; and by means of Levels, or Flats, continued as long as the Ground will permit, endeavour to avoid the Defect of heaping '''Terrass''' upon '''Terrass''', it being very disagreeable in a Garden to be constantly going Up-hill, or Down-hill, without finding scarce any Resting-Place.

:“WHAT we call the Level, or Flat, is the Space of Ground contained between the '''Slopes''' of two '''Terrasses''', that is to say, the Platform sustained by the [[Wall]]s or Banks of the '''Terrasses''', which, in Fortification, is call’d the ''Terra-plain''.” [[#Argenville_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718: 150–52)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . '', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''Terrace''' seems to have been us’d a considerable Time since. . . But the nearest of our Derivations in ''English'', is from the ''French'', '''Terrace''', or '''Terrasse'''; and they from the ''Italians'', (from whom they, and almost all Europe, derive their Terms of Art relating to Building, Gardening, ''&c.'') ''Terraza'', ''Terrazare'', signifying with them the removing and banking up of Earth, from one Place into another.

:“But be the Derivations as it will, it is very well known in these ''European'' Countries, and particularly with us, to be a small Bank of Earth, laid out and trimm’d according to Line and Level, being necessary for the proper Elevation of any Person that walks round his Garden, to view all that lyes round him. And this Elevation is so necessary, that all Gardens must be esteem’d very deficient, that have them not. . . that I dare pronounce a Seat of no Value without them; and, besides, where-ever the House is to be new built, there is no Possibility of disposing of the Earth, Clay, Rubbish, ''&c''. that necessarily comes out of Cellars and Foundation thereof, but this; which we must otherwise suppose (amidst a thousand needless Works) is to be carted away, to fill up some Hollow or other, which had been better left undone perhaps likewise.

:“Of '''Terrace'''-Walks there are several Kinds, as they are particularly us’d.

:“The 1st, is that great Terrace that lies next the House.

:“The 2d, Side, or Middle '''Terrace''', that is commonly rais’d or cut out above the Level of the [[Parterre]], [[Lawn]], ''&c''.

:“The 3d, Those that encompass a Garden; and

:“The 4th, Many that lye under one another, as being cut out of a large high Hill; these are differing, in some Respect or other, from one another.” [[#Switzer_cite|back up to History]]

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: vi–vii)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“When the Situation of Gardens such, that the making of '''''Slopes''''' and '''''Terraces''''' are necessary, or cannot be avoided, they not only leave them ''naked of Shade'' as aforesaid, but ''break their'' '''''Slopes''''' into so many Angles, that their ''native Beauty'' is thereby destroy’d. Thus if by waste Earth a ''Mount'' be ''raised ten or twelve Feet high'', you shall have its '''Slope''', that should be entire from top to bottom, broken into three, if not four small ''trifling ones'', and those mixt with [[Arch]]s of Circles, ''&c''. that still adds to their ill Effects: So that instead of having one ''grand'' '''''Slope''''' only with an easy Ascent, you have three or four small ones, that are ''poor and trifling''.

:“And the only reason why they are made in this Stair or Step-like manner, is first to shew their Dexterity of Hand, without considering the ill Effect; and lastly to imitate those ''grand Amphitheatrical Buildings'', used by the ''Ancients'', of which they had no more Judgement, than of the excellent Proportions of Architecture that was used therein, when those noble Structures were first erected. . .

:“When very large Hills of great perpendicular Heights are to be cut into '''''Slopes''''' and '''''Terraces''''', then we may justly endeavour to imitate those grand Structures, (whereon their Gladiators exercis’d) by cutting them Concave, Convex, &c. as those looking towards ''Fair-Mile Heath'', in the Gardens of his ''Grace'' the DUKE of NEWCASTLE ''at his Grand Seat of Claremont''; but in small Elevations they are poor and trifling, and therefore not to be used.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1367)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (London: printed for the author, 1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''TERRACES''':A '''Terrace''' is a small Bank of Earth, rais’d and trimm’d according to Line and Level, for the proper Elevation of any Person that walks round a Garden, that he may have a better [[Prospect]] of all that lies around him; and these Elevations are so necessary, that those Gardens that have them not, are deficient.

:“When '''Terraces''' are rightly situated, they are great Ornaments to such Gardens as have them, for their Regularity and Opening; especially when they are well built, and beautify’d with handsome Stairs, and fine Ascents.

:“There are several Kinds of '''Terrace'''-walks:

:“1. The great '''Terrace''', which lies next to the House.

:“2. The side or middle '''Terrace''', which is commonly raised above the Level of the [[Parterre]], [[Lawn]], &c.

:“3. Those '''Terraces''' which encompass a Garden.

:“4. Those '''Terraces''' which lie under one another, being cut out of a large Hill; and these are different one from another, in some respect or other.

:“As to the Breadth of side '''Terraces''', this is usually decided by its Correspondence with some [[Pavilion]], or some little Jettee or Building; but most of all by the Quantity of Stuff that is to spare for those Purposes.

:“The side '''Terrace''' of a Garden ought not to be less than twenty Feet, and but very seldom wider than forty.

:“As for the Height of a '''Terrace''', some allow it to be but five Feet high; but others more or less, according to their Fancies; but the more exact Persons never allow above five or six Feet; and in a small Garden, and a narrow '''Terrace''' [[walk]], three Feet; and sometimes three Feet and an half high are sufficient for a Terrace eighteen Feet wide; and four Feet are sufficient for a Terrace of twenty Feet wide; but when the Garden is proportionably large, and the '''Terrace''' is thirty or forty Feet wide, then it must be at least five or six Feet high.

:“The noblest '''Terrace''' is very deficient without Shade; for which Elm-trees are very proper: for no [[Seat]] can be said to be complete, where there is not an immediate Shade almost as soon as out of the House; and therefore these shady Trees should be detach’d from the Body and Wings of the Edifice.

:“'''Terraces''' should be planted rather with Elm or Lime-trees, than with Yew or Holly; which will not grow large enough to afford Shade.

:“The Distance of the Elms across will be about twenty Feet; and they may be plac’d thirty Feet asunder in Lines.”

*Salmon, William, 1762, ''Palladio Londinensis'' (1762: n.p.)<ref>William Salmon, ''Palladio Londinensis, or The London Art of Building: In Three Parts. . . with Fifty-Four Copper Plates, to Which Is Annexed, The Builder’s Dictionary'', ed. E. Hoppus, 6th ed. (London: printed for C. Hitch et al., 1762), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IEIQ5QGM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Tarrau'', or '''''Tarras''''', an open [[Walk]], or Gallery; also a flat Roof on a House; also a Kind of coarse Plaister, durable in the Weather.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A '''terrace''' as a boundary is now seldom formed, but in some situations, such as an eminence might in several respects, be agreeable.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59, 64, 69)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In other parts are sometimes discovered eminences, or rising grounds, as a high '''terrace''', mount, steep declivity, or other eminence, ornamented with curious trees and shrubs, with [[walk]]s leading under the shade of trees, by easy ascents to the summit, where is presented to the [[view]], an extensive prospect of the adjacent fields, buildings, hamlets, and country around, and likewise affording a fresh and cooling air in summer. . .

:“[[Fountain]]s and [[statue]]s, are generally introduced in the middle of spacious opens. . . sometimes in [[wood]]s, [[thicket]]s, and recesses, upon mounts, '''terraces''', and other stations, according to what they are intended to represent. . .

:“Regular '''terraces''' either on natural eminences or forced ground were often introduced by way of ornament, for the sake of [[prospect]], and of enjoying the fresh air in summer; they were of various dimensions with respect to height, from two, to ten, or twenty feet, according to the nature of the situation and purpose they were designed for; some being ranged singly, others double, treble, or several, one above another, on the side of some consideable rising ground in theatrical arrangement.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 472)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s practical gardener or, Improved system of modern horticulture'', with additions by James Mean, (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/q/Abercrombie's view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If flights of stone-stairs and ballustrades are not the inseparable accompaniments, if the term '''terrace''' is merely to designate a raised walk, many situations may be imagined, in which a '''terrace''' would both conduce to the accommodation of the proprietor of the grounds, and, ''without dispute'', improve the [[view]].

:“The [[view]] FROM the house, and TO the house, cannot always be consulted with mutual improvement. When a high '''terrace''' with ornaments which appear to mark the boundary of the architect’s province, is interposed between the house and the [[lawn]], the [[view]] immediately under the windows cannot certainly be so pleasant as if the house stood in a verdant field:—but let the [[prospect]] be reversed, and every stranger will see more grandeur in the house connected by a '''terrace''' with the garden; and perhaps among the spectators under the influence of cultivated taste, a few may think such a gradation conduces to general harmony.

:“In a flat, or confined situation, a '''terrace''' with sloping grass banks may create a [[prospect]], or relieve the sameness of the scenery.”

[[File:1339.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J.C. Loudon]], “Levelling for terrace-slopes,” 1826.]]

*[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 377, 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/order/creator/q/loudon/sort/desc view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1933. ''Levelling for'' '''''terrace-slopes'''''. . . or for geometrical surfaces, however varied, is performed by the union of both modes, and requires no explanation to those who have acquired the rudiments of geometry, or understand what has been described. . . [Fig. 14]

:“7256. '''''Terrace''''' ''and [[conservatory]]''. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the [[ancient style]], that the design of the '''terrace''' must be jointly influenced by the magnitude and style of the house, the [[view]]s from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the [[view]]s of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions. The level or levels will be supported partly by grassy '''slopes''', but chiefly by stone [[wall]]s, harmonising with the lines and forms of the house. These, in the Gothic style, may be furnished by battlements, [[gateway]]s, oriels, pinnacles, &c.; or, on a very great scale, watch-towers may form very [[picturesque]], characteristic, and useful additions. . .

:“7257. The '''breadth of''' '''''terraces''''', and their height relatively to the level of the floor of the living-rooms, must depend jointly on the height of the floor of the living-rooms and the surface of the grounds or country to be seen over them. Too broad or too high a '''terrace''' will both have the effect of foreshortening a [[lawn]] with a declining surface, or concealing a near valley. The safest mode in doubtful cases is, not to form this appendage till after the principal floor is laid, and then to determine the details of the '''terrace''' by trial and correction.

:“7258. ''Narrow'' '''''terraces''''' are entirely occupied as [[promenade]]s, and may be either gravelled or paved: and different levels, when they exist, connected by inclined planes or flights of steps. Where the breadth is more than is requisite for [[walk]]s, the [[border]]s may be kept in turf with groups or marginal strips of flowers and low shrubs. In some cases, the '''terrace'''-walls may be so extended as to enclose ground sufficient for a level [[plot]] to be used as a [[bowling-green]] or a [[flower garden]]. These are generally connected with one of the living-rooms or the [[conservatory]], and to the latter is frequently joined an [[aviary]] and the entire range of botanic stoves. Or, the [[aviary]] may be made an elegant detached building, so placed as to group with the house and other surrounding objects.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 117)<ref> Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1843), [http://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VJ3SM523/q/Gardening%20for%20Ladies view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Terrace'''''-''gardens'' are merely architectural-gardens, formed on platforms adjoining the house, on one or more levels, each level being supported by a '''terrace'''-wall; but as they are chiefly adapted for mansions and places of considerable extent, where of course a regular gardener must be kept, it does not appear necessary to enlarge on them here.” [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, ''History of Architecture'' (1848; repr., 1988: 306)<ref> Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848; repr., New York: Garland, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden of the Elizabethan villa should be laid out with a few simple '''terraces''' near the house, so as to unite it well with the ground.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 1139)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''TER'RACE''', n. [Fr. ''terrasse''; It. ''terrazzo''; Sp. ''terrado''; from L. ''terra'', the earth.],

:“1. A raised level space or platform of earth, supported on one or more sides by a [[wall]] or bank of turf, &c., used either for cultivation or for a [[promenade]].

:“2. A balcony or open gallery. ''Johnson''.

:“3. The flat roof of a house.”

*<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 344, 346, 376, 418–20, 423, 531)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Where it is desirable to separate the house from the level grass of the [[lawn]], let it be done by an architectural '''terrace''' of stone. . .

:“In a succeeding section we shall refer to '''terraces''' with their parapets, which are by far the most elegant barriers for a highly decorated [[flower garden]], or for the purpose of maintaining a proper connexion between the house and the grounds. . .

:“the long [[veranda]] round many of our country residences stands instead of the paved '''terraces''' of the English mansions as the place for [[promenade]]. . .

:“In our finest places, or those country [[seat]]s where much of the polish of [[pleasure ground]] or [[park]] scenery is kept up, one of the most striking defects is the want of '' ‘union between the house and the grounds.’ '' . . .

:“Let us suppose. . . The house now rising directly out of the green turf which encompasses it, we will surround by a raised platform or '''terrace''', wide enough for a dry, firm [[walk]], at all seasons; on the top of the [[wall]] or [[border]] of this '''terrace''', we will form a handsome ''parapet'', or balustrade, some two or three feet high, the details of which shall be in good keeping with the house. . . On the coping of this parapet. . . we will find suitable places, at proper intervals, for some handsome urns, vases, etc. On the drawing-room side of the house. . . we will place the [[flower-garden]], into which we descend from the '''terrace''' by a few steps. . .

:“The eye now, instead of witnessing the sudden termination of the architecture at the base of the house, where the [[lawn]] commences as suddenly, will be at once struck with the increased variety and richness imparted to the whole scene, by the addition of the architectural and garden decorations. . .

:“Where there is a '''terrace''' ornamented with urns or vases, and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, vases, sundials, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations. . .

:“The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], or in the symmetrical '''terrace''' [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited.” [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1042.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, Illustration for chapter entitled: “Of different '''Terrasses''' and Stairs, with their most exact Proportions,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. opp. p. 117.

File:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208. “'''Terrace'''” is inscribed as S.S., and is located near the bottom of the plan.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX. “'''Terrace''' [[walk]]” is inscribed between the [[Kitchen_garden|''kitchen garden'']] and “fruit garden.”

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . House opening to the North upon a plain [[Parterre]] of Grass,” in New Principles of Gardening (1728), pl. XI. “'''Terrace'''” is located at E and forms the [[walk]] P Q.

File:1711.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “The Plan and Elivation of a [[Temple]], or [[Summerhouse|Summer House]], on a '''Tarras''', In the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste'' (1755), pl. 44.

File:0072.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Monticello]]: [[orchard]] and vineyard (plat), c. 1778. “Foot of '''terras'''” is inscribed above the [[wall]].

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the [[Ancient_style|Ancient]] Chunky-[[Yard]],” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2. “''C'', a [[square]] '''terrace''' or [[eminence]].”

Image:0090a.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:1339.jpg|J. C. Loudon, “Levelling for '''terrace-slopes''',” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 377, fig. 369.

File:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange '''Terrace''', La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831—34.

File:1247.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], '“Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans),” 1835.

File:1147.jpg|William Strickland, ''Plan of the [[walk]]s and [[avenue]]s of Laurel Hill [[cemetery]]'', c. 1836. Terraces are indicated on curving walks across the top of the drawing.

File:0877.jpg|Anonymous, Section of a '''terrace''' of the Messrs. Winship, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 11 (November 1840): 403, fig. 10.

File:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "[[Lawn]] '''Terrace''' (17)."

</gallery>

=== Associated ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0187.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], [[Mount]] Clare, south façade and garden, 1775. Falling gardens in painting are made of a series of terraces.

Image:1378.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of an [[Avenue]] with its [[Wilderness|Wildernesses]] on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the '''terrace''' [[walk]]s at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard [[Park]]'', c. 1796.

Image:0331.jpg|George Washington, ''Drawing and Notes for a [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|Ha-Ha]] [[Wall]] at [[Mount Vernon]], October 1798'', 1798.

Image:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

Image:0992.jpg|Charles B. Lawrence (attr.), ''[[Point Breeze]], the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817–20.

Image:2006.jpg|Joseph Drayton, ''[[View]] near Bordenton, from the Gardens of the Count de Survilliers'', c. 1820.

Image:1018.jpg|Thomas Birch, [[Point Breeze]], c. 1820, in Edward J. Nygren, ''[[View]]s and Visions: American Landscape before 1830'' (1986), 146, pl. 120.

Image:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the [[Schuylkill River]]'', c. 1824–26.

Image:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of [[vase]]s with [[view]]s of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

Image:0536.jpg|George Lehman, “Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay,” 1833.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild,“Fairmount Waterworks,” 1838.

Image:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', vol. 2 (1840), pl. 24.

Image:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', vol. II (1840), pl. 37. Steps and walks leading up to the reservoir seen in the background.

Image:1103.jpg|W. Mason, engraver Tucker, W. E., “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane'' (1851), frontispiece.

Image:1866.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “A Villa in the Italian Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 386, fig. 45.

Image:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:0778.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Italian Bracketed Villa,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 7.

Image:0786.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Italian Villa,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 22, design XXXIII.

Image:0632.jpg|Anonymous, [[View]] of the terraces at Middleton Place, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1934), vol. 2, 196.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1388.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Garden and [[Wilderness]] in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0881.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.

File:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

File:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace/Slope|Terraces]], 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 80.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

File:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0694.jpg|Thomas Ender, Main [[Alley]] Leading to the [[Fountain]] of the Alligators and the Terrace, 1817.

File:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

File:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0514.jpg|Catherine Mary Wheeler, Sampler, 1825.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:1216.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2013.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Back [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Va.” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:1217.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; southwest front as viewed from the [[bowling green]], 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

File:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

File:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs'' (1831).

File:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:0896.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Anson G. Phelps' Villa, North Tarrytown, 1841-44.

File:0706.jpg|Anonymous, “Pegg’s Run,” in John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time'' (1844), p. 436.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, Map of the Hampton Estate, 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

File:1437.jpg|C. Bachman(n), ''New York'', 1848.

File:1881.jpg|Anonymous, "Residence of H. Sheldon Esq. near Tarrytown in N. Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 411, fig. 60.

File:1686.jpg|James Smillie, “Italian Garden and [[Lake]] at Wellesley near Boston,” 1859, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 452.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Lawn

2021-04-12T13:21:05Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

==History==
[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]
[[File:0490.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831–34).]]
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the lawn was an essential element of the American designed landscape. It was a stretch of grass turf occasionally referred to as grass-ground or greensward. Samuel Johnson defined “greensword” as “the turf on which grass grows.” These terms, however, were rarer in American usage than the term “lawn.”<ref>See Samuel Johnson Jr., ''Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), 1:n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero], and S. Allen Chambers Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero]. One of the first recorded examples of the use of the term “greensward” is Thomas Jefferson’s 1812 instructions that if “seed could be gathered by the children it might be sowed in the fall or spring in the square round the house where the greensward has not yet taken.”</ref> Although descriptions exist of public spaces having lawns, such as the former [[bowling green]] in New York, described by John Lambert (1816), and the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, described by Margaret Bayard Smith (1828), other terms (such as [[square]], [[park]], [[green]] or [[bowling green]], [[common]], or [[mall]]) were more commonly used for public sites. The term “lawn” was used more often in descriptions of residential landscapes.

[[File:1389.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Batty Langley, “Variety of ''Lawns'', or ''Openings'', before a ''grand Front of a Building'', into a ''[[Park]], Forest, [[Common]]'', &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.]]
[[File:0229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Charles Fraser]], ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle, Esquire, on the Ashley River'', 1800.]]
The scale of lawns ranged from modest to grand. Small dwelling [[yard]]s contrasted with broad swaths of turf in settings as diverse as landscape [[park]]s at country homes, campuses [Fig. 1], hospitals, resorts, and public spaces that included [[green]]s and [[common]]s. Where rainfall, climate, and soil allowed, imported English grasses and cultivars, such as clover, were planted in lawns, and native [[meadow]] grasses were scythed to similar effect.<ref>The importation of English grasses was necessary for providing forage for livestock that had been introduced to America. As early as the 1640s, a thriving seed market had been established in Rhode Island. See Daniel A. Romani Jr., “‘Our English Clover-Grass Sowen Thrives Very Well’: The Importation of English Grasses and Forages into Seventeenth-Century New England,” in ''Plants and People: The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife'', Annual Proceedings, 1995, ed. Peter Benes (Boston: Boston University Press, 1996), 25–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJCQ95SU/ view on Zotero]. While the presence of grass seed does not indicate a similarly early practice of planting lawns, many of the same cultivars were used in the descriptions of American lawns in the last third of the 18th century.</ref> George Washington mentions planting his lawn with “English grass Seeds” in 1785. Correspondence between Charles Carroll (of Annapolis) and his son reveals the planning and labor involved in planting a lawn: "Severall Small Boys & Girls Have been employed. . . in picking English grass & white Clover seed. Ye 1st was allmost all shed, of ye latter I think I shall send you enough. . . In levelling yr ground I hope you have been Carefull to preserve ye top Soil & to lay it on again, Sowe yr Clover seed when ye Soil is moist, Rake it & when pretty dry Role it with yr Garden Roler is not too Heavy."<ref>Charles Carroll (of Annapolis) to Charles Carroll of Carrollton, August 16, 1771. Maryland Historical Society, Carroll Papers, MS 206.</ref>

[[File:0317.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Russell Birch, ''Montebello—The [[Seat]] of General Smith'', c. 1808.]]
[[File:0083.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sedgeley'', c. 1799.]]
While turf was most likely cultivated in some fashion during colonial times, it was not until the last quarter of the 18th century that garden descriptions and other landscape writing registered the common practice of planting lawns, particularly among the larger gardens of the colonial elite.<ref>Virginia Scott Jenkins, ''The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession'' (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IKMBW6W7 view on Zotero], and Therese O’Malley, “The Lawn in Early American Landscape and Garden Design,” in ''The American Lawn'', ed. Georges Teyssot (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 64–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DC7N8IZS view on Zotero].</ref> Lawns continued to grow in popularity in America, and by the mid-19th century they were firmly established as a signature of the prosperous American homeowner’s landscape. These lawns became a stage for the social dramas of leisure and sport, depicted at White Sulphur Springs in Virginia, Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey [Fig. 2], and New Haven Green in Connecticut.<ref>In contrast to Jenkins’s interpretation, which argues that the importance of the lawn began with the development of American suburbs in the mid-19th century and culminated in the mid-20th century, the lawn was a significant element of American landscape design in the 18th and early 19th centuries as well. See Jenkins 1994, 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IKMBW6W7 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2223.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Karl Bodmer, ''Point Breeze,'' 1832.]]
[[File:0088.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "[[View]] to the North from the Lawn at [[Mount Vernon]]", 1796.]]
Praising the merits of turf had a long tradition in treatise writing. Batty Langley (1728) included several unadorned “[[parterre]]s of grass” in his designs, noting that “the Grandeur of those beautiful Carpets consists in their native Plainness” [Fig. 3]. Treatises for American audiences continued to offer instructions for maintaining lush, green lawns and recommended frequent scything or mowing, sweeping, and rolling, while acknowledging the limitations of the often hotter and dryer American climate.

[[File:1975.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, James Smillie (artist), “[[View]] from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.]]
[[File:1678.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, ''Friends Almshouse, Walnut Street, Philadelphia'', c. 1848.]]
The qualities praised in the didactic sources in terms of color and texture were reflected in representations of the American lawn in both verbal and visual descriptions. The smooth, green plane provided a pleasing setting for [[view]]s of a house, as suggested by Margaret Bayard Smith’s 1828 description of James Madison’s Montpelier in Virginia, and by house portraits by such artists as [[Charles Fraser]] [Fig. 4], William Russell Birch [Fig. 5], and [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] [Fig. 6]. Distant views, such as Karl Bodmer’s painting of Point Breeze [Fig. 7], capitalized upon the effect of a house surrounded by an unobstructed lawn—the centerpiece of the estate presented like a jewel mounted on a swath of green velvet. In a similar manner, the unbroken plane of a green lawn provided a foreground for [[view]]s from a main house. This idea was exemplified by several descriptions of [[Monticello]], [[Mount Vernon]], and [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] seat, [[The Woodlands]], near Philadelphia, and was depicted in paintings, such as [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]] view from [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 8] and a view of the [[picturesque]] Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, by James Smillie [Fig. 9]. This foreground effect of the lawn was further enhanced by planting trees at its edge in a diverging or undulating pattern, drawing the viewer’s attention outward, thus enhancing the distant [[view]] and accentuating the size of the lawn.

[[File:2262.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.]]
[[File:0123.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.]]
The appearance of an open lawn, freely blending with the landscape beyond, was an essential aspect of the “[[modern style]]” of English [[park]]s and of their American emulations. This effect was to be achieved, where possible, with the appearance of minimal human intervention. One technique was the use of the [[ha-ha]], or, later, the wire [[fence]], which provided a measure of protection against wildlife without interrupting the effect of a continuous transition from the house and lawn to the surrounding countryside. Writers and artists alike admired the contrast of the lawn, “smooth as velvet,” with the irregular, shadowy outline of trees, which helped to create the contrast and diversity espoused by advocates of the natural and [[picturesque]] styles. The disposition of groups of trees and shrubs suggested by John Abercrombie (1817) presented the lawn as a space through which one wandered, over which one’s gaze was carried to distant [[vista]]s, and on which animals grazed.<ref>While images of landscape gardens often included sheep and cattle reclining or grazing on lawns in classic pastoral repose, we have only two references that address the symbiotic utility of lawns or greenswards for grazing livestock.</ref> The principle was one that [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] espoused in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) in his designs for residential gardens. Despite the emphasis in treatise texts on the use of broad, sweeping lawns in large-scale [[plantation]] and estate gardens, lawns were also important design elements in small, enclosed spaces, such as the Friends Almshouse in Philadelphia [Fig. 10]. In numerous examples dating from the 18th and 19th centuries, lawns were enclosed with either a screen of trees or a barrier of [[Fence|fencing]], [[wall]]s, or [[hedge]]s.<ref>Tom Williamson has pointed out a similar continuity of enclosed, often geometrically regular gardens near the house even after the construction of large, naturalistic landscape gardens on the same estate. See Tom Williamson, ''Polite Landscapes: Gardens and Society in Eighteenth-Century England'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 69–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2VTUQM87 view on Zotero].</ref> Sometimes these enclosures were necessitated by space constraints, as seen, for example, in the anonymous painting of Col. George Boyd’s seat in Portsmouth, New Hampshire [Fig. 11], and, at times, by the desire to separate the lawn from other parts of the garden or work areas, as in Rebecca Couch’s painting of a Connecticut house [Fig. 12] (see [[Yard]]). Even in small lots, however, garden periodicals and treatises encouraged the juxtaposition of lawn and trees, [[bed]]s, or [[shrub]]s to give the illusion of greater depth and to diversify the space [Fig. 13].

[[File:0058.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.]]
[[File:0546.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793.]]
While the pursuit of the [[picturesque]] landscape continued through the mid-19th century (with proponents such as [[Bernard M’Mahon]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]), another current of garden design was less concerned with mimicking the irregularity of nature than with the “clean unbroken line.” Promoted by British writers, such as Humphry Repton (1803) and [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826), and by American writers, such as Thomas Bridgeman (1832) and James E. Teschemacher (1835), the lawn was praised as a setting for variety within the garden, whether its carpet-like surface was cut into by the regular forms of [[walk]]s and flower [[bed]]s, or embellished with furniture, benches, [[arbor]]s, and [[Statue|statuary]]. In contrast to qualities of diversity and irregularity, the frequent use of adjectives such as “polish,” “neatness,” and “precision” conveyed the effect of the lawn as a kind of canvas into which regular elements were cut or placed. In addition to their visual significance in American landscape design, lawns held social and symbolic significance. In both the 18th and 19th centuries, the lawn was perceived to be a sign of improved or “cultivated” space. For example, John Lambert in his 1816 account of the Hudson River area, found pleasure in the contrast between uncultivated [[wood]]s and [[copse]]s and cultivated lawns and [[meadow]]s. In domestic residences, the green lushness sought after by admirers of the lawn was a mark of competence, investment, and, as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] phrased it, “a universal passport to admiration.” Visitors often took note of a lawn’s color as a sign of its condition and a reflection of its owner’s care: Margaret Bayard Smith (1828) reported that the lawn at Montpelier was “green as in spring,” while David Bailie Warden (1816) admired the “beautiful verdure” of Analostan Island, Gen. John Mason’s summer house in Washington, DC. Turfing one’s grounds not only indicated an investment in the labor of planting and maintaining a lawn, but also signaled that one had the luxury of devoting time and space to something other than utilitarian [[kitchen garden]]s or [[orchard]]s. Numerous portraits, such as that of Levin Winder [Fig. 14], depicted the sitter’s properties, including lawns expressive of status and wealth.

In addition to the lawn’s role as a marker of status, descriptions, such as that by Frederick Douglass of Col. Edward Lloyd’s [[Wye House]] in Talbot County, Maryland (1825), as a scene of “Eden-like beauty,” reflected the broader rhetoric of America as the new paradise with its bountiful, limitless space untainted by the crowding and evils of the Old World. In seeming contradiction, the lawn was also read as a sign of having an affinity with the vast estates and pleasure [[park]]s of civilized Europe. Several writers describing American residences noted that lawn and tree groupings, even in modest scale, alluded to the great landscape gardens of English manor houses that were known through the descriptions and tours in such works as Thomas Whately’s ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770).<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref> Both Douglass at [[Wye House]] and C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey (1841) at William Demming’s residence, Presque Isle, in Fishkill, New York, described in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing's]] ''Magazine of Horticulture'', linked the American lawn to English [[park]]s.

In addition, in the second half of the 18th century the lawn referred to the agrarian roots of the new republic and to the classical villas, on which many of the planter gentry modeled their estates.<ref>William A. Brogden, “The Ferme Ornée and Changing Attitudes to Agricultural Improvement,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (January 1983): 39–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2JXRQB64 view on Zotero]; James S. Ackerman, The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EC879QB view on Zotero], see especially chapters 8 and 10 about Jefferson and Downing.</ref> In short, the lawn was equated with the land itself. Even a small patch of green in a muddy, smelly town alluded to a [[plantation]] or country house, presumed or real. Granted, the rhetoric of the lawn as the vestigial rural [[seat]] of the natural legislator was one shared by an elite few, but it was a symbol of an ideology that shaped much of the political philosophy of the revolutionary and early national period. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], in ''Notes on the State of Virginia'' (1784), echoed French Physiocratic philosophers in his presentation of the land as the only true and moral source of wealth. J.-P. Brissot de Warville wrote upon visiting [[Mount Vernon]] in 1788 that George Washington had often been “compared to Cincinnatus: the comparison is doubtless just. This celebrated General is nothing more at present than a good farmer.”<ref>J.-P. Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America'', ed. Durand Echeverria, trans. Mara Soceanu Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964), 428–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero].</ref> America’s 18th-century landed gentry was not only versed in the arts of botany, geometry, astronomy, classics, and music, but also in farming their own land. The smooth spread of lawn, even at a modest scale surrounding an urban dwelling, could be read as a badge of allegiance to that agrarian ideal.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Gordon, Lord Adam, May 1765, describing a house in Annapolis, MD (quoted in Mereness 1916: 408)<ref>Newton Dennison Mereness, ed., ''Travels in the American Colonies'' (New York: Macmillan, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8CGKJV8S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a house which was built for a Governour. . . but never was finished. . . the Situation of it most Elegant, Standing on an agreeable rising ground, in a beautiful '''Lawn''', commanding the [[view]] of the Town.”

[[File:0342.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787–92.]]
*Washington, George, October 6, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:202)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', eds. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The appearances of the day, and the impracticability of giving, on acct. of the clammyness of the Earth, an even face to any more of my '''lawn''', until the grd. should get dryer, of which there is no immediate [[prospect]], I sowed what was levelled & smoothed of it, with English grass Seeds; and as soon as the top was so dry, as not to stick to the Roller, I rolled & cross rolled it; first with a light wooden roller; and then with a heavy wooden roller; with a [[view]] of compressing the Ground— smoothing the Surfice of it & to bury the Seeds.” [Fig. 15]

*Anonymous, January 21, 1790, describing in the ''Virginia Herald and Fredericksburg Advertiser'' a property for sale in Orange County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“To be sold, The place where I reside in Orange County, lying on the great mountain road, 30 miles from Fredericksburg. . . a '''lawn''' of 10 acres surrounding the dwelling houses.”

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Marshall Plantation, on the San Juan River, FL (1928: 84)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house was situated on an [[eminence]], about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. . . On the other side was a spacious garden, occupying a regular [[slope]] of ground down to the water; and a pleasant '''lawn''' lay between.”

*Bentley, William, April 21, 1791, describing a house and garden in Newbury, MA (1962: 1:249)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[74] 21. . . . Hon. Mr Jackson shewed me his elegant mansion House. It is situate in the upper Street above the Church towards Amsbury ferry. It has a spacious '''lawn''' behind it with a gradual descent, & is near the house of John Tracey. The banks [[slope]] from the House.”

*Tucker, Saint George, 1793, describing a passage of landscape in his “Almanack” (quoted in Martin 1991: 222, n39)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“How sweet is the landscape before us!—the distant mountains mingle with the azure, and all between is the finest penciling of nature. The verdant '''lawn''', the tufted grove, the dusky tower, the hanging [[wood]], the winding stream and tumbling [[waterfall|water fall]], compose the lovely picture before you.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing a fictional character’s home (1798: 58–59)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“One sunny afternoon, I was standing in the door of my house, when I marked a person passing close to the edge of the bank that was in front. . .
:“such figures were seldom seen by me, except on the road or field. This '''lawn''' was only traversed by men whose views were directed to the pleasures of the [[walk]], or the grandeur of the scenery.”

[[File:0340.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]], March 13, 1803.]]
*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1799: 53)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front, the breadth of the whole building, is a '''lawn''' with a gravel [[walk]] round it, planted with trees, and separated by [[hedge]]s on either side from the farm [[yard]] and garden. As for the garden, it wears exactly the appearance of a [[nursery]], and with every thing about the place indicates that more attention is paid to profit than to pleasure. The ground in the rear of the house is also laid out in a '''lawn''', and the declivity of the [[Mount]], towards the water, in a [[deer park]].” [Fig. 16]

*Codman, Dr. John, July 18, 1800, in a letter to Sarah Codman, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection, box 118, folder 1,923.)
:“Mrs. Gore and myself have been planning improvements at Lincoln, she says it is the handsomest place in America and might be made a l’anglaise with ease. I like her plan that the fore-[[yard]] should be thrown down into a '''lawn''' that carriages may drive to the front door.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, in a letter to his daughter, Mrs. Torrey, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1987: 2:145)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We then walked over the [[pleasure ground]]s in front and a little back of the house. It is formed into [[walk]]s, in every direction, with [[border]]s of flowering [[shrub]]s and trees. Between are '''lawns''' of green grass, frequently mowed to make them convenient for walking, and at different distances numerous copse of native trees, interspersed with artificial [[grove]]s, which are set with trees collected from all parts of the world.”

[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing improvements for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground between the upper and lower roundabouts to be laid out in '''lawns''' & clumps of trees, the '''lawns''' opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.” [Fig. 17]

[[File:0304.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, William Russell Birch, “[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]] the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> W.<sup>m</sup> Hamilton Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup>,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 14.]]
*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[wood]]s, '''lawn''' & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables; with a [[Yard]] between the house, stables, '''lawn''' of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]].
: The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-'''lawn''' from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . The [[park]] '''lawn''' is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. . .
:“The <u>Garden</u> consists of a large verdant '''lawn''' surrounded by a belt of [[walk]], & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. . .
:“The <u>Stable [[yard|Yard]]</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the '''Lawn''', & the Garden. . . This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer walls <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] '''lawn'''.” [Fig. 18]

*Ticknor, George, 1815, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville (quoted in Jones 1957: 3–4)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He [ [[Thomas Jefferson]] ] lives on a mountain. . . We were obliged to wind two thirds round its sides before we reached the artificial '''lawn''' on which the house stands. . . The '''lawn''' on the top, as I hinted, was artificially formed by cutting down the peak of the height. In its centre, and facing the southeast, [[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. Jefferson]] has placed his house.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing the Hudson River Valley, NY (1816: 2:45)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The cultivated parts are intersected with small [[wood]]s, [[coppices]], and [[clump]]s of trees, which add much to the diversity of the scenery, and form a pleasing contrast to '''lawns''', [[meadow]]s, and cornfields.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing New York, NY (1816: 2:57)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“At the commencement of the Broadway, near the Battery, stands the old Government-house, now converted into offices for the customs. Before it is a small '''lawn''' railed in, and in the centre is a stone pedestal, upon which formerly stood a leaden [[statue]] of George the Third.”

*Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing [[Berkeley Springs]], VA (later WV) (1817: 1:196)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols. (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The visiters live in cabins built of square logs, whitewashed, and disposed in a range just on the skirts of a little '''lawn''', so that they have all the air of a rural village.”

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.]]
*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 106)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and in the midst, there is a '''lawn''' covered with a beautiful verdure.” [Fig. 19]

*Forman, Martha Ogle, 1818, 1820, and 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 60, 102, 159)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[24 April 1818] Ramsey. . . has erected on the '''lawn''' a handsome Cage for the Hawk Pen, he has also made for us a Chicken, a duck, a Turkey, and a goose Coop. . . .
:“[11 May 1820]. . . Mowed our '''lawn''', which looks beautiful. . .
:“[8 May 1823] Rachel finished whitewashing the garden poles, the [[Pigeon house]] and the [[fence]] round the '''lawn'''.”

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To the west, the '''lawn''' rises gradually from the water, until it reaches the [[portico]] of the house, near the brow of the mountain, beyond which, the western valley is again seen.” [Fig. 20]

[[File:0079.jpg|thumb|Fig. 21, Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.]]
*Bacon, Edmund, 1825, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ed., ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were [[walk]]s, and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful '''lawn''' of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.” [Fig. 21]

*Douglass, Frederick, 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (1855; repr., 1987: 47)<ref>Frederick Douglass, ''My Bondage and My Freedom'', ed. William L. Andrews (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q764CVCK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The carriage entrance to the house was a large [[gate]], more than a quarter of a mile distant from it; the intermediate space was a beautiful '''lawn''', very neatly trimmed, and watched with the greatest care. It was dotted thickly over with delightful trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowers. The road, or lane, from the [[gate]] to the great house, was richly paved with white pebbles from the beach, and, in its course, formed a complete circle around the beautiful '''lawn'''. Carriages going in and retiring from the great house, made the circuit of the '''lawn''', and their passengers were permitted to behold a scene of almost Eden-like beauty. Outside this select inclosure, were [[park]]s, where—as about the residences of the English nobility—rabbits, deer, and other wild game, might be seen, peering and playing about, with none to molest them or make them afraid.”

[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 22, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.]]
*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 2, 1828, in a letter to Mrs. Boyd, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (1906: 225)<ref name="Bayard Smith">Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A vast wide '''lawn''' separates the two rows of [[pavillion]]s and dormitories.” [Fig. 22]

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 17, 1828, in a letter to Mrs. Boyd, describing Montpelier, [[plantation]] of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1906: 233)<ref name="Bayard Smith"></ref>
:“We were at first conducted into the Drawing room, which opens on the back [[Portico]] and thus commands a [[view]] through the whole house, which is surrounded with an extensive '''lawn''', as green as in spring; the '''lawn''' is enclosed with fine trees, chiefly forest, but interspersed with weeping willows and other ornamental trees, all of most luxuriant growth and vivid verdure. It was a beautiful scene!”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:43)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MBMCV4N6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the farther side of the river is a gentleman’s [[seat]], the beautiful '''lawns''' of which [[slope]] to the water’s edge, and groups of weeping-willows and other trees throw their shadows on the stream. The works themselves are enclosed in a simple but very handsome building of freestone. . . behind the building, and divided from it only by a '''lawn''', rises a lofty [[wall]] of solid lime-stone rock, which has, at one or two points, been cut into, for the passage of the water into the noble reservoir above.”

*Mason, Gen. John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive '''lawn''' kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious avenue.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a [[piazza]] on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful '''lawn''' towards the turnpike from New York to Albany. . . The forest trees which surround the domicile are identically the natives which are found in our forest; some of the oaks are a century in age, and all are large and so grouped and intermingled over the '''lawn''', as to present at every step the most fantastic views that can attract the pencil of the artist.”

*Latrobe, John H. B., August 1832, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Semmes 1917: 247)<ref name="Semmes">John E. Semmes, ''John H. B. Latrobe and His Times, 1803–1891'' (Baltimore, MD: Norman, Remington, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7D2VIIH3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are four rows of buildings, composed of one story colonnades, under which are the student’s rooms; and at equal distances are the two inner rows and the professors’ houses two stories in height, with porticos of various architecture. At the upper side of the '''lawn''' is the rotunda, containing the library, a beautiful room.”

[[File:1631.jpg|thumb|Fig. 23, John H. B. Latrobe, Lawn of the White Sulphur, 1835.]]
*Latrobe, John H. B., August 1832, describing White Sulphur Springs, VA (quoted in Semmes 1917: 252)<ref name="Semmes"></ref>
:“Cottages hidden in the dark green foliage, long rows of white homes of all descriptions scattered here and there, and as we came into the precints, there on the right was the ascending '''lawn''' of the freshest verdure, surrounding with its [[picturesque]] cabins, with vehicles of all sorts under its trees. Gay groups laughing and enjoying the afternoon were assembled on the '''lawn'''. Here a gay party of equestrians careering on their return from their evening ride, here another prancing pellmell, here were fencers, here a group starting greyhounds for a race, here a number of serious smokers on one side by themselves, here a whole bevy of children with their whoop and hallo. Servants were hurrying to and fro. The quoit was flying in the air, and the roll of the nine pin ally came upon the ear with the crash and clatter of skittles.” [Fig. 23]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1:235–36)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“we proceeded to the sugar-house or ''sucrérie'', through a '''lawn''' which nearly surrounded the ornamental grounds about the house, studded here and there with lofty trees, which the good taste of the original proprietor of the domain had left standing in their forest majesty. From this rich green sward, on which two or three fine saddle-horses were grazing, we passed through a turnstile into a less lovely, but more domestic enclosure.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, MA (1838: 2:182–83)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower-garden]], its '''lawn''', with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, describing Landscape Gardening (''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3: 130)<ref>Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine, edited by Joseph Breck, (April 1, 1837), 130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/S2AHUAIF view on Zotero].</ref>
:"Few are able to devote much ground or much expense in extensive ornamental [[plantation]]; but all may decorate the immediate vicinity of their residencies. The house should be situated at some distance from the road, which distance should be greater or less according as the house is large or small, and it should be on a moderate rise of ground. There should be a spacious open '''lawn''' or grass ground in front, which should be unoccupied by any objects except an occasional small groups of trees. . . If it is situated on an [[eminence]], the back as well as front view may be exhibited to great advantage. . ."

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residence of Horace Binney, Burlington, NJ (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[flower garden]] is nearly a [[square]], and is laid out with one main circular [[walk]], running round the whole, and a [[border]] for flowers on each side; the centre forming a '''lawn''' scattered over with several large fruit trees.”

*MacDonald, James, October 1839, describing the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86)<ref name="Hawkins">Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the [[view]], the extent of the grounds, the various [[avenue]]s gracefully winding through so large a '''lawn'''; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of [[landscape gardening]].”

*Buckingham, James Silk, April 1840, describing the garden of Father George Rapp, Economy, PA (1842: 2:227)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''The Eastern and Western States of America'', 3 vols. (London: Fisher, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FFXTKXCI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [the garden] covered about an acre and half of ground, and was neatly laid out in '''lawns''', [[arbour]]s, and flower-[[bed]]s, with two prettily ornamented open octagonal [[arcade]]s, each supporting a circular dome over a [[fountain]].”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, Philadelphia, PA (1841: 1:400–401)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[greenhouse]]s, containing a handsome collection of exotic plants, together with the ornamental '''lawns''' in front and rear of the house, are under the care of a regular gardener. The attention paid to neatness, and even ornament, in the exterior and interior of the house, gives to the whole an air of elegance seldom equalled in establishments of this nature.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the United States Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127–28)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On each side of the centre [[avenue]]s rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass '''lawns''' which intervene between the centre and outer [[walk]]s, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrub]]s, dahlias, and other flowers.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.,” describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the '''lawn''', we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . .
:“Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the '''lawn''' only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the walks filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old [[picturesque]] places of England.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing Highland Place, estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“3. '''Lawn'''; which descends very gradually to the [[nursery]] grounds in front. The piece being too narrow to admit of greater width, the '''lawn''' was lengthened to have the appearance of more breadth of surface. This should be borne in mind by those whose grounds are so situated as to prevent their obtaining the requisite width. There is another object which should be taken into consideration, when forming a '''lawn''' in front of a house situated on the bank of a river, like [[A. J. Downing|Mr. Downing's]], and commanding such fine views: the distant scenery would be hid by the extent of trees which would intervene, unless very judiciously managed.”

*Blair, Francis P., July 1, 1843, describing Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)
:“On one side of the '''lawn''' leading to the house, is the garden which embosoms the monument which covers the grave of Mrs. Jackson. . . On the other side of the '''lawn''' is the [[orchard]]; and in front is a large woodland (whose extent cannot be seen) for the most part of the tall tulip poplars, are left almost in a state of native wildness.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private [[walk]]. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0356.jpg|thumb|Fig. 24, Anonymous, “The Manor of Livingston,” ed. [[A. J. Downing]], ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): pl. opp. 201, fig. 55.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, describing Livingston Manor, seat of Mary Livingston, on the Hudson River, NY, and Camac Cottage, near Philadelphia (''Horticulturist'' 1: 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are two residences in this country which so far surpass all others in the perfection of their '''lawns''', that we hope to be pardoned for holding them up to commendation. . .
:“The '''lawn''' at the Livingston Manor is very extensive and [[park]]-like—certainly the largest well-kept '''lawn''' in America, and we wish all our readers who are skeptical regarding an American '''lawn''', could see and feel its many excellent perfections. They would only be still more surprised when they were told how few men keep so large a surface in the highest order. [Fig. 24]
:“The Camac Cottage is a gem of neatness and high keeping. We hope Pennsylvanians at least, who, we think, have perhaps our best '''lawn''' climate, will not fail to profit by so admirable an example as they will find there, of what SPENSER quaintly and prettily calls ‘''the grassie ground''.’”

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George’s County, MD (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, “Visit to Riversdale,” ''American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4 (August 1848): 52–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On either front is an ample '''lawn''' with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, [[parterre]]s, [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation.”

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia (''Horticulturist'' 3: 411)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The elegant mansion is surrounded with a spacious '''lawn''', kept in a masterly style; and the [[pleasure-ground]]s are enclosed by a light iron [[fence]], about half a mile in length, and studded with many varieties of hardy trees, backed by a natural piece of the most majestic [[wood]]s,—giving a fine sylvan character to the place.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), December 1849, describing Oatlands, residence of D. P. Manice, Hempstead, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 529–31)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Oatlands, Hempstead, L.I., N.Y., the Residence of D. F. Manice, Esq.”, ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 12 (December 1849): 529–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIRK5R8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house is a handsome building, in a kind of castellated gothic, standing about fifty feet from the road, with the [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse]], and [[flower garden]] on the left,—the [[kitchen garden]] and forcing-houses on the right,—and the '''lawn''' and [[pleasure ground]], in the rear of the house, separating it from the [[park]]. . .
:“we continued on to the '''lawn''', where we found much of interest in the various specimens of trees and [[shrub]]s.”

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion-house itself. . . was placed at the extreme side of a large level or '''lawn''', covered with green sward, extending to a considerable distance in front, and declining on the left side as you entered, and in the rear of the house to the low grounds of the Appomattox, a mile off. In front and over the neighborhood road which skirted the '''lawn''', was situated the garden. . . The mansion. . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar. . . and this row reached to another double row or [[avenue]] which skirted one side of the '''lawn''', dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables. The '''lawn''' in front was closed in by a [[fence]] with a small [[gate]] in the middle and a large one on either extremity, one opposite the [[avenue]] of poplars, and the other at the end of the carriageway which swept around it.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front of this house is a fine open '''lawn''', of an acre or more, dotted with [[clump]]s of flowering plants, and single trees of the rarer species, more particularly of the new weeping trees and coniferae. This '''lawn''' is encircled by a broad [[walk]], on the '''lawn''' side of which are circular [[bed]]s of the choicest summer blooming plants. I did not much like this multitude of circular [[bed]]s, but it is the general style throughout the country.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s of Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The pleasing natural undulations of surface, where they occur, I propose to retain, instead of expending money in reducing them to a level. The surface of the [[Park]]s, generally, should be kept in grass or '''lawn''', and mown by the ''mowing machine'' used in England, by which, with a man and horse, the labor of six men can be done in one day.”

*Jones, C. C., 5 June 1851, describing Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (1851; repr. 1976: 175)<ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. Robert Manson Myers (1851; repr., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An iron [[gate]] let us into the '''lawn''' immediately before the mansion; nor had we in our approach seen anything more than the top of a chimney or the glimpse of a [[wall]] or [[pillar]]; nor did we see anything now, so embosomed is it in trees, and so full of small cedars and [[shrubbery]] is the '''lawn'''. The road winds around an enclosed [[plat]] in shape resembling a guitar, shut in by low white posts connected by a small rope with one another. The grass in this lot was much grown, and we observed that the mower had commenced to smooth it off with his scythe.”

[[File:1001.jpg|thumb|Fig. 25, Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” describing Mount Fordham, seat of Lewis G. Morris, New York, NY (''Horticulturist'' 6: 372)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 372–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RVU7GZDK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Around the house at Mount Fordham, extends on all sides a kind of [[meadow]]-'''lawn''', enclosed and divided by pretty wire [[fence]]s of various patterns. This '''lawn''' is kept short by the grazing of improved dairy stock, and we were glad to see successfully practiced what we have been commending so strongly of late to our readers, as the most available point of English country places, that we saw on the other side of the Atlantic—that is the maintenance of a neat and handsome '''lawn''' about a country house, not only without the expense of mowing, but with united profit and beauty—the profit of grazing the grass and the beauty—the real pastoral beauty—of fine cattle, soft turf, and pleasant groups of trees, as the home landscape of our country places generally. By adopting this course, the hay-field aspect of many so-called gentlemen’s country-[[seat]]s, would disappear, and a more complete and satisfactory '''lawn''' or [[park]] be acquired, with no loss of money, and the attainment of a higher species of keeping to one’s country home. [Fig. 25]

===Citations===

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718: 2:200)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . .'', 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If the [[Wood]] is thin, ‘tis there one may clear it quite away, and make open '''Lawns'''. And if the [[Wood]] be an [[Eminence]], then all the small Stuff on the Outside ought to be clear’d away, to open the distant [[Prospect]], if it deserve it; but if it be an unsightly, barren [[Prospect]], then let the [[Wood]] remain to blind it.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardenin''g (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . .
:“I. THAT the grand Front of a Building lie open upon an elegant '''Lawn''' or Plain of Grass, adorn’d with beautiful [[Statue]]s, (of which hereafter in their Place,) terminated on its Sides with open [[Grove]]s. . .
:“VI. That no [[Border]]s be made, or Scroll-Work cut, in any such '''Lawn''' or plain [[Parterre]]; for the Grandeur of those beautiful Carpets consists in their native Plainness. . .
:“XXX. Open '''Lawns''' should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.”

*Ranlett, William H., describing Frances Palmer’s work (Ranlett 1847 1:25)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect: A Series of Original Designs, for Domestic and Ornametnal Cottages and Villas, Connected with Landscape Gardening, Adapted to the United States. . .'' (New York: Dewitt & Davenport, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K98PVCSJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:PLATE 18 - Ground plot, for Design III. and IV., of houses, proposed to be erected near the shore, at Clifton, Staten Island, 100 ft. by 150 each, showing the location of the houses and other buildings, with the [[walk]]s, carriage way, [[shrubbery]]&c., also a stream of water between the '''lawn''' and vegetable garden.

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. . . '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In a fine Garden, the first thing that should present itself to the Sight should be an open '''lawn''' of Grass which is size should be proportionable to the garden; in a large garden it should not be less than six or eight acres. . . The figure of this '''lawn''' need not be regular, and if on the Sides there are trees planted irregularly, by way of an open [[Grove]], some of which may be planted forwarder upon the lawn than the others, whereby the regularity of the '''lawn''' will be broken, it will render it more like nature.”

*Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.)<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[flower-garden]] should be made near the back-front of the house, from whence a descent of six or seven steps will finely embellish the whole. Proper room should be allowed for a '''lawn''' of sufficient extent, which, if it be the first object that strikes the sight, will have a very pleasing effect.”

*Ogilvie, George, 1776, ''Carolina, or The Planter'' (1790; repr., 1986: 67–68)<ref>George Ogilvie, “Carolina; Or, the Planter,” ''Southern Literary Journal'' 18 (1986): 7–82, 102–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QSHZQ4DS view on Zotero].</ref>
::“Here Pales seems with Flora to have strove,
:: To blend the beauties of the '''lawn''' and [[grove]];
:: Till ev’ry season yields its ev’ry flow’r,
:: Pride of the month, or pageant of the hour.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or '''''lawn''''', which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of [[fence]], it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 13, 46)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away [[hedge]]s to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked '''lawn''', before [[plantation]]s are made to give it the appearance of a [[park]]; and where ground is subdivided by [[sunk fence]]s, imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expence of actual confinement. . .
:“In some situations where great masses of [[wood]], and a large expanse of open '''lawn''' prevail, the contrast is too violent, and the mind becomes dissatisfied by the want of unity; we are never well pleased with a composition in natural landscape, unless the [[wood]] and the '''lawn''' are so blended that the eye cannot trace the precise limits of either.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55–57)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE district commonly called the Pleasure, or [[Flower-Garden]], or [[Pleasure-ground]], may be said to comprehend ''all'' ornamental compartments, or divisions of ground, surrounding the mansion; consisting of '''lawns''', [[plantation]]s of trees and [[shrub]]s, flower compartments, [[walk]]s, pieces of water, &c. whether situated wholly within the space generally considered as the ''[[Pleasure-Garden]]'', or extended to the adjacent fields, [[park]]s, or other out-grounds. . .
:“For instance, a grand and spacious open '''lawn''', of grass-ground, is generally first presented immediately to the front of the mansion, or main habitation; sometimes widely extended on both sides, to admit of a greater [[prospect]], &c. and sometimes more contracted towards the habitation; widening gradually outwards, and having each side embellished with [[plantation]]s of [[shrubbery]], [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. in sweeps, curves, and projections, towards the '''lawn'''; with breaks or opens of grass-spaces at intervals, between the different [[plantation]]s; together with serpentine gravel [[walk]]s, winding under the shade of the trees. . .
:“First an open '''lawn''' of grass-ground is extended on one of the principal fronts of the mansion or main house, widening gradually from the house outward, having each side bounded by various [[plantation]]s of trees, [[shrub]]s, and flowers, in [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. exhibited in a variety of rural forms, in moderate concave and convex curves, and projections, to prevent all appearance of a stiff uniformity; introducing between the [[plantation]]s at intervals, breaks or opens of grass-ground, communicating with the '''lawn''' and internal divisions, in some places widely spread, in others more contracted; leaving also tracts for serpentine gravel-[[walk]]s, some winding under the shade of the [[plantation]]s, so conducted as to command [[view]]s of the '''lawn''' and interior divisions occasionally, and at intervals, of the most beautiful parts of the surrounding country.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 473)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The commencement of the '''lawn''' should be wider than the front of the house; and the sides of it should diverge, so that if screens of [[plantation]] leave only a front [[view]], the eye may not feel itself confined.
:“In proportion as the '''lawn''' is extensive or the surface uniform, it requires to be broken by groups of [[shrub]]s and trees. The principle on which variety, and some degree of intricacy, are essential, in the composition of a pleasing scene, may be illustrated by surveying an immense flat meadow.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7262. ''The '''lawn''''', or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending in different directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the [[geometric style]], varied by architectural forms, levels, and [[slope]]s; and in the modern by a [[picturesque]] or painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and throw the '''lawn''' into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the '''lawn''' may embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of [[terrace]]-scenery, and may be separated from the [[park]], or [[park]]-like field, by a light wire [[fence]]; but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a [[terrace]], or some avowedly artificial architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk [[wall]], as a distant separation, will be more dignified and permanent than any iron [[fence]]. The park may come close up to the [[terrace]]-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is considerable.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''LAWN''', ''n''. [W. ''llan'', an open, clear place. It is the same word as land, with an appropriate signification, and coincides with ''plain'', ''planus'', Ir. ''cluain''.]
:“A open space between [[wood]]s, or a plain in a [[park]] or adjoining a noble [[seat]].
:“Betwixt them '''''lawns''''' or level downs, and flocks “Grazing the tender herbs, were interspers’d. Milton.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10 (September 24, 1830): 74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for [[avenue]]s or large '''lawns''', or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . .
:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for '''lawns''' or [[avenue]]s, &c.
:“''Tilia Americana'', the American Lindin, and the ''Tilia Europea'', are both beautiful trees, well calculated for streets or '''lawns'''—the trees grow handsome, and when in flower, the honey bees are much attracted to its sweet, honey-like perfume.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 112)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[Regarding the [[flower garden]]] If there are '''lawns''' or grass [[walk]]s, they should be frequently trimmed, and more frequently mowed and rolled, to prevent the grass from interfering with the flower [[bed]]s, and to give the whole a neat regular carpet-like appearance.”

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 228)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden behind the house may if large be composed of three parts.
:“1st. A grass '''lawn'''.
:“2d. Separate [[bed]]s for distinct flowers.
:“3d. A boundary of ornamental shrubs. . .
:“The '''lawn''' may be formed either by sowing seed. . . this will take, however, two or three years to bring to fine order—therefore the quickest way is to pare turf from a [[meadow]] and lay it down evenly, the pieces close to each other; they will soon join and form a continuous surface. The great beauty of this ornament to the garden consists in having it soft to tread on, and a beautiful bright green color; this can always be effected by mowing frequently. . . After each mowing the '''lawn''' must be neatly swept, and then rolled with a roller of iron, preferable to one of stone. The edges of the [[walk]] should be kept trimmed so as to present a clean unbroken line. . . A '''lawn''' kept in this style is certainly always an object of delight to the eye, and preferable to the finest carpet for the foot—but if not neatly kept it had better be omitted altogether from the garden. The form of '''lawns''' must depend on the extent, the surface, or on individual taste; a few short and simple rules for general forms will be given in a future part of these papers.
:“If extensive, the '''lawn''' may be diversified by [[clump]]s of ornamental trees or if the space be small by single trees.
:“The approach to the house should be by a broad semi-circular [[drive]] intersecting the '''lawns''', and leading by branches to the stables and out buildings, as well as to the [[Flower_garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; this last, if near the house, must be completely concealed, either by [[wall]]s covered with fruit trees, or by [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], and may be preferably laid out in a series of parallelograms.

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s. . . after leaving this paradise of sweets, passing some distance through a thick [[plantation]] of the most ornamental forest trees of America, including the varieties of pine and fir, then suddenly emerging on the beautiful expanse of grass '''lawn''' in front; all this, owing to the natural advantages of the country surrounding Boston, may be accomplished at a comparatively trifling expense and loss of time.”

*Sayers, Edward, February 1838, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations: Laying out Approaches and Planting Shrubberies” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 62)<ref>Edward Sayers, “On Laying Out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (February 1838): 62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8IN647Z4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In such grounds the front part next to the road, may be appropriated to a grass [[plot]] or '''''lawn''''', planted with a few ornamental trees, as the Balsam Fir, Mountain Ash, and the like, which gives a relief to the carriage road that will pass close to the front door, and have an appearance of easy access to and from the house to the carriage.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, “A Chapter on Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 202, 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In short, the ideal of grass is a '''''lawn''''', which is, to a [[meadow]], what ‘Bishop’s '''lawn'''’ is to homespun Irish linen.
:“With such a '''lawn''', and large and massive trees, one has indeed the most enduring sources of beauty in a country residence. Perpetual neatness, freshness and verdure in the one; ever expanding beauty, variety and grandeur in the other—what more does a reasonable man desire of the beautiful about him in the country? . . .
:“After your '''lawn''' is once fairly established, there are but two secrets in keeping it perfect— frequent mowing and rolling. Without the first, it will soon degenerate into a coarse [[meadow]]; the latter will render it firmer, closer, shorter, and finer every time it is repeated. . .
:“There are but few good '''lawns''' yet in America; but we have great pleasure in observing that they are rapidly multiplying. Though it may seem a heavy tax to some, yet no expenditure in ornamental gardening is, to our mind, productive of so much beauty as that incurred in producing a well kept '''lawn'''. Without this feature, no place, however great its architectural beauties, its charms of scenery, or its collections of flowers and [[shrub]]s, can be said to deserve consideration in point of [[landscape gardening]]; and with it the humble cottage grounds will possess a charm which is, among [[pleasure ground]]s, what a refined and graceful manner is in society—an universal passport to admiration.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 343–44)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''LAWN''' is a surface of turf in the vicinity of the house, requiring to be kept smooth by the regular application of the roller and scythe. When first constructed, after the ground has been dug over as level as may be, it must be rolled, the hollows filled up, and this repeated until a level surface of earth is obtained. It must then be slightly pointed over with a fork, and the turf laid, or the grass seed sown. See ''Turfing''.”

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 26, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/design%20for%20a%20small%20flower%20garden view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, [[J. C. Loudon|Mr. LOUDON]]. It is supposed to be formed in a plot of smooth level '''lawn''', and to be surrounded by a boundary [[walk]], which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering [[shrub]]s. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 26]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 75, 343, 525–27)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the '''lawn''' may be less frequently mown, the edges of the [[walk]]s less carefully trimmed, where the [[Picturesque]] prevails; while in portions more removed from the house, the [[walk]]s may sometimes sink into a mere footpath without gravel, and the '''lawn''' change into the forest glade or [[meadow]]. . .
:“A wide-spread '''lawn''', on the contrary, where no boundaries are conspicuous, conveys an impression of ample extent and space for enjoyment. . .
:“As a '''lawn''' is the ''ground-work'' of a landscape garden. . . “The unrivalled beauty of the ‘velvet '''lawns'''’ of England has passed into a proverb. This is undoubtedly owing, in some measure, to their superior care and keeping, but mainly to the highly favorable climate of that moist and sea-girt land. . .
:“Our climate, however, is in the middle states one of too much heat and brilliancy of sun, to allow us to keep our '''lawns''' in the best condition without considerable care. . .
:“the whole beauty of a '''lawn''' depends on ''frequent mowing''. . .
:“We can already, especially in the finer places on the Hudson, and about Boston, boast of many finely kept '''lawns''', and we hope every day, as the better class of country residences increases, to see this indispensable feature in tasteful grounds becoming better understood and more universal.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The rich gentleman may have his broad domain finely diversified with [[wood]] lots, open fields, deep ravines, creeks, [[cataract]]s, [[canal]]s, [[rock work]]s, fancy or [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s, etc.; and the wide extended '''lawn''', with its dark green sod, which surrounds his mansion, may be beautifully interspersed with winding [[walk]]s and deciduous evergreen trees.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1850, “How to Arrange Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 395)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Arrange Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 9 (March 1850): 393–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7HNUGQK2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Be that as it may, the ground-work of this part [the ornamental portion of a country place] should, in our judgment, always be '''LAWN'''. There is in the country no object which at all seasons and times gives the constant satisfaction of the green turf of a nicely kept '''lawn'''. If your place is large, so much larger and broader is the good effect of the '''lawn''', as it stretches away, over gentle undulations, alternately smiling and looking serious, in the play of sunshine and shade that rests upon it. If it is small—a mere bit of green turf before your door— then it forms the best and most becoming setting to the small [[bed]]s and masses of everblooming roses, verbenas, and gay annuals, with which you embroider it, like a carpet.
:“'''Lawn''', there must be, to give any refreshment to the spirits of man in our country places; for nothing is so intolerable to the eye as great [[flower-garden]]s of parched earth, lying half baked in the meridian sun of an American summer. And though no nation under the sun may have such '''lawns''' as the British, because Britain lies in the lap of the sea, with a climate always more or less humid, yet green and pleasant lawns most persons may have in the northern states, who make the soil ''deep'' and keep the grass well mown.”

*Webster, Wm., October 1850, “Laying Out and Planting Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 5: 163)<ref>Wm. Webster, “Laying Out and Planting Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 5, no. 4 (October 1850): 162–64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJH842N7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And now for the greatest point of attraction—the lawn. What can be more beautiful than a well kept '''lawn''', with its drooping trees, and [[bed]]s of flowers, and many other attractions? No matter however beautiful a place may appear, it is still incomplete without its due proportion of grass; in fact, a well kept '''lawn''' lends a charm to all surrounding objects, and gives effect to the whole. In the formation of '''lawns''', I would recommend the laying down of turf, in preference to seeding one. When a '''lawn''' is sown, it takes a great length of time to get a good turf; whereas, by laying one down, a fine even surface is obtained at once, and a beautiful verdure. Fancy figures may also be cut around the edges, or in different parts of the '''lawn''', for the planting of flowers in masses, such as Verbenas, Petunias, Fuchsias, and the like. Drooping trees should also be planted in different parts of the '''lawn''' singly; the beauties of which, I need not here descant upon, as it has already been so ably done by Mr. BARRY, in the last number of this journal. All close [[fence]]s, or any unsightly objects, should be hid by trees, or covered with climbing plants or creepers.”

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref name="Hawkins"></ref>
:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated '''lawns'''—pleasant [[walk]]s amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [''sic''] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 31–32)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“No [[flower-garden]] can be complete without some grass. There are but very few, however, who can afford the luxury of an extensive grass '''lawn'''; but every one wishes for a few rods, at least, about the house; this may lay between the house and garden. When there is but a small surface to grass over, it may be done with turf, if it can be obtained of a good quality, which is not often the case. . .
:“To have a fine '''lawn''', it is necessary not only to mow it often, but roll it also, especially after a rain. By doing thus, a close texture and fine velvety turf may be obtained.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1389.jpg|Batty Langley, “Variety of '''''Lawns''''', or ''Openings'', before a ''grand Front of a Building'', into a ''[[Park]], Forest, [[Common]]'', &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.

File:1110.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787. "19. Lawn."

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] to the North from the '''Lawn''' at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.

File:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]], March 13, 1803.

File:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding [[walk]] surrounding the '''lawn''' before the house.”

File:2259.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807. “B. lots or small '''lawns''' with flowering Shrubs.”

File:0676.jpg|Anonymous, Garden Plan of "Newington" in Allegheny County, Pa, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.

File:1346.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with '''lawn''' (b), in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 791, fig. 540.

File:0332.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Mount Vernon]], c. 1831.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

File:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

File:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

File:1080.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

File:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. The “[[park]] or '''lawn''' appears to be divided into four distinct '''lawns''' or areas”.

File:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. "'''lawn''' or pleasure-grounds, ''b''."

File:0392.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]] at Dropmore,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 431, fig. 77.

File:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “[[English style|English]] Flower-Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 434, fig. 78. ". . .the central portion is occupied by the '''lawn'''."

File:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "S, bleaching '''lawn'''; . . . U U, grass '''lawn'''. . . "

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "(14), where another beautiful '''lawn''' lies. . ."; "'''Lawn''' [[Terrace]] (17)."

File:1622.jpg|Anonymous, Gardens and Grounds of a Cottage Residence, ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 7. No. 5 (May 1, 1852), 233, fig. 102. "C. the '''lawn'''"

File:2288.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854.

File:2288_detail3.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854 [detail].

File:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859.
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl.XIII.

File:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

File:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray’s Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792—94.

File:2254.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[The Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of William Hamilton, Esq.'', 1793. Santa Barbara Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Sterling Morton for the Preston Morton Collection.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard [[Park]]'', c. 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, “The Father of His Country”'', 1797.

File:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

File:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

File:0304.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]] the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> W.<sup>m</sup> Hamilton Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup>,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 14.

File:0319.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Sedgley the [[Seat]] of Mr.<sup>r</sup> W.<sup>m</sup> Crammond Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup>,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 15.

File:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the Seat of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.

File:0506.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Early study for pavilion VII, University of Virginia, 1817.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File: 0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:1217.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; southwest front as viewed from the [[Bowling green|bowling green]], 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520B.

File:2223.jpg|Karl Bodmer, ''[[Point Breeze]],'' 1832.

File:1631.jpg|John H. B. Latrobe, '''Lawn''' of the White Sulphur, 1835.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836, lithographs. Courtesy of the Free Library of Philadelphia, Print and Picture Department.

File:0937.jpg|Unknown, "Plan for Planting Grounds in Front of Country Dwelling," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'', vol. III, (April 1, 1837), 129.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane: With a Sketch of its History, Buildings, and Organization'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''The Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto).

File:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

File:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

File:0356.jpg|Anonymous, “The Manor of Livingston,” ed. [[A. J. Downing]], ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): pl. opp. 201, fig. 55.

File:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

File:0362.jpg|Anonymous, “Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 8.

File:0364.jpg|Anonymous, “Belmont Place, near Boston, the [[seat]] of J. P. Cushing, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 10.

File:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

File:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

File:1466.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa of Theodore Lyman, Esq., near Boston,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 387, fig. 48.

File:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

File:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

File:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "The '''lawn''' is on the north of the house. . ."

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.

File:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engravers), ''[[Mount Vernon]]. The Home of Washington'', c. 1861.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0843.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Montgomery Place]], n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . House opening to the North upon a plain [[Parterre]] of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

File:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front [[View]] of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

File:0348.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with Buildings'', c. 1775–1800.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0270.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''William Floyd'', c. 1793.

File:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793.

File:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. [[view]] of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

File:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.

File:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

File:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

File:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sedgeley'', c. 1799.

File:0173.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel from the Bannister house, c. 1800–20.

File:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

File:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

File:0229.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle, Esquire, on the Ashley River'', 1800.

File:0749.jpg|William Groombridge, ''Fairmount and [[Schuylkill River]]'', 1800.

File:0233.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Another [[View]] of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800

File:0231.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''A [[Seat]] on Ashley River'', April 1802.

File:0223.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0224.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Mepkin, the [[Seat]] of Henry Laurens, Esq.'', May 1803.

File:0228.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Richmond: The [[Seat]] of Edward Rutledge, Esq.'', Saint Johns, 1803.

File:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

File:0730.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The Grove in Springland,” before 1805.

File:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0225.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Mepkin, No. 1'', May 1805.

File:0407.jpg|Amos Doolittle, ''A [[View]] of the Buildings of Yale College at New Haven'', 1807.

File:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

File:0317.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Montebello—The [[Seat]] of General Smith'', c. 1808.

File:2248.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808.

File:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.

File:0312.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hampton, the [[Seat]] of Gen.<sup>l</sup> Cha.<sup>s</sup> Ridgely, Maryland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

File:0311.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hoboken in New Jersey, the Seat of M.<sup>r</sup> John Stevens,” 1808, in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 3.

File:0303.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown, the [[Seat]] of the late W.<sup>m</sup> Bingham Esq.<sup>r</sup>, Pennsylvania,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 5.

File:0315.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Solitude in Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup> belonging to M.<sup>r</sup> Penn,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 9.

File:0318.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Montibello the [[seat]] of Gen.<sup>l</sup> S. Smith Maryland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 13.

File:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> Manigault,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 19.

File:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0119.jpg|Anonymous, ''Making Hay'', c. 1810.

File:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

File:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

File:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady'', NY, 1815.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton, (Baltimore, MD) [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

File:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast [[View]] of “Sedgeley [[Park]],” the Country [[Seat]] of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

File:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820—30.

File:0120.jpg|Anonymous, ''By the Sea'', c. 1820.

File:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

File:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The [[Hermitage]]'', c. 1820.

File:0157.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite Hyde de Neuville]], ''Washington City'', 1821.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “Seat of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.

File:0514.jpg|Catherine Mary Wheeler, Sampler, 1825.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, ''[[View]] of The [[Belvedere]] Club House, 1794'', 1828.

File:0112.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “[[View]] of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

File:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2013.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Back [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Va.,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:0715.jpg|E. W. Clay, etched by J.W. Steel and W.H. Hay, “Sedgeley Park,” in C.G. Childs, ''[[View]]s in Philadelphia and its environs, from original drawings taken in 1827-30'' (1830), pl. 24.

File:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

File:0432.jpg|Attributed to Reuben Rowley, ''Dr. John Safford and Family'', c. 1830.

File:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830–40.

File:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831–34).

File:0739.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown,” before 1834.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:0646.jpg|Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the [[Seat]] of the late James Madison,” 1835.

File:0679.jpg|James W. Steel, “Beech Hill, The Country [[Seat]] of R. Gilmor, Esq.,” in W. H. Carpenter and T. S. Arthur, eds., ''The Baltimore Book: A Christmas and New Year’s Present'' (1838), pl. opp. 184.

File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington, from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840–50.

File:0726.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''The Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1841.

File:0528.jpg|Susan Whitcomb, ''The Residence of Gen. Washington'', 1842.

File:0518.jpg|''Blue Sulphur Springs'', possibly by Eliza Howard Simms Burd, September 15, 1843.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

File:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

File:0753.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Grounds, Fieldwood, near Princeton,” October, 19, 1846.

File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The Conservatory,” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “[[View]] from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:1678.jpg|Anonymous, ''Friends Almshouse, Walnut Street, Philadelphia'', c. 1848.

File:0406.jpg|Henry Howe, "Ohio University, at Athens," 1848.

File:0705.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “President’s House,” 1848. The '''lawn''' is located in front of the White House.

File:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

File:0383.jpg|Anonymous, “Residence of Gov. Morehead, North Carolina,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 387, fig. 46.

File:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

File:0446.jpg|Joseph Goodhue Chandler, ''Charles H. Sisson'', 1850.

File:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

File:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852–54.

File:1993.jpg|John O'Brien Inman, Inman Homestead, c. 1850.

File:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

File: 2284.jpg|Middleton Wallace & Co., ''Wilberforce University, Xenia, Ohio. (The colored peoples college)'', c. 1850-60.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Jet

2021-04-12T13:19:22Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(''Jet d’eau'', Jet of water) {{break}}
See also: [[Basin]], [[Fountain]], [[Lake]]

==History==
[[File:0044.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.]]
The term jet (used both in its French form ''jet d’eau'' and its English translation “jet of water”) was used to describe a [[fountain]] consisting of a single continuous stream of water that was discharged into the air. The scale of jets ranged from modest, like the 10-foot example at [[Belfield]] [Fig. 1], to the spectacular, such as the jet of 30 or 40 feet that would water surrounding gardens proposed for the [[Columbian Institute]] in Washington, DC.

[[File:0538.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, W. H. Bartlett (artist), J. Giles (engraver), ''Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge'', 1839.]]
[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'', 1809. “C. Jet d’eau.”]]
The height of the jet was a function of the [[fountain|fountain's]] aperture and available water pressure. Before the advent of city pressurized water systems, these specifications or dimensions were generally determined by the diameter of the pipe and by the elevation of the reservoir, cistern, spring, or other water source. Peale’s design for [[Belfield]] added a gilded ball supported by the jet, which reduced its height by half (see [[Fountain]]). The advantage of a single jet was that it was relatively simple to construct, it conserved water, and it could issue a higher spout than a [[fountain]] with multiple streams, such as a “tazza” (or weeping) [[fountain]]. The scale of the jet made this type of [[fountain]] particularly appropriate for large-scale gardens, such as Capitol Square in Richmond, Virginia, or Fairmount Waterworks in Philadelphia [Fig. 2], where the visibility of a tall jet from a distance created a dramatic effect. The effect of a single jet was also admired in the middle of a still-water basin or pool, as at [[Belfield]] or in Charles Varlé’s design for the town of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Virginia (later West Virginia), where he planned a ''jet d’eau'' in the center of a rectangular “[[bason]]” [Fig. 3]. In these examples the aesthetic appeal of the jet stemmed from the contrast of the vertical spout with the horizontal plane of the pool and the play of the spray on the surface of the water. The simplicity was, as [[Andrew_Jackson_Downing|Downing]] noted, also suited to sylvan scenes where other more elaborate [[fountain]]s would be considered too artificial. Even though concepts of garden hydraulic technology were widely published by the early 18th century,<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''An Introduction to a General System of Hydrostaticks and Hydraulicks, Philosophical and Practical'' (London: Printed for T. Astley, S. Austen, and L. Gilliver, 1729; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JXBZ2FU view on Zotero]. Our research has not found any evidence that this work was prevalent in the colonies. More widely available treatises, which are cited in the term record (such as Miller and Chambers), discuss the role of fountains in garden design, but they do not include the detailed technical information that is found in Switzer.</ref> the making of jets of water and other [[fountain]]s was expensive and not common in American gardens until the early 19th century.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Peale, Rubens, September 27, 1813, in a letter to Sybilla Miriam Peale Summers, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:206)<ref name="Miller et al">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Franklin has finished the [[Fountain]], it is a very handsome thing and gives very general pleasure. the '''get''' ['''jet'''] is about 10 feet in height from the surface of the [[Pond]], a Gilt Ball is thrown about 5 high and there suspinded [''sic''] by the force of the Water. Spiral [[fountain]] Triaes &c.” [See Fig. 1]

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], March 15, 27, 29, 1814, in a letter to his sons, Benjamin Franklin Peale and Titian Ramsey Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:239)<ref name="Miller et al"></ref>
:“. . . when my leasure and I can spare a man to hall dirt I will raise the water in the fish [[Pond]] which will encrease its surfaces considerably raising the water to the stone [[wall]] at the head of the [[Pond]], deeper, and more water, will be better for fish & will raise the '''get''' ['''jet'''] at the [[fountain]] considerably.” [See Fig. 1]

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:383)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . below the [[Green house]] he made a round [[bason]] to receive the Water from the cave back of it—and from the fish-[[pond]] near the spring-house, to this [[basin|bason]] in the Garden is a fall of 15 feet, and in order to have a [[fountain]] in the [[basin|Bason]] he put log-pipes under ground, and thus had a '''jet''' of 13 feet high, but of small diameter, in order that it might constantly [be] rising. but unfortunately he make the bore of his logs only of one Inch diameter, the consequence was that Frogs in two instances got into the bore of the logs and not being able to pass through all the joints, stopped the water, of course to free the passage of the logs, gave much labour. had these things been foreseen, trouble might have been prevented, by making the bore of the logs of a greater diameter, with other provisions to keep the passage free.” [See Fig. 1]

*Hunt, Henry, William P. Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)
:“That, with a [[view]] to promote the public good, and to ornament and improve the [[public ground]]s, they would recommend that the water of Tiber Creek be brought to the Capitol Square; and, after forming a reservoir, be carried in pipes to the [[Botanic Garden]], and thrown up in a '''jet d’eau''' of 30 or 40 feet high, and then be used in watering the surrounding grounds.”

[[File:0536.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.]]
*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:42, 44)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MBMCV4N6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The water-works of Philadelphia have not yet perhaps as wide extended fame as those of Marley, but they are not less deserving it. . .
:“At another point, a portion of the water in its upward way to the reservoir, is permitted to spring forth in a perpetual '''''jet d’eau''''', that returns in a silver shower upon the head of a marble naïad of snowy whiteness.” [Fig. 4]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 4)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States”, ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For a long time the grounds of [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], at [[Lemon Hill]], near Philadelphia, have been considered the show-garden of that city: and the proprietor, with a praiseworthy spirit, opening his long-shaded [[walk]]s, cool [[grotto]]es, '''jets d’eau''', and the superb range of [[hot-house]]s, to the inspection of the citizens, contributed in a wonderful degree to improve the taste of the inhabitants, and to inspire them with a desire to possess the more beautiful and delicate productions of nature.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, July 3, 1844, describing in an editorial in the ''New York Evening Post'' Jones Wood, estate of John Jones, New York, NY (quoted in Rosenzweig and Blackmar 1992: 21)<ref>Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, ''The Park and the People: A History of Central Park'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFRVMGF9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Nothing is wanted [to transform the Jones Wood into a public [[park]]] but to cut winding paths through it, leaving the [[wood]]s as they now are, and introducing here and there a '''jet''' from the Croton aqueduct.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . [[walk]]s will be made in every direction and as some compensation for filling up the beautiful vale south of the Monument a capacious [[fountain]] will be placed in the centre of the [[walk]] leading into Bank street, from which [[fountain]] a '''jet d’eau''' will rise, fully thirty feet in height. The eastern portion of the [[square]] will likewise undergo considerable change—the rugged features will be materially softened down, a [[fountain]] and '''jet d’eau''' to correspond with those on the western side will be placed in the valley near the state courthouse.”

*Watson, John, 1857, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1857: 1:489)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time. . .'' 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There we see the graceful, glittering river winding amongst its wooded banks, the artificial [[cascade]] at your feet, the lovely '''jet d’eaux''' all around, the green [[plat]]s and gravelled [[walk]]s through which you have walked, the [[picturesque]] [[view]]s wherever you cast your eyes, these go to make up the picture which is spread out in rich luxuriance before you.”

===Citations===
*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“AJUTAGE, or ADJUTAGE, in hydraulics, part of the apparatus of an artificial [[fountain]], or '''jet d’eau'''; being a sort of tube, fitted to the mouth or aperture of the vessel: through which the water is to be played, and by it determined into this or that figure. . .
:“[[FOUNTAIN]], or artificial [[FOUNTAIN]], in hydraulicks, a machine, or contrivance, whereby the water is violently spouted, or darted up; called also '''''Jet d’Eau''''' See '''''JET d’Eau''''', FLUID, ''&c''. . .
:“[[GROTTO]], is also used for a little artificial edifice made in a garden, in imitation of a natural [[grotto]].
:“The outsides of these [[grotto]]’s are usually adorned with [[Rustic_style|rustic]] architecture, and their inside with shell-work, furnished like-wise with various '''jet d’eaus''', or [[fountain]]s, ''&c''. . .
:“'''JET D’EAU''', a French word, signifying a ''[[fountain]]'' that casts up water to any considerable heighth in the air. See [[FOUNTAIN]].
:“Mariotte shews, that a '''''jet d’eau''''' will never raise water so high as its reservoir, but always falls short of it by a space, which is in a subduplicate ratio of that heighth.—The same author shews, that if a greater '''''jet''''' branch out into many smaller ones, or be distributed through several '''''jets''''', the square of the diameter of the main pipe, must be proportioned to the sum of all the expences of its branches: and that if the reservoir be 52 foot high, and the adjutage half an inch in diameter, the pipe ought to be three inches in diameter.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''JET'''. ''n.s''. [. . . Saxon; ''get'', Dutch; ''gagates'', Latin.]
:“2. ['''''Jet''''', French.] A spout or shoot of water.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759; repr., 1969: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Jet d’eau''' is a French word, which signifies a [[fountain]] that casts up water to any consideration Height in the Air. These spouts of Water are some of the greatest Beauties of the Italian Gardens, and are certainly better adapted for Gardens in their warm countries, than they are for our climate, because in the great Heat of summer, the sight of these water spouts is cooling and refreshing to the Imagination, and they certainly add a real coolness to the Air, but in cold countries they cool the Air too much, therefore should not be erected; or if they are, they should be placed at such Distances from the Habitation, as that the Damp may no ways affect it. . . Where '''jets''' are contrived, if there is not a constant supply for a large column of water, they should by no means be made.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:126)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Every ''spring'' of water should be made the most of, and though ''[[fountain]]s '''jets d’eau''''': ''&c''. are out of fashion, something of this kind is agreeable enough.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 358–59, 1009)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1822. ''Of constructions for displaying water'', as an artificial decoration, the principal are [[cascade]]s, [[waterfall]]s, '''jets''', and [[fountain]]s. . .
:“1829. '''''Jets''' and other hydraulic devices'', though now in less repute than formerly, are not to be rejected in confined artificial scenes, and form an essential decoration where the [[ancient style]] of landscape is introduced in any degree of perfection.
:“1830. ''The first requisite for '''jets''' or projected spouts, or threads of water'', by atmospheric pressure, is a sufficiently elevated source or reservoir of supply. This being obtained, pipes are to be conducted from it to the situations for the '''jets'''. . .
:“1831. ''Adjutages'' are of various sorts. Some are contrived so as to throw up the water in the form of sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, &c.; others to throw it out horizontally, or in curved lines, according to the taste of the designer; but the most usual form is a simple opening to throw the spout or '''jet''' upright. The grandest '''jet''' of any is a perpendicular [[column]] issuing from a rocky base, on which the water falling, produces a double effect both of sound and visual display. A '''jet''' rising from a naked tube in the middle of a [[basin]] or [[canal]], and the waters falling on its smooth surface, is unnatural, without being artificially grand.”
:"7216. ''Water'' is a material of so captivating and interesting a description in the different characters in which it does not compose a feature. It forms a part of every garden in the [[Ancient style|ancient style]] in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong [[canal]]s, [[pond]]s, [[basin]]s, [[cascade]]s, and '''''jeux-d’eau''''' ''(fig. 694)'' ;"

*Teschemacher, James E., August 1, 1835, “Extracts from Foreign Publications” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 308–9)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “Extracts from Foreign Publications,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (August 1, 1835): 304–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CNPGMS5X/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From an article ''On the various form and character of [[Arbour]]s as objects of use or ornament either in gardens or wild scenery'' [from ''Paxton’s Horticultural Register''], we extract the following passages. . .
:“‘The interior is an [[arbor]] of great magnitude, not so closely covered as everywhere absolutely to exclude the sun, but yet so as to render is always shady and agreeable. In the centre a cooling [[fountain]], where a group of nymphs support the pole, sends forth four '''jets d’eau''', which drop with delicious murmurs into a marble [[basin]].’”

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, ''History of Architecture'' (1848: 396)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States. . . '', (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Jet d’eau'''''. Water thrown into the air from a pipe or tube, and falling into a [[basin]] below.”

[[File:0402.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “A simple jet,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 471, fig. 92. “A simple jet. . . issuing from a circular basin of water. . .”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991:466, 471) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America,'' 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>
:“''[[Fountain]]s'' are highly elegant garden decorations, rarely seen in this country; which is owing, not so much, we apprehend, to any great cost incurred in putting them up, or in any want of appreciation of their sparkling and enlivening effect in garden scenery, as to the fact that there are few artisans here, as abroad, whose business it is to construct and fit up architectural, and other '''''jets d’eau'''''. . .
:“A simple '''jet'''. . . issuing from a circular [[basin]] of water, or a cluster of perpendicular '''jets''' (candelabra '''jets'''), is at once the simplest and most pleasing of [[fountain]]s. Such are almost the only kinds of [[fountain]]s which can be introduced with propriety in simple scenes where the predominant objects are sylvan, not architectural.” [Fig. 5]

*Humphreys, Henry Noel, November 1850, “Notes on Decorative Gardening—Fountains” (''Horticulturist'' 5: 208)<ref>Henry Noel Humphreys, “Notes on Decorative Gardening-Fountains,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 5, no. 5 (November 1850): 208–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RF8S8ZNF view on Zotero]. </ref>
:“But though we find natural [[fountain]]s in the wildest scenes of nature, it is not, however, necessary, in making artistic use of a natural law that produces a '''''jet d’eau''''', to surround the artificial '''jet''' with the circumstances that surround it in nature, any more than it is necessary that the architect, in building with stone, should imitate in his work the rude form of the quarry from which it was taken.”

*L., R. B., June 1851, “On Artificial Rockeries” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 279)<ref>R. B. L., “On Artificial Rockeries,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 6 (June 1851): 276–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K4A8SS87 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It may likewise be observed that [[rockeries]] should always be in detached groups, and whether large or small, should never present straight lines or flat surfaces. The more irregular the arrangement, the more striking the effect produced. It should also be so situated as to be partly shaded and overhung by pendulous trees, to screen it from the glare of sunshine; it should always be rather cool, and if possible, shut in by itself by [[shrubbery]], and if possible, also, should be accompanied by a '''jet d’eau''' or [[basin]] of water, or both.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the [[Square]] and the Town of Bath'', 1809. “C. Jet d’eau.”

File:0402.jpg|Anonymous, "A simple '''jet'''. . . the simplest and most pleasing of [[fountain]]s” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 471, fig. 92. “A simple '''jet'''. . . issuing from a circular [[basin]] of water. . .”

File:0403.jpg|Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 471, fig. 93.

File:1597.jpg|Anonymous, “Natural '''Jet''' d’eau,” ''Horticulturist'' 5, no. 5 (November 1850): 208, fig. 55.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "'''Jet''' Vale Path (13)."
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre [[Square]]'', 1812.

File:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

File:0044_detail3.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', [detail] 1816.

File:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the [[ancient style]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' 4th ed. (1826), 1009, fig. 694.

File:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of [[vase]]s with [[view]]s of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

File:0536.jpg|George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.

File:0538.jpg|W. H. Bartlett (artist), J. Giles (engraver), ''Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge'', 1839.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

Summerhouse

2021-04-12T13:18:02Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Pavilion]], [[Temple]]

==History==
[[File:1738.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Batty and Thomas Langley, “A Square Umbrello,” in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 50.]]
[[File:0990_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of “Sedgeley Park,” the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819. <span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See full image]]]]
A free-standing structure in the garden that provided shelter from the sun or rain was often called a summerhouse. It was found in both [[public garden|public]] and private gardens throughout colonial and early republican America. <span id="Nicholson_cite"></span>As early as 1696 Governor Francis Nicholson, who laid out the colonial capitals of Annapolis, Maryland, and Williamsburg, Virginia, suggested a summerhouse for the [[public ground]]s ([[#Nicholson|view text]]). Examples were plentiful in 18th-century publications and pattern books, and they exhibited a broad stylistic range: classical [<span id="Fig_16_cite"></span>[[#Fig_16|See Fig. 16]]], Gothic [Fig. 1], and [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]], to name a few. Historic evidence corroborates that summerhouses were constructed in a rich variety of styles, such as the Gothic example at Sedgeley, near Philadelphia [Fig. 2]; the classical [[temple]] style at [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] [[Belfield]] in Germantown, Pennsylvania [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]; and the Georgian summerhouse at the garden of William Paca in Annapolis, Maryland [<span id="Fig_4_cite"></span>[[#Fig_4|See Fig. 4]]].

From New England to South Carolina, “summerhouse” seems to have been used as an umbrella term, which subsumed more specific terms for a variety of garden structures such as “[[hermitage]],” “kiosk,” “[[temple]],” “[[pavilion]],” and “[[Chinese manner|Chinese]] [[seat]].” The materials and scale ranged widely. At the high end was the summerhouse at the Elias Hasket Derby Farm in Peabody, Massachusetts. This extant building, designed by Samuel McIntire (1795), is a well-documented example of federal-period architecture [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>[[Manasseh Cutler]] in 1778 described a richly decorated summerhouse that had three rooms and contained a large library, works of art, and a piano ([[#Cutler|view text]]). <span id="Connor_cite"></span>The summerhouse described by Juliana Margaret Connor (1827), which was constructed of eight cedar trees chained together, presented a very different type of structure ([[#Connor|view text]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>In the ''Horticulturist'', [[A. J. Downing]] referred to this variety of types when he explained that structures ranged from light wooden frames covered in painted canvas to highly finished, fanciful structures, such as those illustrated in his journal ([[#Downing|view text]]). He echoed many earlier writers who concluded that summerhouses served three purposes: first, they provided shelter and resting places; second, they were sited to command the finest points of view [Fig. 3]; and third, they provided the termination of a [[view]] or [[prospect]].
[[File:1806.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, landscape], c. 1810.]]

Some summerhouses had additional utilitarian functions, such as those which surmounted cellars and vaults. <span id="Vassall_cite"></span>An [[icehouse]] under the summerhouse was reported in 1791 at the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House ([[#Vassall|view text]]). Both Pleasant Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts, and [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] [[Belfield]] had summerhouses that incorporated [[hothouse]]s. The summerhouse at John Burgwin’s Hermitage in Wilmington, North Carolina, served as a tool shed. <span id="Sillman_cite"></span>At Monte Video, according to Benjamin Silliman (1824), the summerhouse was used to shelter a boat ([[#Sillman|view text]]). These and other examples capitalized on a favorable spot and ornamented an otherwise strictly utilitarian feature.

—''Therese O'Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Nicholson"></div> Nicholson, Gov. Francis, 1696, describing Annapolis, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 120)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no. 3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“requested to have a Certain parcell of land in the publick pasture according to the Demencons thereof mentioned and layd down in the [[plat|Platt]] of the Town for planting or makeing a Garden, Vineard, or '''Somerhouse''' or other use” [[#Nicholson_cite|back up to History]]

*Thomas, Gabriel, 1698, describing the residence of Edward Shippen, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Watson 1857: 1:368–69)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Edward Shippen, who lives near the capital city, has an [[orchard]] and gardens adjoining to his great house that equals any I have ever seen, being a very famous and pleasant '''summer house''', erected in the middle of his garden, and abounding with tulips, carnations, roses, lilies, &c., with many wild plants of the country besides.”

*Beverley, Robert, 1705, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd II, on the James River, VA (quoted in Beverley 1947: 298–99)<ref>Robert Beverley, ''The History and Present State of Virginia'', ed. Louis B. Wright (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TWMNCBA/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Have you pleasure in a Garden? . . . Colonel ''Byrd'', in his Garden [at Westover], which is the finest in that Country, has a '''Summer-House''' set round with the ''Indian'' Honey-Suckle.”

*Anonymous, June 9, 1733, describing a plantation for rent in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“a very good Dwelling-House, with two '''Summer Houses''', two Cellars under them, a Kitchen, Store-House, large Garden, with other Conveniencies, commonly called the '''Summer-House'''.”

*Anonymous, February 6, 1746, describing a bath-garden in Boston, MA (''Boston Weekly News Letter'')

:“TO BE LETT, (exclusive of the [[Bathhouse|Bath-House]])

:“The [[Bath]]-Garden, at the Westerly Part of the Town, which has for many Years been improv'd as a [[public garden|publick Garden]], and contains a Variety of the best Fruit-Trees, a great Quantity of Currant and Gooseberry Bushes, some of the best Grape Vines, a handsome '''''Summer-House''''', Glasses for Hot-Beds, &c. Enquire of ''John Welch'', and know further. N.B.

:“The Cold [[Bath]] is in good Order for Use and has been found beneficial to several that have used it, even this Winter-Season: Price 40 ''Shillings'' a Year or 5 ''Shillings'' each single Time, ''old Tenor''.”

*Anonymous, March 19, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a property for rent in Charleston, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“TO BE LET. . . To the said house there is a good kitchen, stable and chair-house, a large garden and handsome '''summer house''' & etc.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', eds. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto’s]], in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a '''summer house'''. . .”

*Drowne, Samuel, June 7, 1767, describing Malbone Hall, country [[seat]] of Godfrey Malbone, Newport, RI (Rhode Island Landscape Survey)

:“There was a fine Garden and a '''summer house''' there. . . In his garden was a fish [[pond]] and a duck [[pond]]. The water was drawn out of the fish [[pond]] when his house burned.”

*Drowne, Samuel, June 23, 1767, describing Redwood Farm, [[seat]] of Abraham Redwood Jr., Newport, RI (Brown University, John Hay Library, Drowne Family Papers, typescript)

:“We saw Mr. Redwoods garden one of the finest gardens I ever Saw in my Life in it grows all Sorts of West India fruit. Viz. Oranges Lemmons Limes Pineapples Tamirinds and other Sorts it has also West-India flowers very pritty ones and a Fine '''Summer House''' it was Told my Father by a Credible person that the garden was worth 40.000 pounds and that the man that Takes Care of the garden Has above 100 Dolars per annum it Has [[hothouse|Hot Houses]] were [''sic''] things that are Tender are put in the Winter and Hot [[Bed]]s for the West India fruit & I Saw one or Two of these gardens.”

<div id="Fig_4"></div>[[File:0037.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772. [[#Fig_4_cite|back up to History.]]]]
*Anonymous, January 28, 1771, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (''New York Gazette'')

:“To be sold at private Sale, the commodious house and large gardens, in the out ward of this city, known by the name of [[Vauxhall Garden|VAUXHALL]]; the situation extremely pleasant, having a very extensive [[view]] both up and down the North River. . . there are 36 lots and a half of ground laid out to great advantage in a [[pleasure garden|pleasure]], and [[kitchen garden]], well stock'd with fruit and other trees, vegetables, &c. and several '''summer houses''' which occasionally may be removed; the whole in extreme good order and repair, well fenced in, very fit for a large family, or to entertain the gentry, &c. as a [[public garden]], &c. The premises are on lease from Trinity Church, sixty one years of which are yet to come.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], February 15, 1772, describing a portrait of William Paca, including his garden in Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1983: 1:113)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale'', vol. 1, ''Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735–1791'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have spent some time about Mr. Paca’s whole lenght [''sic''] . . . if you remember the action he is resting on a pedestal on which I have introduced the Bust of Tully but believe [I] will be obliged to put some other in its [ ] place in the distance is a View of his '''Summer house'''.” [Fig. 4]

*Bucktrout, Benjamin, September 1, 1774, advertisement in the ''Virginia Gazette'' (quoted in Martin 1991: 206, fn. 24)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[will build] all sorts of ''[[Chinese manner|Chinese]]'' and ''Gothick'' PALING for gardens and '''summer houses'''.”

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], August 16, 1778, describing a garden in Rhode Island (1987: 1:68–69)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the lower end of the aisle is a large '''summerhouse''', a long square containing three rooms—the middle paved with marble and hung with landscapes and other pictures. On the right is a very large private library adorned with very curious carvings. The collection of French and English authors, maps, etc., is valuable. The room is furnished with a table, chairs, etc. . . The room on the left in the '''summer-house''', beautifully prepared and designed for music, contains a spinnet.” [[#Cutler_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Charles Saunders, ''The survey of a tract of Land in Cambridge. And a perspective delineation of the Summer house theron'', Mathematical Thesis, 1802.]]
*<div id="Vassall"></div>Hunnewell, Mr., 1790–91, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Hammond 1982: 160)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“the Vault under the '''Summerhouse''' is equal to any spot for the Construction of an [[icehouse]] & the distance (from the mansion house) is no obstacle in the least—as on occasion you may keep ice in the Cellar three days.” [Fig. 5] [[#Vassall_cite|back up to History]]

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We ascend the [ ], five easy steps in the first, and ten in the second, produces us in the area exactly before the door, and we then command a full view of a romantick '''summer house''', in the front of which is a whole length transparent picture of Columbia’s illustrious Chief—Fame, is crowning him with the laurel—the picture is as large as the life, and the likeness, it is said, is happily preserved. Underneath this '''summer house''', is an [[icehouse|ice house]], convenient and well planned, and upon the right of this building, is an oblong section of the garden, prettily enclosed, which is chiefly devoted to exotics. . .

[[File:0722_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "Barrell Farm" [detail], Pleasant Hill, 1817.]]
:“At every turn shaded [[seat]]s are artfully contrived, and the ground abounds with [[arbor|arbours]], [[alcove]]s, and '''summer houses''', which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among the little federal [[temple]] claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity, upon the summit of a [[green]] [[mound]] infixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen [[pillar]]s handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several slates, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this [[Temple]] is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the view therefrom is truly interesting.”

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. . . The [[Chinese manner]] is mixed with the European in the '''Summer house''' which fronts the House, below the [[flower garden|Flower Garden]]. Below is the [[hothouse|Hot House]]. In the apartment above are his flowers admitted more freely to the air, & above a '''Summer House''' with every convenience. . . No expense is spared to render the whole amusing, instructive, & friendly.” [Fig. 6]

<div id="Fig_4"></div>[[File:0011.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Samuel McIntire, Elevation of the summer house designed for the Elias Hasket Derby Farm, n.d. [[#Fig_7_cite|back up to History.]]]]
*McIntire, Samuel, June 8, 1795, describing a statement of account with Elias Hasket Derby (quoted in Kimball 1940: 74)<ref name="Kimball">Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, ME: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 7]

:{|
|"1793 ''Dec'' 4th
|to Sundrie Drawings for <br/> '''Summer Houses''' @ 24/
|£1: 4:
|-
|1794 ''Apl'' 25
|to Carving 4 Vases for the '''Summer House''' <br/> at 18/s each
|3: 18:
|-
|''July''
|to Building the '''Summer <br/> House''' at the Farm @ <br/> to Extra work on the Same, <br/> Viz., finishing four Closets <br/> @20/each
|100:00
|-
|
|
|4: 0:0"
|}

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 9)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the distance of three hundred yards from his house, on the top of a rock whose sides were steep, rugged, and encumbered with dwarf cedars and stony asperities, he built what to a common eye would have seemed a '''summer-house'''. . . It was no more than a circular area, twelve feet in diameter, whose flooring was the rock, cleared of moss and shrubs, and exactly levelled, edged by twelve Tuscan [[column]]s, and covered by an undulating dome. My father furnished the dimensions and outlines, but allowed the artist whom he employed to complete the structure on his own plan. It was without [[seat]], table, or ornament of any kind.”

*Anonymous, July 6, 1799, describing in ''Spectator'' [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Eberlein and Hubbard 1944: 171)<ref>Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Cortlandt Van Dyke Hubbard, “The American ‘Vauxhall’ of the Federal Era Article Stable,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 68, no. 2 (April 1944): 150–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RVGSTS36 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“His beautiful garden was opened at 6 o'clock in the morning, and the colours were hoisted under a discharge of 16 guns. The 16 '''summer houses''' being the names of the Sixteen United States, each were decorated with the Emblematical Colours belonging to each State, and ornamented with Flowers and Garlands. At 5 o'clock in the evening, the sixteen colours of each '''Summer-house''' were carried, at the sound of the music, to the Grand [[Temple]] of Independence, which is 20 feet diameter, and 20 feet high. . . in the middle of which was presented, the Bust of the great Washington as large as life, and near him a Grand Gold [[Column]], representing the Constitution, and below the said [[Column]] the Figure of Fame, 6 feet high, presenting to him with one hand a Crown of Laurel, and with the other holding a Trumpet, announcing to the public that she crowns Real Merit. Round the Pedestal were seen Military Trophies. The sixteen colours above-mentioned were placed round the Pedestal, at the sound of Martial Music—and at each colour being placed round the Bust it was announced by the firing of cannon.“

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing the garden of the recitation room and inspector’s study in Nazareth, PA (1800: 46)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The strait and circular [[walk]]s, the windings up the hill, the [[Fall/Falling_garden|falling garden]]s ascended by steps, the banks, '''summer-houses''', [[seat]]s, trees, herbs, fruits, vegetables and flowers are seen in great variety.

:“Most of the American forest trees and many exotic plants are here. It is an elegent garden in miniature.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125–26)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Gardens were large, and laid out in the [[English style]]—a Creek wound thro' the largest, upon its banks grew native [[shrubbery]]; in this Garden were several [[Alcove]]s, '''Summer Houses''', a [[hothouse]]—an Octagon '''summer house''' high and a Gardener’s tool house beneath—;a [[pond|fishpond]], communicating with the Creek, both producing abundance of fish—The Second Garden was ornamental, and in front—The ‘Cook’s Garden,’ was on the opposite side to the large. . . . These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and '''summer houses''' at the termination of each [[walk]], [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

[[File:0012.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Samuel McIntire, Plan of summer house designed for Elias Hasket Derby Farm, n.d.]]
*Southgate, Eliza, July 6, 1802, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (quoted in Kimball 1940: 75–76)<ref name="Kimball"></ref>

:“There are 3 divisions in the gardens, and you pass from the lower one to the upper thro' several [[arch]]es rising one above the other. From the lower [[gate]] you have a fine perspective [[view]] of the whole range, rising gradually until the sight is terminated by a [[hermitage]]. The '''summer house''' in the center has an [[arch]] thro' it, with 3 doors on each side which open into little apartments and one of them opens to a staircase by which you ascend into a square room, the whole size of the building; it has a fine airy appearance and commands a [[view]] of the whole garden; two large chestnut trees on each side almost shade it from my view when seen from the sides.” [Fig. 8]

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], June 12, 1804, describing the Carroll Garden, Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1988: 2:704)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale'', vol. 2, ''Charles Willson Peale: The Artist as Museum Keeper 1791–1810'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“at each end of the [[wall]] is an octagon Building projecting beyond it, one is a [[summerhouse|''Summer'' House]] & probably the other is a [[Temple]], it is locked up, & at first sight they might be thought to be intended for such purposes but on finding that one has no holes, People are naturally led to believe that the internal structure is similar, since the outsides are perfectly so.”

*Cuming, Fortesque, 1810, describing a home in Pittsburgh, PA (1810: 227)<ref>Fortescue Cuming, ''Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country'' (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Eichbaum, 1810), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFUIGI3M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Still continuing to turn to the right, the next prominent object is the house of Mr. James Ross, an emanent [''sic''] lawyer, which he purchased from a Mons. Marc, a Frenchman, who had taken great pains to cultivate a good garden, which Mr. Ross does not neglect, and in which, on the top of an ancient Indian tumulus or barrow, is a handsome octangular '''summer house''' of lattice work, painted white, which forms a conspicuous and pleasing object.”

[[File:0292.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, William Matthew Prior, ''Washington’s Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1855.]]
*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1927: 174)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Back of the mansion is a '''summer house''', which commands an elegant [[view]] of the Potomac.” [Fig. 9]

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:0044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816. [[#Fig_10_cite|back up to History.]]]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], August 2, 1813, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale Robinson, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:202)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We are now beginning to ornament about the House Our Garden is much admired, Franklin is shewing his taste in neat workmanship. He has built an Elligant '''Summer House''' on that commanding spot which you may remember being pointed out to you. It is a hexicon base with 6 well turned [[Pillar]]s supporting a circular Top & dome on which is placed a bust of Genl. Washington, it would have been more appopriate [''sic''] to have had 13 [[pillar]]s, but I did not want so large a building, and it was work enough for Franklin to turn those 6 [[pillar]]s which he was able to execute will [with] the layth in the mill.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:0009_detail2.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]] [detail], November 22, 1815.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], November 22, 1815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale Robinson, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 43)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, "The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield" (honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The objects in sight, are the road ascending to the Dwelling, Stone wall & Thorn [[hedge]] on it inclosing the Garden, The Garden [[Gate]] at the [[Fountain]], [[Greenhouse|Green House]], '''Summer house''' a doom supported by 6 [[Pillar]]s, and bust of Washington crowning it—beyond that an [[Obelisk]]; the Hay barracks; Barn with the wind-mill on top of it to pump water for the stock, stables; Mantion-House, Wash-House and connecting [[piazza|Piaza]]; Carriage House; Spring House, [[bathhouse|Bath-House]] and cover of the [[icehouse|Ice-house]].” [Fig. 11]

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest [[eminence]], on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic [[shrub]]s, filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a [[view]] of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The '''summer-house''' is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the [[view]]. . . A few feet below the '''sum-mer-house''' the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a [[vista]]."

[[File:1051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.]]
*<div id="Sillman"></div>Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It [the path] then gradually passes down the north extremity of the [[lake]], where it unites with other paths, at a white [[picturesque]] building, overshadowed with trees, standing on the edge of the water, commanding a [[view]] of the whole of it, and open on every side during the warm weather, forming at that season, a delightful '''summerhouse''', and in the winter being closed, it serves as a shelter for the boat.” [Fig. 12] [[#Sillman_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0536.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.]]
*Sheldon, John P., December 10, 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Delightful [[seat]]s, surrounded by various kinds of trees and [[shrubbery]], with gardens containing '''summer houses''', [[vista]]s, embowered [[walk]]s, &c meet your view in almost every direction.” [Fig. 13]

*<div id="Connor"></div>Connor, Juliana Margaret, 1827, describing the garden at the pottery (Lot 48) on Main Street in Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 28)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Afterwards walked into the garden belonging to the establishment where we saw what I conceived to be a curiosity and in itself extremely beautiful. It was a large '''summer house''' formed of eight cedar trees planted in a circle, the tops whilst young were chained together in the center forming a cone. The immense branches were all cut, so that there was not a leaf, the outside is beautifully trimmed perfectly even and very thick within, were [[seat]]s placed around and doors or openings were cut, through the branches, it had been planted 40 years.” [[#Connor_cite|back up to History]]

*Martineau, Harriet, May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“All the rest [of the villas] were an entertainment to the eye as they stood, white and cool, amid their flowering magnolias, and their blossoming [[alley]]s, [[hedge]]s, and [[thicket]]s of roses. In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats, and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the [[wilderness]] of shrubs. We met in a [[grotto]], under the '''summer-house''', cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance with a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

*Lester, N., November 30, 1837, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #231)

:“The General has a very fine garden; I culled some choice seeds which I will divide with you the first opportunity. The garden is tastefully laid off in [[plat]]s, ornamented with various kinds of flowers and [[shrubbery]]. The tomb of his lamented lady is in one corner of the garden, but a short distant from his dwelling. It is surrounded by rose bushes, and the weeping willow, and covered by a plain '''summer-house'''.”

[[File:1119.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, W. H. Bartlett, “Washington’s House, [[Mount Vernon]],” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol 2., pl. 20.]]
[[File:1104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, “Ladies’ Summer House. [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” in Thomas Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane'' (1851), frontispiece of "Report for 1849."]]
*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1840: 2:261)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>

:“About two hundred yards from the house, in a southerly direction, stands a '''summer-house''', on the edge of the river-bank, which is here lofty and sloping, and clothed with wood to the water’s edge. The '''summer-house''' commands a fine [[prospect]] of the river and the Maryland shore; also of the White House, at a distance of five or six miles down the river, where an engagement took place with the British vessels which ascended the river during the last war.” [Fig. 14]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, September 1846, describing its annual exhibition in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 102)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Archibald Henderson, gardener to Wharton Chancellor, displayed, ‘a gothic [[temple]] or cottage '''summer-house''' of handsome form with evergreen envelope, embellished appropriately with flowers, rising to the height of sixteen feet.’”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''summer-houses''', [[rustic style|rustic]]-[[seat]]s, exercising-swings &c., in this division are all in particularly pleasant positions. The cottage fronts the woods, and in every part this portion of the grounds is completely protected from intrusion and observation.” [Fig. 15]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], June 13, 1848, in a letter to Cora L. Barton, describing Highland Place, estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 33–34)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have also been making some little improvements in my own garden—and especially building a [[rustic style|rustic]] '''summer house''' which we call the '[[hermitage]],' and which I think is so much in your own taste that I should be heartily glad to show it to you.”

<br/>

===Citations===
<div id="Fig_16"></div>[[File:1744.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, [[James Gibbs]], “Four Summer-houses in form of [[Temple]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 79. [[#Fig_16_cite|back up to History.]]]]
*[[James Gibbs|Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: description of pl. 79)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Plate LXXIX. Four '''Summer-houses''' in form of [[Temple]]s, Design'd for several persons.” [Fig. 16]

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., vol. 2 (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1743), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/78H3PZF5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[pavilion|PAVILLION]]*, in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes [[square]], and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.

:“*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.

:“''[[pavilion|Pavillions]]'' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. . .

:“There are ''[[pavilion|pavillions]]'' built in gardens, popularly called '''''summer-houses''''', pleasure-houses, ''&c.''—Some castles or forts consist only of a single [[pavilion|pavillion]].”

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1742.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, William and John Halfpenny, “A Summer House upon a Rock partly in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 10. [[#Fig_17_cite|back up to History.]]]]
*Halfpenny, William and John, 1755, ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755; repr., 1968: 7)<ref>William and John Halfpenny, ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755; repr., Bronx, NY and London: Benjamin Blom, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9JKMEXVU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“PLATE X. Represents the Plan and Elevation of an Octagon '''Summer-house''', 14 Feet Diameter, and 14 Feet high from the Floor to the Cieling [''sic''], elevated on an artificial Rock, in which a Cellar, or [[Grotto]], may be made. The Walls may be Brick, Stone, or Timber, and the Ornaments cut in Stone or Wood, and the Rails of the Steps Lattice Work. This Building, not including the Rock, may be executed, in a good Manner, for about 230 l.” [Fig. 17]

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''SUMMERHOUSE''', sum'-mer-hous. s. An appartment in a garden used in the summer.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GARDENING. . .

:“Near some pieces of water, as a cool retreat, it is desirable that there should be something of the '''summer-house''' kind; and why not the simple [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor|arbour]], embowered with the woodbine, the sweetbriar, the jessamine, and the rose? Pole [[arbor|arbours]] are tied well together with burk or ozier twigs.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 2 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7CI5MCGT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''SUM’MER-HOUSE''', n. 1. A house or apartment in a garden to be used in summer. ''Pope, Watts''.

:“2. A house for summer’s residence.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In many [[flower garden]]s, [[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor|arbors]], and '''summer houses''', may be introduced to a very good purpose for concealing offices and unseemly appendages.”

*Anonymous, February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363)<ref>Anonymous, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“It must be a very highly finished scene, and a garden where all the details are in a very decided and ornate style of art, in which marble [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, or even highly finished [[pavilion]]s and '''summer-houses''', may be introduced with harmony and propriety.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 458)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There is no limit to the variety of forms and patterns in which these [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, [[arbor]]s, '''summerhouses''', etc., can be constructed by an artist of some fancy and ingenuity. After the frame-work of the structure is formed of posts and rough boards, if small straight rods about an inch in diameter, of hazel, white birch, maple, etc., are selected in sufficient quantity, they may be nailed on in squares, diamonds, medallions, or other patterns, and have the effect of a ''mosaic'' of wood.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:33)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', vol. 1 (1849: repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Design V.—Elevations, plans, details, ground [[plot]] and scenic view of a cottage in the Tudor style, designed for a country residence on the bank of the Bronx river, in Weschester County, N. Y. The tenement comprises ten acres of ground, lying on both sides of the river, and mostly covered by forest trees. The premises will contain a gardener’s lodge, '''summer-house''', stone [[bridge]], coach-house, [[bathhouse|bath-house]], and outbuildings, screened by ornamental [[shrubbery]].”

[[File:0940.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, Anonymous, “Kiosques or Summer Houses,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 7, no. 7 (July 1852): pl. opp. 296.]]
*Jaques, George, January 1852, “Landscape Gardening in New-England” (''Horticulturist'' 7: 36)<ref>George Jaques, “Landscape Gardening in New-England,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A man of refinement would in these days, scarcely tolerate a geometrical arrangement of grounds of this extent. Such places admit of a winding carriage-way, leading through a fine [[lawn]] studded with groups of trees, irregularly circuitous [[walk]]s, bordered with various [[shrubbery]]; here and there a massive forest tree, standing in its full development singly upon the [[lawn]]; a '''summerhouse''' embowered in the midst of a little retired [[grove]]; arabesque forms of flower [[bed]]s occasionally inserted in the midst of the smooth green of a grass-[[plot]]; a [[vase]], pretty even when empty, but better over-flowing with water, which it costs not much to bring in a leaden pipe from some neighboring hill:—such are among the charms which almost seem to make a little paradise of home.”

*<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], July 1852, "Domestic Notices: Kiosques or Summer Houses" (''Horticulturist'' 7: 339)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Domestic Notices: Kiosques or Summer Houses,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 7 (July 1852): 339, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/URTGJE3S view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the warm climates of the East, the delight of gardens seems to be enjoyed more by looking at them from '''summer houses''', than rambling about in them, and examining them in detail. Accordingly there is a great deal of fancy and considerable taste exercised in the East in these buildings—usually of wood, built in light and pleasing forms. The roof may be covered with canvass [''sic''], stretched over a wooden frame; when well painted, this forms the most durable covering. Its surface being smoother than one of wood, it may be made ornamental by being prettily tinted in subdued and delicate shades. '''Summer houses''', in a somewhat finished and elaborate style, like these [shown in the accompanying frontispiece], are better suited for the more ornate grounds of a country residence, where there is a considerable degree of finish and keeping, than [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor]]s and '''summer houses'''. In long [[walk]]s, structures of this kind afford more agreeable resting places, and, when erected in any fine points of view, they serve the double purpose of calling the attention to the best position for seeing it, and affording shade and rest while enjoying the outstretched landscape. In all buildings of this kind, the design should be rather simple than complex, and the roof-outline is one which should receive most attention—particularly if the building is seen from any distance.” [Fig. 18] [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1742.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “A '''Summer House''' upon a Rock partly in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 10.

Image:1711.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, "The Plan and Elivation of a [[Temple]], or '''Summer House''', on a [[Terrace|Tarras]], In the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste," in ''Rural architecture in the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] taste'' (1755), pl. 44.

Image:0238.jpg|Christian Gottlieb Reuter, Map of Bethabara, 1766. [trans.] “37, A '''Summer-house''' in the Johanna.”

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787. “u. '''Summer House'''.”

Image:0928.jpg|Charles Saunders, ''The survey of a tract of Land in Cambridge. And a perspective delineation of the '''Summer house''' theron'', Mathematical Thesis, 1802.

Image:0928_detail.jpg|Charles Saunders, ''The survey of a tract of Land in Cambridge. And a perspective delineation of the '''Summer house''' theron'', [detail] Mathematical Thesis, 1802.

Image:0009.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]], November 22, 1815.

Image:0009_detail2.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]] [detail], November 22, 1815.

Image:0722.jpg|Anonymous, “Barrell Farm,” Pleasant Hill, 1817. “'''Summer House'''” is marked in the middle of the plan.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. “L '''summer-house'''”.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280. The dotted circular and square shapes throughout the grounds represent the '''Summer Houses'''.

Image:1104.jpg|Anonymous, “Ladies’ '''Summer House'''. [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” in Thomas Kirkbride, ''Reports of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]]'' (1851), frontispiece of “Report for 1849.”

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "'''Summer-house''' (12)."

Image:0940.jpg|Anonymous, “Kiosques or '''Summer Houses''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 7, no. 7 (July 1852): pl. opp. 296.

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. “7 '''Summer House'''” is on the far right of the image.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:1744.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Four '''Summer-houses''' in form of [[Temple]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 79.

Image:0011.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Elevation of the '''summer house''' designed for the Elias Hasket Derby Farm, n.d.

Image:0012.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Plan of '''summer house''' designed for Elias Hasket Derby Farm, n.d.

Image:0047.jpg|Anna Peale Sellers, after [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[Belfield]] Farm, Germantown, PA'', Late 19th century.

Image:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

Image:0013.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Study for '''summerhouse''' at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1798.

Image:0965.jpg|Samuel McIntire, '''Summerhouse''' at the Derby Mansion, c. 1798.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800. Summerhouse is located on the far left side sited on hillside.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:0044_detail4.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', [detail] 1816.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:0536.jpg|George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.

Image:1119.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington’s House, [[Mount Vernon]]," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol 2., pl. 20.

Image:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. (c. 1849).

Image:0848.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” [[Blithewood]], 1849. A '''summerhouse''' is located up the hill on the left.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0381.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cataract]] at [[Blithewood]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), opp. 364, fig. 41.

Image:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

Image:0292.jpg|William Matthew Prior, ''Washington’s Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1855.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engravers), ''[[Mount Vernon]]. The Home of Washington'', c. 1861.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<div id="Fig_2"></div>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1681.jpg|Wilfred A. French (photographer), Exterior [[view]] of the '''Summer House''', Royall House, Medford, Massachusetts, n.d.

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742–46.

Image:1738.jpg|Batty and Thomas Langley, “A [[Square]] Umbrello,” in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 50.

Image:0076.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a decorative outchamber at [[Monticello]], c. 1778.

Image:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0183.jpg|Anonymous, ''Court House [[Square]], Warrenton'', 1800.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[Fountain]] [[Green]] Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> S. Meeker,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808).

Image:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

Image:1806.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, landscape], c. 1810.

Image:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast [[View]] of “Sedgeley [[Park]],” the Country [[Seat]] of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819. The '''summerhouse''' is visible in the left corner of the image. See image detail in [[#Fig_2_cite|Fig. 2.]]

Image:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30.

Image:0679.jpg|James W. Steel, “Beech Hill, The Country [[Seat]] of R. Gilmor, Esq.,” in W. H. Carpenter and T. S. Arthur, eds., ''The Baltimore Book: A Christmas and New Year’s Present'' (1838), pl. opp. 184.

Image:1115.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Caldwell. ([[Lake]] George),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 1, pl. 33.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0890.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Fairview, 1841–44. The '''summerhouse''' is the round structure on the right.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

image:0853.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Octagonal Garden Structure for [[Montgomery Place]]'', c. 1850.

Image:0470.jpg|Major and Knapp (lithographers), ''The Old Abbey Hotel on Bloomingdale Road (1847)'', 1864.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Avenue

2021-04-12T13:16:50Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Alley]], [[Walk]]

==History==
[[File:0232.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, [[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden [[Grove]], The [[Seat]] of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.]]
As <span id="Webster_cite"></span>[[Noah Webster|Noah Webster’s]] definition states, the word avenue signifies a passage and is rooted in the French word ''venir'' (L. ''vinio''), to come or go ([[#Webster|view text]]). In landscape design an avenue, which was typically planted with trees, varied in scale from a [[walk]] to a wide street. From William Byrd II’s 1712 description of Williamsburg, Virginia, to Nehemiah Adams’s 1842 account of [[Boston Common]], the avenue has figured prominently in the American designed landscape in a wide range of contexts. An avenue provided an approach to a house, as shown in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser’s]] painting of Golden Grove in South Carolina [Fig. 1]. It served as a public roadway suited to the monumental scale of a governor’s palace, a Native American [[mound]], or a domed capitol. Avenues were also common elements of gardens, public [[park]]s, and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], where they became popular settings for [[promenade]]s and elegant carriage drives.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
Treatises such as Batty Langley’s ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728) and George William Johnson’s ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) extolled the benefits of avenues and emphasized the importance of designing them in relative proportion to surrounding architecture. Images of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC [Fig. 2], and Thomas S. Sinclair’s plan of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] in Philadelphia [<span id="Fig_20_cite"></span>[[#Fig_20|See Fig. 20]]] illustrate the variety of American avenues from urban roadways to garden walkways, as well as their corresponding shifts in scale. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>One of the key characteristics distinguishing avenues from other circulation routes (such as the [[alley]], or path, and road, street, and [[walk]]) was their relative size.<span id="Ingraham_cite"></span> [[Bernard M’Mahon]] noted in his 1806 treatise that avenues in gardens require “some spacious open space” ([[#MMahon|view text]]), and Joseph Holt Ingraham’s 1835 description of a plantation along the Mississippi River differentiated between the broad main avenue and the branching narrower [[walk]]s ([[#Ingraham|view text]]).

[[File:0147.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Door panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), 19.]]
The construction of avenues varied; descriptions mention surfaces of dirt, cobblestone, gravel, and brick. In 1829 the <span id="New_England_Farmer_cite"></span>''New England Farmer'' described an avenue in Albany, New York, as “McAdamized in the true English style" ([[#New_England_Farmer|view text]]). The planting of avenues also varied depending on their context. As <span id="Chambers_cite"></span>[[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers’s]] 1741–43 definition suggests, tree plantings were an essential element of an avenue, accentuating its scale and reinforcing its role in directing the gaze ([[#Chambers|view text]]). <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon]] similarly commented in 1806 on the relative merits of deciduous and evergreen trees for avenue plantings ([[#MMahon|view text]]). <span id="Downing_1849_cite"></span>In the warmer climes, trees such as lemon, orange, live oak, and palm were planted along avenues, while in the mid-Atlantic poplar, cherry, lime [or linden], and cedar were popular choices. New England descriptions mention linden, larch, maple, elm, locust, and chestnut trees. [[A. J. Downing]] recommended elms, plane trees, horse chestnuts, maples, and tulip trees for avenues ([[#Downing_1849|view text]]).<span id="Adams_1842_cite"></span> While the spreading branches, such as those described by Adams on [[Boston Common]] in 1842 ([[#Adams_1842|view text]]), <span id="Warden_cite"></span>created “ancient shade” and alluded to Gothic architecture, tall narrow trees such as poplar and palm enhanced the straight vistas that avenues created. As David Bailie Warden complained of Washington, DC, in 1816, however, this vegetation offered little relief from the oppressive heat ([[#Warden|view text]]).
[[File:0106.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover” [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637–1743'' (1743).]]

<span id="Deane_cite"></span>Avenues were typically planted with trees on both sides in single or double rows, although, as Samuel Deane (1790) noted, trees might also be planted on only one side ([[#Deane|view text]]).<span id="Complete_Farmer_cite"></span> In contrast to straight rows of trees, Philip Miller (1759) recommended planting avenues in clumps, or as ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769) identified them, “platoons,” of seven or nine trees grouped at intervals of 300 feet ([[#Complete_Farmer|view text]]).<span id="Whately_cite"></span> Clumped plantings were extolled further by Thomas Whately, who advocated in 1770 that the “modern” winding avenue should be used as an approach to a house because it “commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective” ([[#Whately|view text]]). This style of winding avenues and clumped plantings was rarely employed in America until the 1830s and 1840s, when more naturalistic designs can be seen at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], and later in 1850 at Mrs. Pratt’s residence in Boston. One early exception was the redesign of the garden at [[Mount Vernon]] in the 1780s, in which Washington used serpentine avenues for the approach to the house and planted [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] and [[wilderness|wildernesses]] in the bends of the roadway.<ref>Dennis J. Pogue, “Mount Vernon: Transformation of an Eighteenth-Century Plantation System,” in ''Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake'', ed. Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 101–14. Although Washington and J. P. Brissot de Warville referred to the roadways as “avenues,” other descriptions called them walks, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3EMQF6M/q/Pogue view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground [[Plot/Plat|plat]] of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]
[[File:0031.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 6, Andrew Ellicott, “Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia,” 1795.]]
<span id="Johnson_cite"></span>Despite Whately’s criticism that straight avenues have “a tedious sameness" and the buildings to which they are “appropriated . . . [are] seldom shewn to advantage,” most American descriptions praised the effect of tree-lined avenues in directing one’s view to a terminal point.<span id="Fithian_cite"></span> George William Johnson’s 1847 discussion of “Avenue” explains how this effect is achieved as the avenue “cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the prospect to a narrow [[vista]]” ([[#Johnson|view text]]).<span id="Mason_cite"></span> Such adjectives as “elegant,” “grand,” “noble,” and “handsome" were used repeatedly in descriptions of avenues framing a house, such as that at Nomini Hall in Westmoreland County, Virginia, which was described in 1774 by Philip Vickers Fithian ([[#Fithian|view text]]). The painted door panels of the Thaxter-Lincoln house in Hingham, Massachusetts [Fig. 3],<span id="Quintinie_cite"></span> illustrate this framing effect, as do John Mason’s recollections (c. 1830) of his father’s avenue at Gunston Hall, Virginia, with its double rows of black heart cherry trees on either side ([[#Mason|view text]]).<span id="Byrd_cite"></span> Jean de La Quintinie (1693) described avenues as “more properly leading to the front of Houses” ([[#Quintinie|view text]]), and some of the earliest landscaping in Virginia was the construction of avenues aligned with houses’ central axes, as in William Byrd II’s description of the Governor’s Palace at Williamsburg (1712) ([[#Byrd|view text]]), or seen on the 1701 plan of his own estate of Westover [Fig. 4].
[[File:0025.jpg|thumb|252px|left|Fig. 7, Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.]]
[[File:0410.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 8, Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795. “'''Avenue''' runs N.96E” is inscribed at the center of the drawing.]]
[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]

Through the mid-19th century, travelers in the South admired plantation dwelling houses fronted by straight, shaded avenues arched with mature live oaks. It is also interesting to note that despite treatise writers' repeated assertions that avenues were becoming less fashionable, visitors continued to admire plantings of stately trees, and homeowners, such as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, still planted avenues in the 1840s. Their lasting visual appeal and the legacy of mature trees have made avenues an enduring element of American design despite shifts in gardening styles.

Urban avenues—created by designers such as Francis Nicholson in Williamsburg; in Annapolis [Fig. 5], and, possibly, in St. Mary’s City, Maryland; and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]—were direct imports of 18th-century urban design principles.<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965). For a discussion of the design of St. Mary’s City, Maryland, see Henry Miller, “Baroque Cities in the Wilderness: Archaeology and Urban Development in the Colonial Chesapeake,” ''Historical Archaeology'' 22, no. 2 (1988): 57–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/Reps view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Twining_cite"></span>Thomas Twining’s 1796 account of Washington in the early stages of construction detailed how, from the avenues clear cut through the [[woods]], he knew he was in a “metropolitan city” ([[#Twining|view text]]). <span id="Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite"></span>The imagery of avenues cut through America’s abundant woodlands as a sign of advancing civilization was echoed as late as 1844 in a report about Rochester, New York, in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' ([[#Magazine_of_Horticulture|view text]]). The width and unbroken length in American avenues were not only reminiscent of European models, but the feature also carried the same connotations of authority, monumentality, and status. Such a form, which did not deviate for any obstacle, suggested enormous resources and power. The convergence of avenues on a single point, as with the U.S. Capitol depicted in Robert P. Smith’s 1850 [[view]] of Washington, DC [Fig. 7], reinforced the centrality of the monument and the authority that it represented by controlling both sight lines and movement within the urban fabric. Whether a visiting diplomat, a parading soldier, or protesting citizen, those who experienced the broad swath of Pennsylvania Avenue leading to the domed capitol had no doubt as to the central authority of the city and the nation that it represented. The scale of avenues also made them suited for larger landscape designs of institutional grounds, where they provided shaded walkways and directed views toward significant structures. Examples include the plan for the University of North Carolina of 1795 [Fig. 8] and the plan for the University of Michigan of 1838 [Fig. 9].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*<div id="Byrd"></div>Byrd, William, II, February 2, 1712, describing a visit to the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation).
:“About 11 o’clock I went to see the Governor’s '''avenue''' and his great house which pleased him.” [[#Byrd_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, 1737, describing in the ''Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia'' the proposed improvements to the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Ordered that there be paid to Mr. Philip Finch the sum of ten pounds for laying and planting the '''Avenue''' to the Governors House.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref> Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I. . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the '''Avenue''' that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Callender Sansom, Hannah]], June 30, 1762, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river. . . one '''avenue''' gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Contemporary Observer [pseud.], 1767, describing the William Trent House, Trenton, NJ (quoted in Dillon 1987b: 145B)<ref>Clarissa F. Dillon, "‘A Large, an Useful, and a Grateful Field’: Eighteenth-Century Kitchen Gardens in Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Uses of the Plants, and Their Place in Women’s Work” (PhD diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJASV475/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“a genteel brick dwelling house. . . with a large handsome staircase and entry. . . a large handsome '''avenue''' of English cherry trees.”

*Finlay, Hugh, January 2, 1774, describing a journey through South Carolina (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“. . . now and then we see a swamp, consequently a rice [[plantation]]. . . we came sometimes to '''avenues''' leading from the high road terminated by a farm houses at a quarter, half and sometimes three quarters of a mile distant.”

*<div id="Fithian"></div>Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108–9)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Due East of the Great House are two Rows of tall, flourishing, beautiful, Poplars, beginning on a Line drawn from the School to the Wash-House; these Rows are something wider than the House, & are about 300 yards Long, at the Eastermost end of which is the great Road. . . These Rows of Poplars form an extremely pleasant '''avenue''', & at the Road, through them, the House appears most romantic, at the same time that it does truly elegant.” [[#Fithian_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, 1778, describing in the ''South Carolina and American General Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>
:“Magnolia or Laurels fit for '''Avenues'''. . . any height from three feet to twenty.”

*Washington, George, March 21, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:106)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ed., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Staked up the largest of my Trees in the '''avenues''' and [[Wilderness]] and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1792: 427–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . On this rout traverse a considerable [[wood]], and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grassplats; on one side of the '''avenue''' are the stables, on the other a [[greenhouse|green-house]], and houses for a number of negro mechanics.”

[[File:1815.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[William Bartram]], A great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', at Mount Royal, near Lake George, GA, in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), 57, fig. 6.]]
*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1789, describing Mount Royal near Lake George, GA (1853: 57–58)<ref>William Bartram, “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 1789, with Prefatory and Supplementary Notes by E.G. Squier,” ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', 3, part 1 (1853): 1–81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CWNCZI8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Fig. 6, is a perspective plan of this great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', the latter leading off to an expansive savanna or natural [[meadow]]. A, the [[mound]], about forty feet in perpendicular height; B, the highway leading from the [[mound]] in a straight line to the [[pond]] C, about a half mile distant. What may have been the motive for making this pond I cannot conjecture, since they are situated close to the banks of the river San Juan. It could not, therefore, be for the conveniency of water. Perhaps they raised the [[mound]] with the earth taken out of the [[pond]]. The sketch of the [[mound]] also illustrates the character of the [[mound]]s in the Cherokee country; but the last have not the highway or '''avenue''', and are always accompanied by vast square [[terrace]]s, placed upon one side or the other. On the other hand, we never see the square [[terrace]]s accompanying the high [[mound]]s of East Florida.” [Fig. 10]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a residence on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 71–72)<ref name="Bartram_1928">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Following an old highway, now out of repair, across the Savanna, I ascended the sloping [[green]] bank, and entered a noble forest of lofty pines, and then a venerable [[grove]] of Live Oaks, under whose shady spreading boughs opened a spacious '''avenue''', leading to the former [[seat]] of general Oglethorpe, but now the property of capt. Raimond Demere. . .</p>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a view of the inlet. A cool area surrounded the low but convenient buildings, from whence, through the [[grove|groves]], was a spacious '''avenue''' into the island, terminated by a large savanna; each side of the '''avenue''' was lined with [[beehive]]s, to the number of fifty or sixty; they seemed to be well peopled, and exhibited a lively image of a colony that has attained to a state of power and affluence, by the practice of virtue and industry.”

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Lake George, GA (1928: 101, 104)<ref name="Bartram_1928"/>
:<p>“From this place we enjoyed a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the great Lake George, through a grand '''avenue''', if I may so term this narrow reach of the river, which widens gradually for about two miles, towards its entrance into the [[lake]], so as to elude the exact rules of perspective, and appears of an equal width. . .</p>

:“On the site of this ancient town, stands a very pompous Indian [[mount]], or conical pyramid of earth, from which runs in a straight line a grand '''avenue''' or Indian highway, through a magnificent [[grove]] of magnolias, live oaks, palms, and orange trees, terminating at the verge of a large green level savanna.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, in a report to George Washington describing L’Enfant’s plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950">H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[I] made the distribution regular with streets at right angle north-south and east west but afterwards I opened others on various directions as '''avenues''' to and from every principal places, wishing by this not merely to contrast with the general regularity nor to afford a greater variety of pleasant [[seat]]s and [[prospect]] as will be obtained from the advantageous ground over the which the '''avenues''' are mostly directed but principally to connect each part of the city with more efficacy by, if I may so express, making the real distance less from place to place in menaging on them a reisprocity of sight and making them thus seemingly connected promot a rapide stellement over the whole.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City” describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 163–65)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950"/>
:<p>“II. Lines or '''Avenues''' of direct communication have been devised, to connect the separate and most distant objects with the principal, and to preserve through the whole a reciprocity of sight at the same time. Attention has been paid to the passing of those leading '''avenues''' over the most favorable ground for [[prospect]] and convenience. . .</p>

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|450px|Fig. 11, [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent [[Seat]] of the Government of the United States. . . ,” 1791. The avenue is labelled "M" and "H".]]
:<p>“Every Grand transverse '''Avenue''', and every principal divergent one, such as the communication from the President’s House to the Congress House etc. are 160 feet in breadth and thus divided:</p>

::10 feet of pavement on each side . . . . . . 20

::30 feet of gravel [[walk]] planted

::with trees on each side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

::80 feet in the middle for carriage way . . . 80

::::<p>160 feet. . . .</p>

:<p>“H. Grand '''Avenue''', 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a [[Terrace/Slope|slope]] from the houses on each side. This '''Avenue''' leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the</p>

:<p>“I. President’s [[park]] and the</p>

:“K. well-improved field.” [Fig. 11]

*Bailey, Francis, 1796, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1965: 257)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The truth is, that not much more than one-half the city is ''cleared'':—the rest is ''in [[woods]]''; and most of the streets which are laid out are cut through these [[wood]]s, and have a much more pleasing effect now than I think they will have when they shall be built; for ''now'' they appear like broad '''avenues''' in a [[park]], bounded on each side by thick [[wood]]s; and their being so many of them, and proceeding in so many various directions, they have a certain wild, yet uniform and regular appearance, which they will lose when confined on each side by brick [[wall]]s.”

*<div id="Twining"></div>Twining, Thomas, April 27, 1796, describing Washington, DC (1894: 100–2)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“After some time this indistinct way assumed more the appearance of a regular '''avenue''', the trees here having been cut down in a straight line. Although no habitation of any kind was visible, I had no doubt but I was now riding along one of the streets of the metropolitan city. I continued in this spacious '''avenue''' for half a mile, and then came out upon. . . the centre of the city. . . Looking from where I now stood I saw on every side a thick [[wood]] pierced with '''avenues''' in a more or less perfect state. . . all the '''avenues''' converged to that point.” [[#Twining_cite|back up to History]]

*Davis, John, 1798–1802, describing Ocean Plantation, property of Thomas Drayton, Jasper County, SC (quoted in Jones 1957: 79)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To form an idea of Ocean Plantation, let the reader picture to his imagination an '''avenue''' of several miles, leading from the Savannah road, through a continued forest, to a wooden-house, encompassed by rice-grounds, corn and cotton fields.”

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the Capitol in Milledgeville, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"/>
:“[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House square and '''avenues''' of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[promenade|prominade]] [''sic''].”

*<div id="Warden"></div>Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 100)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is deeply to be regretted that the government or corporation did not employ some means for the preservation of the trees which grew on places destined for the public [[walk]]s. How agreeable would have been their shade along the Pennsylvania '''Avenue''' where the dust so often annoys, and the summer sun, reflected from the sandy soil, is so oppressive. The Lombardy poplar, which now supplies their place, serves more for ornament than shelter.” [[#Warden_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, 1825, describing South Carolina (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 184)<ref name="Schwaab_1973">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many of the country [[seat]]s of the rich planters are elegant; the beautiful '''avenues''' of live-oak, which lead from the road to the doors of the mansions tend to give a grand and beautiful effect to the whole.”

*S., J. W., February 1832, describing [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (quoted in ''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 72)<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To the left of the garden, an '''avenue''' leads to a rustic [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss.”

*<div id="New_England_Farmer"></div>Anonymous, September 4, 1829, “Country Seats Near New York,” describing a farm near Albany, NY (''New England Farmer'' 8: 53)<ref>Anonymous, “Country Seats Near New York,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 8, no. 7 (September 4, 1829): 52–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TV89V8N4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An '''avenue''', ''McAdamized'' in the true [[English style]], leads through a rich and extensive [[lawn]] to the mansion, which is finely shaded with aged elms, locust and chestnut.” [[#New_England_Farmer_cite|back up to History]]

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing New York, NY, in ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 2:158)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From hence [the battery] commences the splendid Broadway, as the fine '''avenue''' is called, which runs through the whole city.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Several native lime trees (Tilia Americana and Tilia Europaea) are planted along the '''avenue''', exhibiting a remarkable difference in appearance; the first retaining its foliage in full vigour until the 15th of October, whilst the latter sheds its leaves as early as the 10th of August, and some years even in July.”

*<div id="Mason"></div>Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive [[lawn]] kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious '''avenue''', girded by long double ranges of that hardy and stately cherry tree, the common black heart, raised from the stone, and so the more fair and uniform in their growth, commencing at about two hundred feet from the house and extending thence for about twelve hundred feet; the carriage way being in the centre and the footways on either side, between the two rows, forming each a double range of trees, and under their shade.</p>
:“But what was remarkable and most imposing in this '''avenue''' was that the four rows of trees being to be so alligned as to counteract that deception in our vision which, in looking down long parallel lines makes them seem to approach as they recede; advantage was taken of the circumstance and another very pleasant delusion was effected. A common centre was established exactly in the middle of the outer doorway of the mansion, on that front, from which were made to diverge at a certain angle the four lines on which these trees were planted, the [[plantation]] not commencing but at a considerable distance therefrom (about two hundred feet as before mentioned) and so carefully and accurately had they been planted, and trained and dressed in accordance with the other, as they progressed in their growth, that from the point described as taken for the common centre, and when they had got to a great size, only the first four trees were visible.” [[#Mason_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0598.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, Alexander Wadsworth, Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], November 1831.]]
*Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1831: 29)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds of the [[Cemetery]] have been laid out with intersecting '''avenues''', so as to render every part of the [[wood]] accessible. These '''avenues''' are curved and variously winding in their course, so as to be adapted to the natural inequalities of the surface. By this arrangement, the greatest economy of the land is produced, combining at the same time the [[picturesque]] effect of [[landscape gardening]]. Over the more level portions, the '''avenues''' are made twenty feet wide, and are suitable for carriage roads.” [Fig. 12]

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 47)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As the tract which has been solemnly consecrated, by religious ceremonies, as a burial-place forever, is so abundantly covered with forest trees, many of which are more than sixty years old, it only requires the '''avenues''' to be formed. . . to put the grounds in a sufficiently complete state for the uses designed, and to render them at once beautiful and interesting.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 76)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach from the main road leading to Watertown, was by a broad and umbrageous '''avenue''' to the foot of the hill, which closes the dale of consecration on the north. . . In the rear, under the shade of a stately [[grove]] of walnuts, where the main '''avenue''' divides and gracefully sweeps round the lofty hills to the east and west, the company [attending the consecration] descended from their carriages, and entered the secluded and romantic silvan theatre, by two foot paths, which wound through lonely vales of arching verdure.”

*Legare, John, 1833, describing southern Georgia (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 254)<ref name="Schwaab_1973"/>
:“We were much pleased with the construction and arrangement of the negro houses, they are built on parallel rows, facing each other, and extending some distance, forming a wide '''avenue''' or street, which if we recollect aright, is planted throughout with trees. In the rear of the houses are the small gardens and hen houses of the occupants.”

*<div id="Ingraham"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1:230–31)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column|columns]] and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose [[fence]]s were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence situated at the head of a broad, gravelled '''avenue''', bordered by lemon and orange trees, forming in the heat of summer, by arching naturally overhead, a cool and shady [[promenade]]. We drew up at the massive [[gateway|gate-way]] and alighted. . .</p>

:“From this point [around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the [[piazza]] of the dwelling] the main '''avenue''' branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering shrubs, completely encircled the cottage.” [[#Ingraham_cite|back up to History]]

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, “Gardens, Hothouses, &c., in the vicinity of Boston,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding '''avenue''' through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first view of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

[[File:1431.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and [[Picturesque]] Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.]]
*MacDonald, James, October 1839, describing the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the view, the extent of the grounds, the various '''avenues''' gracefully winding through so large a [[lawn]]; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of landscape gardening.” [Fig. 13]

*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], c. 1841, describing the proposed Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, in a letter to Robert Dale Owen (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990">Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Three spacious '''avenues''' (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting [[vista]]s.”

[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, [[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Mall,” 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing a design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990"/>
:“The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed building for the Institution; the adjacent streets and '''avenues''' are also shown, with the line of the [[Canal]] which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island.” [Fig. 14]

*<div id="Adams_1842"></div>Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 14–15)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The trees on the eastern side of the [[Boston Common|Common]]. . . The [[walk]] through their ancient shade is not surpassed in interest by any place of public resort, it is not too much to say, in this or any land. When their limbs are bare, a perspective [[view]] of them gives as good a representation of Gothic architecture as man ever copied. . . It requires no history to show the most unpractised eye that Gothic architecture was borrowed from such places as the '''avenue''' under those arching elms.” [[#Adams_1842_cite|back up to History]]

*W., February 1842, “An Account of Lowell Cemetery,” Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6/q/An%20Account%20of%20the%20Lowell%20Cemetery view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Of the architectural department there is much to admire. One of the '''avenues''', called "Washington '''Avenue''',” embraces a circuit round the ground, and the whole extent of [[drive]] is a mile and a half.</p>

:“Directly opposite the [[gateway]], and winding along the side of a natural ridge, leading to the chapel, is "Fenelon '''Avenue'''.” From the chapel, the '''avenues''' diverge, one extending along the central parts, and intersects with others at right angles: these '''avenues''', for the most part, are bordered by fine forest trees, of a variety of kinds and sizes.”

[[Image:0548.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 15, Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.]]
*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, & c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29 , [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN/q/Notes%20made%20during%20a%20visit view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an [[eminence]] which commands a fine view of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad '''avenues''' of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol. The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania '''Avenue''', where the grounds form a semicircle, of which the '''avenue''' is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular [[terrace]]. . .</p>

:“The grounds on the other side, or east front, form nearly a [[square]], laid out with two '''avenues''' through the centre, and a broad [[walk]] running round the whole, with a belt of trees, which forms the boundary line. On each side of the centre '''avenues''' rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass [[lawn]]s which intervene between the centre and outer [[walk]]s, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrubbery|shrubs]], dahlias, and other flowers.” [Fig. 15]

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. Fanny Longfellow described a “linden '''avenue'''. . . [which] runs along the northern boundry.”]]
*Longfellow, Fanny, c. 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', vol. 1 (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“They [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Alexander W. Longfellow] contrived together to plant a linden '''avenue''' in which my poet intends to pace in his old age, and compose under its shade, resigning to me all the serpentine [[walk]]s, where, in the abstraction of inspiration, he might endanger his precious head against a tree. This runs along the northern boundary, and it is to be hoped will be useful, moreover, in screening us from any unsightly buildings Mr. Wyeth may adorn his grounds with.” [Fig. 16]

*<div id="Magazine_of_Horticulture"></div>B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17),<ref>B. P., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82/q/Progress%20of%20Horticulture%20in%20Rochester view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Flower garden|Flower gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] are no longer objects of amazement; '''avenues''' of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.” [[#Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:1077.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, James Smillie, “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.]]
*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, NY (1847: iii, v)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot by James Smillie'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Its numerous '''avenues''' furnish a long and delightful drive, presenting, continually, scenes of varied beauty.</p>

:“'''Avenues''' have been opened through every part of the ground, and converted, at great expense, into broad and durable carriage-roads.” [Fig. 17]

[[File:1063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, James Smillie, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), frontispiece.]]
*Walter, Cornelia W., 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1847: 14)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“The '''avenues''' are winding in their course and exceedingly beautiful in their gentle circuits, adapted picturesquely to the inequalities of the surface of the ground, and producing charming landscape effects from this natural arrangement, such as could never be had from straightness or regularity. . .</p>

:“The [[gateway]] of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]] opend from what is known as the north boundary line of the Cemetery. This '''avenue''' forms a wide carriage-road, and is one of the most beautiful openings ever improved for such a purpose. With the exception of the necessary grading, levelling, and cutting done of the brushwood, and the planting of a few trees, it has been left as Nature has made it. On either side it is overshadowed by the foliage of forest-trees, firs, pines, and other evergreens; and here you first begin to see the monuments starting up from the surrounding verdure, like bright remembrances from the heart of earth.” [Fig. 18]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 45)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the east it [the natural boundary of the estate] touches the post road. Here is the entrance [[gate]], and from it leads a long and stately '''avenue''' of trees, like the approach to an old French chateau. Halfway up its length, the lines of planted trees give place to a tall [[wood]], and this again is succeeded by the [[lawn]], which opens in all its stately dignity, with increased effect, after the deeper shadows of this vestibule-like [[wood]].”

[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.]]
*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 143)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have not named on the plan the roads or '''avenues''', as it is common to do, after trees and plants, such as Elm '''Avenue''', Magnolia '''Avenue''' and so on; this has been done at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], and I think in Green-Wood and also Greenmount Cemeteries; but would suggest that they be called after the name of the first person who shall erect a handsome monument or family tomb, or to whom such shall be erected.” [Fig. 19]

<div id="Fig_20"></div>[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 20, Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280. [[#Fig_20_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer park|deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine [[grove]] of large trees, several detached [[clump]]s of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in '''avenues''' along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The [[grove]]s are fitted up with [[seat]]s and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them.” [Fig. 20]

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (Autumn 1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion. . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar—the most admired of all trees in the palmy days of old Virginia—and this row reached to another double row or '''avenue''' which skirted one side of the [[lawn]], dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables.”

*Leuchars, R. B., February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing the residence of Mrs. Pratt, near Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 53)<ref>R. B. Leuchars, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 2 (February 1850): 49–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QAEQ7TUN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house is approached by a very beautiful drive, winding gracefully through the trees, forming a sort of serpentine '''avenue''', after the Reptonian fashion.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 444)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach from the [[gate]], on reaching this [[conservatory]], diverges east and west at right angles. That on the left entering an '''avenue''' of maples, about thirty feet high, and hung to the very ground with branches, so that their stems are entirely hidden by the umbrageous foliage. This '''avenue''' runs through the [[nursery]], about a quarter mile in length. . . This extremity of the '''avenue''' opens on another broad street to the city, and forms another entrance to the grounds. Nothing can exceed the beauty of this '''avenue'''; and I am astonished that the landed proprietors of this country do not take the example which is here given them, and adorn their demesnes with '''avenues''' like this. But they like better to cut down '''avenues''' here than to plant them. To tell you the truth, I have never seen anything so grand as this in the middle of a [[nursery]], either here or in England.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing a residence in Cambridge, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 462)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 461–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/599Z2NAK/q/notes%20on%20gardens%20and%20nurseries view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The main '''avenue''' has been planted with a row of fine Scotch larch, on each side, and the effect, when they get well established, will be excellent.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Wilton, property of Joseph Turner, near Philadelphia, PA (1857: 2:478)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many [[statue]]s of fine marble [sold from a Spanish prize] were distributed through the grounds and '''avenues'''.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (1857: 2:479)<ref name="Watson_1857"/>
:“In the rear were '''avenues''' of stately cedars—some few still remaining; and in the front was a charmingly graceful descending [[green]] [[lawn]], gradually sloping down to Vine street.”

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>La Quintinie, Jean de, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Avenues''''', are certain [[alley|Allies]] or [[Walk]]s in Gardens larger than ordinary, but more properly leading to the front of Houses, which are commonly accompanied with two Bye-[[Walk]]s, commonly call’d Counter-[[Walk]]s, which are both Bordered with great Trees, either ''Elms'', ''Linden Trees'', or ''Oaks'', and sometimes Standard Fruit-Trees.” [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to History]]

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . .</p>

:<p>“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of '''Avenues''' to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.</p>

:“The entire Breadth of every '''Avenue''' should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand [[Walk]], must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-[[Walk]]s on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of '''Avenues''' fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand [[Walk]] be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*<div id="Chambers"></div>[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', in gardening, is a [[walk]], planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE.</p>

:“All '''''avenues''''', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an '''''avenue''''' to an house, whatever the length of the [[walk]] is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better.” [[#Chambers_cite|back up to History]]

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard. . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Avenues''' are [[walk]]s of trees leading to a house, and are generally terminated by some distant object. There were formerly much more in request than at present, there being a few old [[seat]]s in the country that had one or more of these '''avenues'''. . . Whenever the situation of a house will admit of a large open [[lawn]] in front, the road to the house should be carried round at a proper distance; and if it be carried sometimes through trees, and serpented in an easy natural way, it will be much more beautiful than any stiff formal '''avenue'''.”

*<div id="Complete_Farmer"></div>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.)<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', a [[walk]] planted on each side with trees, leading to an house, [[wood]], &c. . .</p>

:“The old method of planting '''avenues''' was with regular rows of trees, and this has been always kept till of late; but we have now a much more magnificent way of planting '''avenues''': this is by setting the trees in [[clump]]s or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the [[clump]]s of trees about three hundred feet distant from one other. In each of these [[clump]]s there should be planted either seven or nine trees; but it is to be observed, that this is only to be practised where the '''avenue''' is to be of some considerable length, for, in short [[walk]]s, this will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The '''avenues''' made by [[clump]]s are fittest of all for [[park]]s. . . ''Miller’s Gard. Dict.''" [[#Complete_Farmer_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Whately"></div>Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138–40)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“in the ''approach''. . . the idea of a [[seat]] is thereby extended to a distance; but that may be done by other means than by an '''avenue'''. . . if the entrance only be marked, simple preservation will retain the impression along the whole progress; or it may wind through several scenes distinguished by objects, or by an extraordinary degree of cultivation; and then the length of the way, and the variety of improvements through which it is conducted, may extend the appearance of domaine, and the idea of a [[seat]], beyond the reach of any direct '''avenue'''.</p>

:“An '''avenue''' being confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great, it must be dull; and the object to which it is appropriated, is after all seldom shewn to advantage. Buildings, in general, do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful, when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular station, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective: but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections. . . but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]].” [[#Whately_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Deane"></div>Deane, Samuel, 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 116–17)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“[[GROVE]]. . .</p>

:“In other situations [[grove]]s of larger trees are preferred. Lanes and '''avenues''' leading to mansion houses and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both sides: If only on one, it should be the southermost, on account of the advantage of shade. Such trees are best, the limbs of which are not apt to be low.” [[#Deane_cite|back up to History]]

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:119–20)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Avenues''''' are now seldom planted, but when they are, two good rows of ''elms'', ''limes'', ''chestnuts'', &c., should be set at the width of the house, at full thirty feet distance in the rows; to thicken which, intermediate plants may be set; and also an inner row, to be removed when the principal trees are full grown. '''''Avenues''''' to [[prospect]]s, should be fifty or sixty feet wide.”

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 63)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“The planting in [[grove]]s and '''avenues''' should consist principally of the tree kind, and such as are of straight and handsome growth, with the most branchy, full, regular heads, and may be both of the deciduous and ever-[[green]] tribes; but generally arranged separately. . .</p>

:“As to '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, '''avenues''' and grass walks, planted with fine ever-[[green]] trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the '''avenue''', though sometimes grand [[walk]]s of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s, at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.” [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:1186.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 21, [[J. C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 943, fig. 630a–f.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6813. ''With respect to the disposition of the trees within the [[plantation]]'', they may be placed regularly in rows, squares, parallelograms, or quincunx; irregularly in the manner of groups; without undergrowths, as in ''[[grove]]s''. . .with undergrowths, as in ''[[woods]]''. . .all undergrowths, as in ''copse-[[woods]]''. . .Or they may form ''[[avenue]]s'' (''fig''. 630. ''a''); double [[avenue]]s (''b''); [[avenue]]s intersecting in the manner of a Greek cross (''c''); of a martyr’s cross (''d''); of a star (''e'') or of a cross patée, or duck’s foot (''patée d’oye'') (''f'').” [Fig. 21]

*<div id="Webster"></div>[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“'''AV'ENUE''', ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]</p>

:<p>“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.</p>

:<p>“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc.''</p>

:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.” [[#Webster_cite|back up to History]]

*Cook, Zebedee, Jr., 1830, ''An Address, Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1830: 22)<ref>Zebedee Cook Jr., ''An Address, Pronounced before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: Isaac R. Butts, 1830), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RJ7KE496 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The gravelling of garden '''avenues''' may be dispensed with. The ordinary soil levelled, and laid smooth with the roller, will present an agreeable surface with less labor and cost than the former.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)<ref> Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10 (September 24, 1830): 74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ/q/Description%20of%20Trees%20and%20Shrubs view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for '''avenues''' or large [[lawn]]s, or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . .</p>

:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for [[lawn]]s or '''avenues''', &c.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“When it is required to intersect the [[lawn]] in front, this had better be done by a sunken '''avenue''' with grass banks, so that the extent of grass presented to the eye offers an unbroken surface.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, ''The [[Boston Common]]'' (1838: 21–22)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and [[park]]s, and '''avenues''', and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

*Farmer, Franklin [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 138)<ref>Franklin Farmer, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (April 1, 1838): 136–39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G7RIH5NW/q/Front%20Yards%E2%80%94Shrubbery%E2%80%94Flowers view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Where there is but a [[lawn]] in front of the house, the farmer should plant an '''avenue''' of trees.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 2 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV/q/ON%20Flower%20beds view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For the borders of main '''avenues''', or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 73–74)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''AVENUE''', is a road bordered by trees on each side, and being, as observed by Whately, confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great it must be dull, and the object to which it is appropriated is after all seldom shown to advantage. Buildings in general do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular situation, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both in perspective; but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections, it may besides be brought up to the house without disturbing any of the views from it, but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]]. A mere line of perspective, be the extent what it may, will seldom compensate for the loss of that space which it divides, and of the parts which it conceals. These kind of walks were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present: where they are to be made, the common elm answers very well for the purpose in most grounds, except such as are very wet and shallow, and preferred to most other trees, because it bears cutting, heading, or lopping in any manner. The rough Dutch elm is approved by some because of its quick growth, and it is a tree that will not only bear removing very well, but that is [[green]] in the spring almost as soon as any plant whatever, and continues so equally long. It makes an incomparable [[hedge]], and is preferable to all other trees for lofty [[espalier]]s. The lime is very useful on account of its regular growth and fine shade, and the horse-chestnut is proper for such places as are not too much exposed to rough winds. The common chestnut does very well in a good soil, or on warm gravels, as it rises to a considerable height, when planted somewhat close; but when it stands singly it is rather inclined to spread than grow tall. The beech naturally grows well with us in its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for '''avenues''' than others, because it does not bear transplanting well. The abele [white poplar] may also be employed for this use, as it is adapted to almost any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom fails in transplanting, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. The oak is but seldom used for '''avenues''', because of its slow growth; it would, however, compensate by its permanence and beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, oriental and native buttonwood are all well adapted to the purpose.” [[#Johnson_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 22, Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.]]
*<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 63, 95, 154, 161, 182, 193, 257)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“. . . to level ground naturally uneven, or to make an '''avenue''', by planting rows of trees on each side of a broad [[walk]], requires only the simplest perception of the beauty of mathematical forms, so, to lay out a garden in the [[geometric style]], became little more than a formal routine, and it was only after the superior interest of a more natural manner was enforced by men of genius, that natural beauty of expression was recognised, and [[Landscape Gardening]] was raised to the rank of a fine art. . . [Fig. 22]</p>
:<p>“And as the '''''Avenue''''', or the straight line, is the leading form in the geometric arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest [[park]]—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles [[square]], is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[woods]]. . .</p>
:<p>“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public [[square]]s and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine '''avenues''' of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . .</p>
:<p>“In '''avenues''' it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the [[square]] of the State-house, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . .</p>
:<p>“When handsome '''avenues''' or straight lines are wanted, the Horse-chestnut is again admirably suited, from its symmetry and regularity. . .</p>
:<p>“It is unnecessary for us to recommend this tree [the maple] for '''avenues''', or for bordering the streets of cities, as its general prevalence in such places sufficiently indicates its acknowledged claims for beauty, shade, and shelter. . .</p>
:“Where there is a taste for '''avenues''', the Tulip tree ought by all means to be employed, as it makes a most magnificent overarching canopy of verdure, supported on trunks almost architectural in their symmetry.” [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. The '''avenue''', indicated by V, begins from the lawn lying before the house at bottom center, running the full length of the garden, to the top.

Image:1378.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of an '''Avenue''' with its [[Wilderness|Wildernesses]] on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V. “The '''Avenue'''. . . having its ''Canal'' terminated on both ends with ''Groves of Forest Trees''. . .”

Image:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . House opening to the North upon a plain [[Parterre]] of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States. . . ,” 1791. The avenue is labelled "M" and "H".

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792.

Image:0410.jpg|Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795. “'''Avenue''' inscribed in center of grounds.”

Image:0181.jpg|Nicholas King, Section of Thomas Jefferson’s Design for “Pennsylvania Avenue,” 1803.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.

Image:1157.jpg|Jacques-Gerard Milbert (artist), Formentin (printer of plates), ''State of New-York. Mc.Comb’s Bridge Avenue'', c. 1819.

Image:0030.jpg|Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute’s plot for a [[botanical garden]] on the [[National Mall|Mall]], 1820.

Image:0039.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, ''Plan of [[Public garden/Public ground|Grounds]] adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822. Labeled "'''Pennsylvania Avenue'''."

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the Washington Canal,” 1831.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, “City of Washington,” c. 1836.

Image:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the [[National Mall|Mall]],” 1841. The avenues splay out from Capitol at right westward.

Image:1085.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Bay-Side '''Avenue''', Fern Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 42.

Image:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

Image:1513.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance '''Avenue''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 5 (November 1847): 233, fig. 33.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1074.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “Central '''Avenue''', [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” The Naval Monument, in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr. 1850), opp. 22.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan showing proposed method of laying out the [[Public garden/Public ground|public grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image:1612.jpg|Anonymous, "Hampton Court '''Avenue'''," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 6, No. 6 (June 1, 1851), pl. opp. 249.

Image:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "Cottage '''Avenue''' (9)"; "Dale '''Avenue''' (29)."

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], N. Michler (copied by), “Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public garden/Public ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington.” Manuscript copy of Andrew Jackson Downing’s plan for the Mall of 1851, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington, “A Description of two Lotts in the City of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn, . . .” Dec. 12th, 1698. Facsimile, Nov. 4th, 1882, by William Boogher.

Image:1815.jpg|[[William Bartram]], A great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', at Mount Royal, near [[Lake]] George, Georgia, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 57, fig. 6.

Image:2271.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, 1794, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, HM 2028

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, Moore and Jones (engravers), ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804.

Image:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania '''Avenue''' from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1186.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Avenues''', in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 943, fig. 630a–f.

Image:1431.jpg|Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and [[Picturesque]] Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, “. . . a sunken '''avenue''' with grass banks. . .” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 85.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', Vol II (1840), pl. 26.

Image:0548.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844 (recto). Linden avenue is the straight tree-lined walks along perimeter of the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:1088.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Indian [[Mound]],” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 19.

Image:1087.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay-Grove Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 26.

Image:1080.jpg|James Smillie, “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

Image:1076.jpg|James Smillie, “Entrance to the Cemetery” [detail], in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), title page.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “[[View]] of the Central [[Square]], [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 61.

Image:1135.jpg|John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood [[Cemetery]],'' 1848.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): opp. 280.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''[[View]] of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “''[[View]] of Washington'',” c. 1850.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''[[View]] of Washington'', 1852.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, ''Fairhill, The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:0147.jpg|Anonymous, Door Panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), 19.

Image:1377.jpg|Batty Langley, Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

Image:0106.jpg|Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover" [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637-1743'' (1743).

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].

Image:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. An avenue is located above "Mount Pleasant".

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0146.JPG|Winthrop Chandler, ''Homestead of General Timothy Ruggles, Hardwick, Massachusetts'', c. 1770–75.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0243.jpg|Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken, ''A [[View]] of Salem in N. Carolina—1787'', 1787.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792, in ''Folk Art'' 22, no. 3 (Fall 1997): 48.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753–1824)'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg[William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder'' (Mary Stoughton Sloss), 1793.

Image:2281.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Aerial [[view]] of two [[pavilion]]s on the water for the city of Speranza, 1795.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, “A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the [[plantation]] of Marigny,” November 1803.

Image:0507.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another [[View]] of the Same'', [[Ashley Hall]], 1803.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0232.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden Grove, The [[Seat]] of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.

Image:0876.jpg|Anonymous, [[View]] of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0094.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Mary Fairbanks'', c. 1815. The '''avenue''' runs to the left of the memorial.

Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c. 1814–20.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “View of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “[[View]] of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1431.jpg[Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and [[Picturesque]] Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), “Washington,” in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'' Vol. II (1834), opp. 222.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt, (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:0960.jpg[John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842), 22, fig. 8.

Image:1301.jpg|John Warner Barber, “South-west [[view]] in Ipswich, (central part.),” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), 192.

Image:1437.jpg|C. Bachman, ''New York'', c. 1848.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Meadow

2021-04-12T13:14:50Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Lawn]]

==History==
[[File:0601.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers lived in the state of Ohio, November 7, 1807. “Meadow” is noted in the center between the [[woods]] and cornfield.]]
According to lexicographer [[Noah Webster]] (1828), meadow referred “to the low ground on the banks of rivers. . . whether grassland, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land,” or low-lying lands that were particularly “appropriated to the culture of grass.” Both definitions of the term “meadow” were used in the American context.

[[File:0676.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, Garden Plan of “Newington” in Allegheny County, PA, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.]]
Maps of 18th-century New York and Boston show “salt meadows” along rivers. Like [[kitchen garden]]s or [[orchard]]s, meadows played a key role in early American husbandry, and descriptive accounts of productive farms and estates often mention meadows, particularly when they gave the landscape a rich or well-cultivated appearance. Meadows ranged in size from the 12-acre meadow noted in a 1747 newspaper advertisement to the estimated 50 acres of meadow attached to an estate in Pennsylvania. In an 1807 plan of South Union, Ohio, a meadow was located in close proximity to the residences and between areas designated as [[wood]]s and a cornfield [Fig. 1]. Since meadows were largely covered with grass, they could provide sustenance for cattle. Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], in describing the benefits of [[park]]s, frequently instructed homeowners to regard them as meadows where their cattle could graze. The cultivation of grass rendered “meadow” synonymous with “pasture,” which Webster defined as grounds covered with grass appropriated for the food of cattle, and hence these terms frequently were used interchangeably.

Although meadows were primarily associated with agricultural production, they were often part of a consciously designed landscape, as at “Newington,” Pennsylvania [Fig. 2]. They were also included in plans for [[plantation]]s and ornamental farms (see [[Ferme ornée]]). 18th-century British gardening treatises, for example, endorsed the incorporation of agricultural features into ornamental contexts: Batty Langley (1728) recommended “Little [[Walk]]s by purling streams in Meadows” as “delightful Entertainments.”

[[File:2255.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793. The designation of “60 acres of Meadow” is noted at “j,” in the four [[square]]s below the hemicycle.]]
In many instances, meadows accomplished the same aesthetic results as [[lawn]]s, including framing desired objects or [[view]]s. At the 18th-century estate of Westover on the James River in Virginia, for example, meadows watered by [[canal]]s lined the road leading to the mansion and signaled one’s arrival to the “improved grounds” surrounding the house. According to François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt (1799), Dr. Baron of Charleston, South Carolina, wanted to buy an area of flat land between his garden and the river to convert it to a meadow that could frame views of the distant [[prospect]]. [[Pierre Pharoux]], in his plan for Baron von Steuben’s estate in Mohawk Valley, New York, likewise used meadows carved out of [[wood]]s to ensure visual access to the [[prospect]] [Fig. 3].

Meadows were closely related to [[park]]s and [[lawn]]s; [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] on occasion referred to “meadow parks” and “meadow-[[lawn]]s”. Nevertheless, in at least one article in the ''Horticulturist'', he distinguished between [[lawn]]s and meadows, arguing that [[lawn]]s were composed of firm, close, and short grass, while coarser (and presumably taller) grasses with meadow flowers made up meadows. Moreover, [[lawn]]s were often trimmed and rolled to maintain their appearance, while the primary method of maintaining meadows was to allow animals to graze.

Like [[lawn]]s and [[bowling green]]s, the open grassy areas of meadows also provided space for sports and other leisure entertainments, as mentioned by a teacher in Salem, North Carolina, in 1817, who observed children playing round ball in the meadow of a tavern.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'')
:“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper. . . containing about 90 Acres, including a piece of English '''Meadow''' about 12 Acres, and more may be made, about 40 Acres being clear, the remainder [[Wood]]-Land.”

*Kalm, Pehr, October 4, 1748, describing his journey from Philadelphia to Wilmington, DE (1937: 1:81–82)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I rode now through [[wood]]s of several sorts of trees and now over pieces of land which had been cleared of the [[wood]] and which at present were grain fields, '''meadows''' and pastures. The farmhouses stood single, sometimes near the roads, and sometimes at a little distance from them, so that the space between the road and the houses was taken up with small cultivated tracts and '''meadows'''. . . The fields bore partly buckwheat, which was cut, partly corn, and partly wheat.”

*Brook, Elizabeth, 1756, describing Doughoregan Manor, seat of Charles Carroll (of Annapolis), Howard County, MD (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)
:“This place. . . is greatly improved, a fine, flourishing [[orchard]] with a variety of choice fruit, the garden inlarged and a stone [[wall]] built around it, 2 fine '''meadows'''.”

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)
:“The whole store of nature’s kind luxuriance seemed to have been exhausted on these beautiful '''meadows'''; he made me count the amazing number of cattle and horses now feeding on solid bottoms, which but a few years before had been covered with water.”

*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“You pass thro’ two [[gate]]s, and from the second, which leads you into the improved grounds, may be seen a village of [[quarter]]s as they are called for negroes. The road you get into upon opening this gate is spacious and very level bounded on either side by a handsome ditch & [[fence]] which divide the road from fine '''meadows''' whose extent is greater than the eye can reach; and on one side you see the river through trees of different sorts. These '''meadows''' well watered with [[canal]]s, which communicate with each other across the road give occasion every 50 yards for a [[bridge]]; and between every two [[bridge]]s are two gates one on each side the road.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, May 6, 1795, describing Pottsgrove, PA (1800: 1:35)<ref name="Liancourt">François-Alexandre-Frédéric duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The landscape is beautiful along this road, abounding with a great variety of fine [[view]]s, wonderfully enlivened by the verdure of the cornfields and '''meadows'''. . . If agriculture were better understood in these parts; if the fields were well mowed and well fenced; and if some trees had been left standing in the middle or on the [[border]]s of the '''meadows''', the most beautiful parts of Europe could not be more pleasing.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing an estate in Pennsylvania (1800: 1:101)<ref name="Liancourt"></ref>
:“The cultivated ground amounts in the whole to one hundred and twenty acres, fifty of which are laid out in artificial '''meadows''', and thirty-six in [[orchard]]s for apple and peach-trees. The '''meadows''' are beautiful, and the fields in good order.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New England (1821: 1:18, 2:335)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[vol. 1]. . . A succession of New-England villages, composed of neat houses, surrounding neat school-houses and churches, adorned with gardens, '''meadows''' and [[orchard]]s, and exhibiting the universally easy circumstances of the inhabitants, is, at least in my own opinon, one of the most delightful [[prospect]]s, which this world can afford. . .
:“[vol. 2] New England villages. . . are built in the following manner. . .
:“The lot, on which the house stands, universally styled the home lot, is almost of course a '''meadow''', richly cultivated, covered during the pleasant season with verdure, and containing generally a thrifty [[orchard]]. It is hardly necessary to observe, that these appendages spread a singular cheerfulness, and beauty, over a New-England village; or that they contribute largely to render the house a delightful residence.”

*Parkinson, Richard, 1798–1800, describing Orange Hill, near Baltimore, MD (1805: 1:163–64)<ref>Richard Parkinson, ''A Tour in America, 1798, 1799, and 1800: Exhibiting Sketches of Society and Manners, and a Particular Account of the American System of Agriculture, with Its Recent Improvements'', 2 vols. (London: J. Harding, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8PV5PS4/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My first work on the farm was to dress the '''meadows'''; which were called fine; though the greater part of them in England would not have been thought worthy of being called '''meadows''' at all, being overrun with briars and weeds of different description. Their state indeed was such, that when I mowed them, I sometimes in making hay did not know whether it was worth putting together, or not.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1799, describing Fitterasso, estate of Dr. Baron, Charleston, SC (1800: 2:435–36)<ref name="Liancourt"></ref>
:“This small [[plantation]], named Fitterasso, consists of four hundred acres, and cost him four thousand two hundred and eighty dollars; it is situated on a small [[eminence]] near the river. The site for the house, for none has hitherto been built, is the most pleasant spot which could be chosen in this flat, level country, where the tedious sameness of the [[wood]]s is scarcely variegated by some houses, thinly scattered, and where it is hardly possible to meet with a pleasant landscape. His garden is separated from the river by a morass, nearly drained; the whole extent of the northern bank of the river is nearly of the same description. Dr. Baron intends to purchase this intervening space, and to convert it into '''meadow'''-ground. This alteration will improve the [[prospect]], without rendering it a charming [[vista]].”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 13)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The variety of [[walk]]s, rows of trees, and the plenty with which the gardens and '''meadows''' were stored, displayed taste, industry and economy.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, 1809, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum">Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“‘Next, I visited a [[flower garden]] belonging to the female department. . . But it is situated on a hill, the East end of which is high & abrupt. . .
:“‘From the extremity of this place descended in different directions, two rows of steps, & joined again at the bottom, of the hill, where was a beautiful spring, from which issued a brisk current, winding in a serpentine course through a handsome '''meadow''', ’til it reached a brook about a quarter of a mile distant. This place was designed for literary repast, & evening amusement—is certainly well adapted for either or both.’”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing Belfield, estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 42)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I am often pleased with the solemn [[grove]]s skirting my '''meadows''' in mahestic [''sic''] silence and cool appearance.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (quoted in Miller and Ward 1991: fig. 87)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In this [[view]] imagine that you see a beautiful '''Meadow''' on the right. . . The [[Common]] water course is on the edge of the '''Meadow''' on the right and the doted [''sic''] line is a ditch to which I have a flood-[[gate]] to let water on the '''Meadow''' at Pleasure.” [Fig. 4]

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing the plants of North America (1814: 1:v)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Her [America] forests produce an endless variety of useful and stately timber trees; her [[wood]]s and [[hedge]]s the most ornamental flowering [[shrub]]s, so much admired in our [[pleasure ground]]s; and her fields and '''meadows''' a number of exceedingly handsome and singular flowers (many of them possessing valuable medicinal virtues), different from those of other countries.”

*Teacher at Moravian Boys School, 1817, describing Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 52)<ref name="Bynum"></ref>
:“This afternoon I went with the children. . . I took them to the tavern '''meadow''', where they played a little ''round ball''.”

*du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, July 21, 1837, describing her visit to a meadow (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 178)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie Du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823–1833'' (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K view on Zotero].</ref>
:“They were making hay in the undulating '''meadow''', which added to the [[picturesque]] effect of the scenery [''sic''] There is here a very convenient chaise a ''porteur'' in which I am carried, or the ''blackies'' here express it, ''toted'', from one place to another—”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, September 22, 1845, describing Boston, MA (1849: 1:30)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The extreme heat of summer does not allow of the green '''meadows''' and verdant [[lawn]]s of England, but there are some well-kept gardens here—a costly luxury where the wages of labor are so high.”

[[File:0363.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “View in the Meadow Park at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, describing Geneseo, seat of James S. Wadsworth, Genesee River Valley, NY (''Horticulturist'' 3: 163–65)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Meadow Park in Geneseo,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 163–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G6VXPK69/q/Geneseo view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The great agricultural estate of the WADSWORTH family, is the pride and centre of this precious family. That magnificent tract, of thousands of acres of the finest land, which surpasses in extent and value many principalities of the old world; those broad '''meadows''', where herds of the finest cattle crop the richest herbage, or rest under the deep shade of giant trees. . .
:“And what a [[prospect]]! The whole of that part of the valley embraced by the eye-say a thousand acres—is a [[park]], full of the finest oaks,—and such oaks as you may have dreamed of, (if you love trees,) or, perhaps, have seen in pictures by CLAUDE LORRAINE, or our own DURAND; but not in the least like those which you meet every day in your [[wood]]land [[walk]]s through the country at large. Or rather, there are thousands of such as you may have seen half a dozen examples of in your own country. . .
:“No underwood, no bushes, no [[thicket]]s; nothing but single specimens or groups of giant old oaks, (mingled with, here and there, an elm,) with level glades of broad '''meadow''' beneath them! An Englishman will hardly be convinced that it is not a [[park]], planted by the skilful hand of man hundreds of years ago.
:“This great '''meadow''' [[park]] is filled with herds of the finest cattle—the pride of the home—farm.” [Fig. 5]

[[File:1001.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Mount Fordham—the Country Seat of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” describing Mount Fordham, seat of Lewis G. Morris, New York, NY (''Horticulturist'' 6: 372)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 372–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RVU7GZDK/q/the%20annual%20cattle%20sale view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Around the house at Mount Fordham, extends on all sides a kind of '''meadow'''-[[lawn]], enclosed and divided by pretty wire [[fence]]s of various patterns. This [[lawn]] is kept short by the grazing of improved dairy stock, and we were glad to see successfully practiced what we have been commending so strongly of late to our readers, as the most available point of English country places, that we saw on the other side of the Atlantic—that is the maintenance of a neat and handsome [[lawn]] about a country house, not only without the expense of mowing, but with united profit and beauty—the profit of grazing the grass and the beauty—the real pastoral beauty—of fine cattle, soft turf, and pleasant groups of trees, as the home landscape of our country places generally. By adopting this course, the ''hay-field'' aspect of many so-called gentlemen’s country-[[seat]]s, would disappear, and a more complete and satisfactory [[lawn]] or [[park]] be acquired, with no loss of money, and the attainment of a higher species of keeping to one’s country home.” [Fig. 6]

===Citations===
*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“General DIRECTIONS, &c. . .
:“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to; and in the first are entertain’d with a pretty Fruit-Garden, or Paradice-Stocks. . . from which you are insensibly led through the pleasant Meanders of a shady delightful [[Plantation]]; first, into an oven [''sic''] Plain environ’d with lofty Pines. . . secondly, into a [[Flower-Garden]]. . . and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, or small '''Meadows'''. . .
:“XXVIII. Distant Hills in [[Park]]s, &c. are beautiful Objects, when planted with little [[Wood]]s; as also are Valleys, when intermix’d with Water, and large Plains; and a rude [[Coppice]] in the Middle of a fine ''Meadow'', is a delightful Object.
:“XXIX. Little [[Walk]]s by purling streams in '''Meadows''', and through Corn-Fields, [[Thicket]]s, &c. are delightful Entertainments.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers,'' 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“MEAD. ''n.s.'' [meade, Sax.] Ground somewhat watery, not plowed, but covered with grass and flowers.
:“'''ME’ADOW'''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 645, 651)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A '''meadow''' and its [[hedge]] excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the [[hedge]] lost the very vegetable character. . .
:“Let us lead such as still prefer it [[[geometric style|geometric]] flower [[bed]]s] to more free dispositions, into a May '''meadow''', full of the common weedy flowers of that healthy season, and terminated by a hawthorn [[hedge]] in bloom. . .”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Under the general title of '''Meadow''', is commonly comprehended all Pasture land, or at least all Grass Land, which is mown for Hay; but I choose rather to distinguish such land only by this Apellation, which is so low, as to be too moist for Cattle to graze upon them in winter, being too wet to admit heavy cattle, without poaching & spoiling the Sward, and those grass lands which I shall distinguish by the title of pasture.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''MEADOW''', med’-do. s. A rich pasture ground, from which hay is made.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“MEAD, '''MEADOW''', ''n. meed'', ''med’o''. [Sax. ''moede'', ''moedewe''; G. ''matte'', a mat, and a '''meadow'''; Ir. ''madh''. The sense is extended or flat depressed land. It is supposed that this word enters into the name ''Mediolanum'', now ''Milan'', in Italy; that is, ''mead-land''.]
:“A tract of low land. In America, the word is applied particularly to the low ground on the banks of rivers, consisting of a rich mold or an alluvial soil, whether grass land, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land; as the '''''meadows''''' on the banks of the Connecticut. The word with us does not necessarily imply wet land. This species of land is called, in the western states, ''bottoms'', or ''bottom land''. The word is also used for other low or flat lands, particularly lands appropriated to the culture of grass.
:“The word is said to be applied in Great Britain to land somewhat watery, but covered with grass. ''Johnson''.
:“'''Meadow''' means pasture or grass land, annually mown for hay; but more particularly, land too moist for cattle to graze on in winter, without spoiling the sward. ''Encyc. Cyc''.
:“[''Mead'' is used chiefly in poetry.]”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, “A Chapter on Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no 5. (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN/q/chapter%20on%20lawns view on Zotero].</ref>
:“After your [[lawn]] is once fairly established, there are but two secrets in keeping it perfect— frequent mowing and rolling. Without the first, it will soon degenerate into a coarse '''meadow'''; the latter will render it firmer, closer, shorter, and finer every time it is repeated.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1851, “The Management of Large Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 106)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Management of Large Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 105–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HKQH76RW/q/management%20of%20large%20country view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Considerable familiarity with the country-[[seat]]s on the Hudson, enables us to state that for the most part, few persons keep up a fine country place. . .
:“The remedy for this unsatisfactory condition of the large country places is, we think, a very simple one—that of turning a large part of their areas into park '''meadow''', and ''feeding'' it, instead of mowing and cultivating it.
:“The great and distinguishing beauty of England, as every one knows, is its [[park]]s. And yet the English parks are only very large '''meadows''', studded with great oaks and elms—and grazed—''profitably grazed'', by deer, cattle and sheep.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760.

File:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, ''PLAN of the CITY of NEW YORK'', c. 1767. "Sall '''Meadows'''" is at right hand side of map.

File:2255.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben’s Mannor”, c. 1793. The “60 acres of '''Meadow'''” is indicated at “j” in the four [[square]]s below the hemicycle.

File:0601.jpg|Anonymous, A plan of the section of land on which the Believers live in the state of Ohio, Nov. 7, 1807. “'''Meadow'''” is noted in the center between the [[woods]] and cornfield.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0676.jpg|Anonymous, Garden Plan of "Newington" in Allegheny County, Pa, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.

File:0572.jpg|Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, ''Plan of Fort Niagara'', in ''Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale'' (1826).

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Believers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National [[Park]] Service.

File:0363.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the '''Meadow''' [[Park]] at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.

File:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848. '''Meadow''' is inscribed between the word "PAST" "URE" on the right hand corner.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "This open girt of '''meadow''' (7)."
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0607.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, Pa., 1833

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “[[View]] of the [[Seat]] of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp. 648.

File:0263.jpg|John Brewster, ''Mother with Son (Lucy Knapp Mygatt and George Mygatt)'', 1799

File:0202.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall, Slave [[Quarter]]s with Field Hands at Work'', c. 1805.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, ''[[View]] of The [[Belvedere]] Club House, 1794'', 1828.

File:0608.jpg|W. Weingartner, Map of Harmony, In., 1832.

File:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of [[Landscape Gardening]]'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Deer park

2021-04-12T13:13:01Z

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See also: [[Park]]

==History==

[[File:0463.jpg|thumb|600 px|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.]]

Despite the proliferation of British deﬁnitions of deer park, American authors such as [[Noah Webster]] (1828) typically discussed it as a subcategory of the term “[[park]].” The American context yields only a few examples, which are mostly located in the mid-Atlantic region; thus the feature was relatively rare in America, despite the prevalence of white-tailed deer throughout the East Coast during the colonial and federal periods. Notably, however, deer cannot be truly domesticated and can be kept only in a semi-domesticated state from which humans can cull the species.<ref>Juliet Clutton-Brock, ''Domesticated Animals from Early Times'' (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 182–83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PUWC3TB2 view on Zotero].</ref> There were several reasons that the deer park was a feature that generally belonged to private landowners and not the public community. The lack of demarcated hunting areas in the colonial and federal periods in addition to the costs of devoting land to deer instead of more productive animals, such as cattle, prohibited their development. Nevertheless, the few deer parks identiﬁed indicate that the feature had both symbolic and practical value.

[[File:2260.jpg|thumb|450 px|Fig. 2, Unknown Maker, Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt, 1800–50.]]

An early representation of a deer park is the overmantle painting from Morattico Hall in Virginia [Fig. 1]. To the left, sharply demarcated from the urbanized mansion houses surrounding the harbor, is a panoramic landscape with deer and elegantly dressed hunters. This luxurious (and highly ﬁctionalized) setting suggests that the keeping of deer in parks for pleasure hunting was one of many signiﬁers of wealth and status in the colonial period. Many painted landscape views featured deer in a park-like setting [Fig. 2].

Accounts of actual deer parks support this thesis. Deer parks generally belonged to wealthy landowners who were anxious to display their prominent status. In 1830, Gen. John Mason, for example, noted that his father, a prominent Virginia landowner and political ﬁgure, created a fenced-in deer park, occupying an entire “plain” and “in full [[view]]” from the garden at Gunston Hall. Situating the deer park next to the garden would have given viewers from the house the impression of extensive land holdings.
[[File:1805.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Sophie Madeleine du Pont, Deer house at Eleutherian Mills, c. 1824.]]

Several descriptions and images of the deer park at [[Mount Vernon]] emphasize the value George Washington placed on the animals. Although Washington used the phrase “deer paddock” to refer to this area between the house and the river, other writers, such as Jedidiah Morse and Isaac Weld, called it the deer park. Letters between Washington and George Fairfax indicate that Washington received deer from several friends, suggesting that the practice of exchanging deer reinforced social relationships.<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, eds., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', vol. 4 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976–79), 184, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref> In addition, the deer park offered a ready supply of food, as well as prominent evidence of the landowner’s ability to devote acreage to nonagricultural products. In the case of Eleutherian Mills, in Wilmington, Del., the deer park was located next to a [[piazza]], and the family’s pet deer provided a source of entertainment, as noted by Sophie Madeleine du Pont (1826) [Fig. 3].

[[File:0342.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787–92.]]
[[File:0331.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, George Washington, ''Drawing and Notes for a [[Ha-Ha]] Wall at [[Mount Vernon]], October 1798'', 1798.]]
The destruction caused by deer at Mount Vernon illustrated the need for enclosure in deer parks. This also was noted by Webster in his definition of park. Washington, for example, bounded his deer park with a [[fence]], depicted in a painting from 1792 [Fig. 4]. He also used a sinuous brick deer [[wall]] or [[ha-ha]], which he drew in plan and described in a letter of 1798 (see [[Ha-Ha]]) [Fig. 5]. Similarly, an early nineteenth-century view of the Shaker community of Whitewater, Ohio, delineated an enclosed deer park as one of the various productive components of the town. Without such an enclosure, either at Whitewater or at [[Mount Vernon]], a deer park would have been incompatible with agricultural production.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Gooch, Lt. Gov. William, 1727, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 110)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[The Governor’s Palace contained] an handsome garden, an [[orchard]] full of fruit, and a very large '''Park'''. [He intended to turn the park] to better use I think than '''Deer''', which is feeding off of all sorts of Cattle.”

*Fisher, Daniel, 25 May 1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:802)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . descending from the House is a neat little '''Park''' tho’ I am told there are no '''Deer''' in it.”

*Burnaby, Rev. Andrew, 1760, describing a park and garden near the Passaic River, NJ (Burnaby 1775: 57)<ref>Andrew Burnaby, ''Travels through the Middle Settlements in North-America, in the Years 1759 and 1760'', 2nd ed. (London: Printed for T. Payne, 1775), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R59XPKD2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I went down two miles farther to the '''park''' and gardens of. . . colonel Peter Schuyler. In the gardens is a very large collection of citrons, oranges, limes, lemons, balsams of Peru, aloes, pomegranates, and other tropical plants; and in the '''park''' I saw several American and English '''deer''', and three or four elks or moose-'''deer'''.”

*Ecuyer, Capt. Simeon, April 1764, describing Fort Pitt, Pittsburgh, PA (quoted in Stotz 1970: 14)<ref>Charles Morse Stotz, ''Point of Empire, Conflict at the Forks of the Ohio'' (Pittsburgh: Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AHV6Q5TR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . the '''deer park''', the little garden, and the [[bowling green]], I am just now making into one garden, it will be extreamly [''sic''] pretty and very useful to this garrison, the King’s garden will be put in proper order.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1789: 381)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A small '''park''' on the margin of the river, where the English fallow-'''deer''', and the American wild-'''deer''' are seen through the [[thicket]]s, alternately with the vessels as they are sailing along, add a romantic and [[picturesque]] appearance to the whole scenery.” [See Fig. 4]

*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1799: 53)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ground in the rear of the house is also laid out in a [[lawn]], and the declivity of the Mount, towards the water, in a '''deer park'''.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, in a letter to his wife, Frances F. Bryant, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 1:108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . North of the house was a '''park''', with a few American '''deer''' in it and a large herd of spotted '''deer'''—a beautiful animal imported from Bengal.”

*du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, 1824 and 1826, describing Eleutherian Mills, estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, DE (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 47, 92–93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823–1833'' (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[November 17, 1824] Azore [a stag] begins to make great use of his horns—Mr. ''Brilliant'' (a frenchman who works in the reﬁnery,) plagueing him with Stephens, through the bars of the [[gate]]— a little after dinner Mr Delages went to go down and Brilliant accompanied him[.] Azore let Mr Delages pass but he ﬂew at Brilliant and threw him down—Stephens seized him by the horns and pulled him away—Brilliant got up again, but no sooner was Azore loose than he attacked him again, pushed him over the [[wall]] in front of the [[piazza]] and jumped over after him—Alex arrived and gave Azore a knock on the head with a stick of [[wood]] which hurt him a good deal—they at length succeeded in getting Brilliant away—ever since this the men are so much afraid of Azore that they will not pass thro’ the ['''deer'''] '''park''' though he is gentle as ever with us. . .

:“[September 25, 1826] This morning the little Italian (you know, that ''dwarf'' who works in the reﬁnery) went into the ['''deer'''] '''park''' to arrange something about the large well—Azore [the family’s pet stag] rushed on him, cut him severely on his breast and his leg—He came here to have his wounds dressed by Mama and notwithstanding the sympathy we felt for what he suffered, we could hardly help laughing at his description of the adventure—‘He threw me down and gave me a somerset’ &c &c ‘I went to ''help myself'' over the [[fence]], and the fellow came to help me’ &c &c. The ['''Deer'''] '''Park''' shellbarks are fully ripe, but Azore eats almost all that fall, besides which we are too much afraid of his lordship to trust ourselves long in his presence.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], 1829, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:147)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Coll. is possessed of immence property, he had 400 Ars. of land in a '''park''' to keep '''Deer''', round which was a fence of 20 rails high, Maise were planted within for sustenance of his '''deer'''.”

*Mason, John, 1830s, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (Gunston Hall Archives, John Mason “Recollections”)

:“On this front you descended directly into an extensive Garden-touching the house on one side & reduced from the natural irregularity of the Hill top, to perfect level Platform, the Southern extremity of which was bounded by a Spacious [[walk]] running eastwardly & westwardly, from which there was by the natural & sudden declivity of the Hill a rapid descent to the plain considerably below it. On this plain adjoining the Margin of the Hill opposite to & in full view from the Garden was was [''sic''] a '''Deer park''' studded with Trees kept well fenced and stocked with Native '''Deer''' domesticated.”

[[File:1103.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane: for the Year 1841'' (1841), frontispiece.]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (1841: 18)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Report of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane: for the Year 1841'' (Philadelphia: Board of Managers, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FMH8M3TV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Immediately in front of the Hospital, is a [[lawn]] forming a segment of a circle, in which is a circular rail road. To the east of this, and passing into the [[wood]]s, is the '''''deer-park''''', surrounded by a high pallisade, and forming an effectual and not unsightly division of the ground appropriated to the different sexes; from various points of which, and from the whole eastern front of the building, it is seen to much advantage.” [Fig. 6]

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Waltham House at the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1850: 330)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“844. ''Waltham House''. . . There is an extensive '''park''', containing about forty '''deer''', principally of the Bengal breed (''Downing’s Landscape Gardening.'')”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), September 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 412)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurserues,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 9 (September 1850): 406–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XHZHRHEU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The new and elegant mansion, so long vacant, is now occupied by the proprietor, and an air of liveliness, which they did not before possess, is now communicated to the '''park''', the [[pleasure-ground]] and the garden. . . The vast expanse of '''park''', which adds so much to the character of the old English residence, would possess only half the attraction it now does, but for the herds of '''deer''' which traverse its bounds, giving life and animation to the scene.”

===Citations===

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''PARK''', pa’rk. s. A piece of ground inclosed and stored with '''deer''' and other beasts of chase.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''P`ARK''', ''n''. [Sax. ''parruc'', ''pearruc''; Scot. ''parrok''; W. ''parc''; Fr. ''id''.; It. ''parco''; Sp. ''parque''; Ir. ''pairc''; G. Sw. ''park''; D. ''perk''. . .]
:“A large piece of ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase, in England, by the king’s grant or by prescription. To constitute a '''park''', three things are required; a royal grant or license; inclosure by pales, a [[wall]] or [[hedge]]; and beasts of chase, as '''deer''', &c. ''Encyc''.
:“'''''Park''' of artillery'', or ''artillery '''park''''', a place in the rear of both lines of an army for encamping the artillery, which is formed in lines, the guns in front, the ammunition-wagons behind the guns. . . ''Encyc''. . .
:“'''''Park''' of provisions'', the place where the sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, and that where the bread wagons are stationed.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 418)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''PARK''', in the modern acceptation of the word, is an extensive adorned inclosure surrounding the house and gardens, and affording pasturage either to '''deer''' or cattle. In Great Britain, a '''park''', strictly and legally, is a large extent of a man’s own ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase by prescription or by royal grant. (''Coke’s Litt''. 233. a. ''Blackstone'', 2. 38.). . . It has been decided by the superior courts of law, that to constitute a '''park''' these circumstances are essential:—1. A grant from the king, or prescription. 2. That it be inclosed by a [[wall]], pale, or [[hedge]]. 3. That it contain beasts of '''park''', and if it fail in any one of these, it is a total disparking. (''Croke Car. 59.'') Of such '''parks''' there are said to be 781 in England. (''Brooks Abr. Action sur Stat. 48.'')”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0592.jpg|George Kendall, “[[View]] of Whitewater,” Ohio [detail], 1835.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. "'''Deer-Park''' (3)."

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0069.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

File:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787–92.

File:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

File:0331.jpg|George Washington, ''Drawing and Notes for a [[Ha-Ha]] [[Wall]] at [[Mount Vernon]], October 1798'', 1798.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]]: for the Year 1841'' (1841), frontispiece.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

File:2260.jpg|Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt, Unknown maker, Massachusetts, United States, 1800-1850.

File:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace/Slope|Terraces]], 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

File:1804.jpg|Sophie Madeleine du Pont, “Starecatus’s gallant exploit--(ie) putting Azor [sic] to fight with no other weapon but the broomstick--,” November 17, 1824.

File:1805.jpg|Sophie Madeleine du Pont, '''Deer''' house at Eleutherian Mills, c. 1824.

File:1112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]] (artist), B. King (lithographer), ''Riversdale, near Bladensburg'', 1827.

File:1017.jpg|Thomas Worthington Whittredge, ''[[View]] of Cincinnati'', c. 1840–45. Worcester Art Museum, MA.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]

Andrew Jackson Downing

2021-04-08T19:26:13Z

V-Federici: /* Images */

'''Andrew Jackson Downing''' (October 31, 1815—July 28, 1852), a nurseryman, landscape designer, and author, helped steer American popular taste in landscape and garden design toward more [[natural style|natural]], [[picturesque]] modes in the middle of the 19th century [Fig. 1]. In addition to “rural design,” he promoted the professionalization of landscape design and reached a growing middle-class audience through his influential books and periodicals. Concerned about the effects of overcrowded, industrialized cities, Downing advocated for the development of suburbs as well as the creation of public [[park]]s. At the time of his death at age thirty-six, he was at work on ambitious plans for Public Grounds in Washington, DC, on the present site of the [[National Mall]].

==History==
[[File:2244.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Downing, A. J. (Andrew Jackson), in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
[[File:2154.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries'', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]
[[File:2155.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, A. J. Downing, “Advertisement. Professional Landscape Gardening,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8.]]
Andrew Jackson Downing, a leading nurseryman, landscape designer, and author in the mid-19th-century United States, was born in 1815 in Newburgh, New York—where he spent his entire life and career—to nurseryman Samuel Downing (d. 1822) and his wife, Eunice Bridge Downing (d. 1838). A. J. Downing showed an early interest in horticulture, joining the family [[nursery]] business in 1831 while still a teenager.<ref>Robert Twombly, “Introduction: Architect and Gardener to the Republic,” in ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), 15—16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]</ref> He took over his brother Charles’s share of the business soon after their mother’s death in 1838 and named the establishment Botanic Garden and Nurseries (also known as Highland Gardens or Highland Nurseries) [Fig. 2]. Downing soon began to market himself primarily as a landscape designer, advertising “Professional [[Landscape Gardening]]” services in the 1842 volume of C. M. Hovey's ''Magazine of Horticulture'' [Fig. 3].<ref>See also Twombly 2012, 15, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; David Schuyler, ''Apostle of Taste: Andrew Jackson Downing 1815—1852'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 74—76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Throughout this period, he also published extensively on horticulture, landscape design, and architecture. Downing sold Botanic Garden and Nurseries in 1846, as landscape design and writing activities started to occupy more of his attention.<ref>Twombly 2012, 18—19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 214, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Between 1841 and 1850, Downing published four books that had a significant and enduring impact on the fields of landscape design, horticulture, and architecture in the United States. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America''—Downing’s first book and the first treatise on [[landscape gardening]] published in the United States—lays out “leading principles” and “practicable methods” by which land owners could embellish their rural residences. For Downing, such embellishments were of great civil and social import; he claimed that home improvements could “increase local attachments . . . strengthening [the proprietor’s] patriotism and making him a better citizen.” <span id="Downing_1841 preface_cite"></span>In the preface, Downing also acknowledged that he drew heavily on European—especially British—authors when developing his principles of landscape design, adapting their recommendations to suit “this country [the United States] and the peculiar wants of its inhabitants” ([[#Downing_1841 preface|view text]]).

Although he did not view English landscapes in person until the end of his life, when he traveled abroad for the first and only time in 1850, British landscape theories of the [[picturesque]] played a significant role in the formulation of Downing’s landscape design principles. These writings include especially those of Edmund Burke (1729—1797), Sir Uvedale Price (1747—1829), Humphry Repton (1752—1818), John Claudius Loudon (1783—1843), and John Ruskin (1819—1900).<ref>Adam W. Sweeting notes that, while Downing did not quote Burke and departed from Burke’s theories, in some respects, Downing's characterization of the Beautiful "followed the wording of his English predecessor almost exactly.” Adam W. Sweeting, ''Reading Houses and Building Books: Andrew Jackson Downing and the Architecture of Popular Antebellum Literature'', 1835—1855 (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996), 19—20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SDCTTVIV view on Zotero]. Caren Yglesias argues that for Downing “the most important theoretical work was Sir Uvedale Price’s ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (1794).” Caren Yglesias, ''The Complete House and Grounds: Learning from Andrew Jackson Downing’s Domestic Architecture'' (Chicago: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago, 2011), 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero]. In 1850 Downing spent three months traveling in England, Paris, and Belgium. He published his impressions in a series of letters in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1850—51. Twombly 2012, 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. Eight of “Mr. Downing’s Letters from England” were published monthly in the ''Horticulturist'' between September 1850 (vol. 5, no. 3) and March 1851 (vol. 6, no. 3), and in June 1851 (vol. 6, no. 6).</ref> <span id="Downing_1844_cite"></span>By the time Downing published the second edition of his ''Treatise'' in 1844, he was arguing more forcefully for the “great advantage” of the [[picturesque]], writing in a passage not included in the first edition, “The raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface, by the margin of many of our rivers and brooks, are at once appropriated with so much effect, and so little art, in the [[picturesque]] mode; the annual tax on the purse too, is so comparatively little, and the charm so great!” ([[#Downing_1844|view text]]). Downing thus became a champion of landscapes in the [[natural style]] during the middle of the 19th century, helping to steer American popular taste away from the more [[geometric style|geometric]] modes that dominated throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. According to David Schuyler, “Downing interpreted this progression from classic to romantic not simply as a change in stylistic preference but as a reflection of the nation’s evolution from a pioneer condition to a more advanced state of civilization.”<ref>Schuyler 1996, 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File: 0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
Between the publication of the first two editions of the ''Treatise'', Downing altered his recommendations on the use of native versus exotic plants. <span id="Downing_1841_excerpt_cite"></span>In 1841, while he still made his living primarily as a nurseryman, Downing warned estate owners not to replicate the woodlands of the surrounding Hudson Valley countryside and instead advocated the use of non-local North American and Eurasian species ([[#Downing_1841_excerpt|view text]]). Philip J. Pauly has argued that financial decisions may have informed Downing’s advice, noting that gardeners who used exclusively local plants “would generate little business for nurserymen like Downing.” By 1844, when Downing was better known as an author and designer than as a nurseryman, he embraced the use of local landscape features—especially “the raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface”—in [[picturesque]] landscape design. According to Pauly, this shift may have been rooted in nativist attitudes as well as design considerations. <span id="Downing_1844_excerpt_cite"></span>Likely concerned about increased professional competition with the rise of immigration during this period, Downing added a “Note on Professional Quackery” to the appendix of the 1844 edition of his ''Treatise'', in which he singled out “a foreign ''soi-disant'' landscape gardener” who, in Downing’s view, had “completely spoiled the simply grand beauty of a fine river residence” by “only follow[ing] a mode sufficiently common and appropriate in a level inland country, like that of Germany. . . but entirely out of keeping” with the character of local landscape ([[#Downing_1844_excerpt|view text]]).<ref>According to Pauly, Downing was particularly upset that William Backhouse Astor, proprietor of Rokeby, an estate located about ten miles north of Hyde Park, hired Hans Jacob Ehlers (1804—1858), who had been trained in Germany and Denmark, as his landscape gardener in 1841. Philip J. Pauly, ''Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 169—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RM4928T6 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File: 1868.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “Residence of Bishop Doane, Burlington, New Jersey,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 387, bottom image.]]
[[Image:0365.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Mr. Dunn’s Cottage, Mount Holly, N. J.,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 11.]]
[[File:0386a.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Grecian [[vase]]s, in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 425, figs. 70—72.]]
[[File:1172b.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Example in grouping,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 135, fig. 34.]]
While preparing the manuscript for the first edition of his ''Treatise'' in 1838, Downing enlisted the help of the New York City architect [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (1803—1892) to illustrate the text—a collaboration that would continue throughout the remainder of Downing’s career [Fig. 4]. Downing, who, Robert Twombly argues, was “not a polished draftsman,” provided [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] with sketches that [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] “put into proper form for engraving and publication.”<ref>Twombly 2012, 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. Downing and Davis met through their friend Robert Donaldson (1800—1872) in late 1838 or early 1839. Davis had designed Donaldson’s estate, Blithewood, on the Hudson River. Schuyler 1996, 50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Because of advances in printing technologies, Downing was able to integrate images into his texts easily and inexpensively, making his well-illustrated publications affordable to a growing middle-class audience. He illustrated diverse examples of architectural and landscape designs in the ''Treatise'', ranging from residences of various sizes to small garden embellishments and ideal arrangements of plants and trees [Figs. 5—8]. Caren Yglesias has argued that “The images satisfied his audience’s visual appetite and allowed readers to imagine their own tasteful homes and gardens,” using the accompanying texts as a guide.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref> Downing’s ''Treatise'' was immediately popular after its publication; he published at least two additional editions of the text during his lifetime (in 1844 and 1849), and the ''Treatise'' remained in print until the publication of its tenth edition in 1921.<ref>The 1849 publication is the fourth edition. The second edition, published in 1844, “included an announcement for a third” edition, which was likely never published. Therese O’Malley, Introduction to ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', ed. A. J. Downing, 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1991), x, xn20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. In the first twelve years, Downing’s ''Treatise'' sold approximately 9,000 copies. Schuyler 1996, 28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. For an analysis of the various editions of the ''Treatise'' edited by Downing, see Judith K. Major, ''To Live in the New World: A. J. Downing and American Landscape Gardening'' (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997), 7—98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IJRZTPR2 view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="Downing_1842_preface_cite"></span>In 1842 Downing and [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] collaborated on a second book, ''Cottage Residences'', which proposed integrated designs for modest dwellings and gardens that targeted cost-conscious, middle-class consumers ([[#Downing_1842_preface|view text]]). Downing’s third book, ''The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America'', published in 1845, drew on his experience as a nurseryman and offered practical advice on planting [[orchard]]s.<ref>Twombly notes that while ''The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America'' was the third book that Downing published, it was actually the second one written. By 1841 Downing was already working on the manuscript. Twombly 2012, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref> Downing’s fourth and final book, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'', published in 1850, again provided practical advice for homeowners and proposed designs for freestanding houses. In the preface, Downing argued for the “moral influence” and social benefits of having “good houses.” <span id="Downing_1850_preface_cite"></span>He wrote, “when smiling [[lawn]]s and tasteful cottages begin to embellish the country, we know that order and culture are established. . . . the interest manifested in the Rural Architecture of a country like this, has much to do with the progress of its civilization” ([[#Downing_1850_preface|view text]]). Unlike Downing’s previous architectural tome, ''The Architecture of County Houses'' provided no specific advice on landscape gardening.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Downing also published numerous articles in horticultural periodicals throughout his career. <span id="Downing_1832_cite"></span>In 1832, at age sixteen, he contributed his first essay to a regional horticultural magazine ([[#Downing_1832|view text]]).<ref>Downing published the essay as a letter to the editor, signed “X. Y. Z. Newburgh,” in ''New-York Farmer and Horticultural Repository'' 5 (September 1832); A. J. Downing, ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'', ed. Robert Twombly (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), 143—48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/58ISW6RH view on Zotero].</ref> In July 1846, following the successful release of his first three books, he became the founding editor of a new monthly journal started by Luther Tucker (1802—1873) in Albany, New York, ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'', a position that he held for six years.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref> Downing published seventy-four monthly editorials covering a wide range of topics in the ''Horticulturist'' and, as with his books, worked with [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] to illustrate his articles. Downing devoted much of his writing to the topics of rural improvement and land management. His advocacy for such issues extended beyond his role as editor, however. As a champion for public agricultural education, Downing helped develop a plan for a state agricultural college in New York between 1849 and 1852 that, much to his disappointment, was never realized. He had long argued for the importance of institutions of public learning, claiming that they were essential for the development of American society and republican virtues. To this end, throughout the late 1830s and early 1840s, Downing helped establish the Newburgh Library Association (1835), the Newburgh Lyceum (1837), and the Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson (1838).<ref>Twombly 2012, 15, 17, 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 18—20, 120, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to advocating for rural improvements, Downing also addressed the importance of urban and suburban public [[park]]s and gardens, arguing that such spaces would aid in the cultivation of moral and civic virtues in the American public. Such notions gained currency throughout the 1840s and 1850s, a period in which public gardens were increasingly conceived to serve both recreational and edifying functions.<ref>Therese O’Malley, “‘A Public Museum of Trees’: Mid-Nineteenth Century Plans for the Mall,” in ''The Mall in Washington, 1791—1991'', ed. by Richard Longstreth, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Studies in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers, XIV, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2002), xxx, 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref> Downing was a significant proponent of this view. In his October 1848 ''Horticulturist'' editorial entitled “A Talk about Public Parks and Gardens,” for example, Downing wrote that public [[park]]s would play an important role “in elevating the national character.” <span id="Downing_1848_cite"></span>He urged his readers: “Let our people see for themselves the influence for good which [the founding of a public [[park]]] would effect, no less than the healthful enjoyment it will afford, and I feel confident that the taste for public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], in the United States, will spread as rapidly as that for [[cemetery|cemeteries]] has done” ([[#Downing_1848|view text]]).<ref>Twombly 2012, 32, 34—35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. See also A. J. Downing, “Our Country Villages,” '' Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 540—41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref> As editor, Downing also published the writing of other important advocates for public parks, including an early essay by Frederick Law Olmsted (1822—1903) entitled “The People’s Park at Birkenhead, Near Liverpool.”<ref>W. [Frederick Law Olmsted], “The People’s Park at Birkenhead, Near Liver[p]ool,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6 (1851): 224–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/U59KJXQV view on Zotero.]</ref>

Downing gained a wide audience through his books and editorials in the ''Horticulturist'', but his influence exceeded the readership of such publications as agricultural journals and later generations of pattern-book authors modified, adapted, and widely disseminated Downing’s ideas. Much as Downing had imitated and altered English architectural and landscape practices to suit an American audience, according to Schuyler, “[t]he publication of his designs was followed by a process of imitation and modification, an American analogue to the adaptation of English forms he had practiced.”<ref>Schuyler 1996, 229, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Gardens and buildings that were not designed by Downing but nonetheless owed their forms to Downing’s ideas proliferated throughout the United States during the middle of the 19th century.<ref>Twombly 2012, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2156.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Unknown, “Residence of the Late A. J. Downing, Newburgh on the Hudson” and “General Plan of House & Grounds,” in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturist'' 3, new series (1853), frontispiece.]]
[[File:1264.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 10, Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.]]
Few of Downing’s design projects are extant. His first major architectural and landscape design project was Highland Garden (also known as Highland Place), Downing’s own Tudor-style house in Newburgh that he designed in 1838, around the time of his marriage to Caroline Elizabeth De Windt (1815—1905).<ref>Caroline Elizabeth De Windt was the granddaughter of John Adams (1735—1826), the second president of the United States, and grand-niece of John Quincy Adams (1767—1848), the sixth president of the United States. When Eunice Bridge Downing died in 1838, Downing and his brother Charles (1802—1885) inherited more than eleven acres. They divided the property evenly, each taking four-and-a-half acres with the remaining two-plus acres held jointly. The house was completed in 1839 on the property that Downing inherited. Twombly 2012, 17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref> Although “the Newburgh villa was. . . an accomplished work,” Adam W. Sweeting argues that Downing, only twenty-four years old and with no formal architectural training, most likely “relied on an English pattern book when designing his house.” Initially, Downing’s [[nursery]] business took up much of the property near the residence, limiting the scope of his landscape design. However, after selling the [[nursery]] in 1846, he developed the landscape surrounding his home to resemble a [[picturesque]] English estate [Fig. 9].<ref>Sweeting 1996, 128, 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SDCTTVIV view on Zotero].</ref> Although he was not a trained architect, as his national reputation grew, Downing received requests to design private and public buildings. According to Schuyler, between 1846 and 1850, Downing usually passed these commissions on to [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]]. However, there are at least three projects from this period on which Downing and [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] worked together on the architectural design: Angier Cottage in Medford, Massachusetts; the design for the proposed New York State Agricultural College; and the plans for the entrance gate and chapel for the [[Cemetery]] of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, New York.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 155, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> While traveling in London in 1850, Downing met the young English architect Calvert Vaux (1825—1895) and convinced Vaux to move to Newburgh so that he could pursue additional architectural projects with Vaux’s assistance. From September 1850 until July 1852, Vaux worked with Downing—initially in Downing’s employ before the two formed a professional partnership, “Downing & Vaux, Architects.” Of their many collaborations, Springside, Matthew Vassar’s (1792—1868) one-hundred-acre estate in Poughkeepsie, New York, is one of the few that survives largely intact [Fig. 10].<ref>For more information on Downing and Vaux’s commission for Springside, see Schuyler 1996, 164—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. Other projects include a block of commercial shops and offices in Boston’s waterfront district; the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York; houses for David Moore and Dr. William A. M. Culbert in Newburgh, New York; Italianate villas for the brothers Robert P. and Francis Dodge in Georgetown, Washington, DC; and Daniel Parish’s villa on Bellevue Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island. See Twombly 2012, 22—23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 170—74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Downing and Vaux’s most significant project was the 1850—52 plans for a Public Grounds in Washington, DC, located in the area that now constitutes the [[National Mall]]. At the behest of Smithsonian Secretary Joseph Henry (1797—1878), financier William Wilson Corcoran (1798—1888), Mayor Walter Lenox (1817—1874), and Commissioner of Public Buildings Ignatius Mudd (d. 1851), President Millard Fillmore (1800—1874) invited Downing to create a public [[park]] of approximately 150-acres, extending east-west between the foot of the United States Capitol Grounds and the Potomac River (then near the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]]) and north-south between the river and the White House.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 192, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Therese O’Malley has argued that improvements to Washington’s public spaces during these years should be understood as an effort “to counteract the reputation of an unimproved capital and a center of slavery.” Following the abolition of the slave trade (although not slavery itself) in the city in 1850 and the removal of slave pens across from the Smithsonian Institution’s new building, Downing’s plans to redevelop the site bolstered the federal government’s attempts to present “the appearance of democracy” and “strengthen physical symbols of the national image” through the development of the city’s public spaces.<ref> O’Malley 2002, 61—62. See also pages 70—71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1967.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.]]
[[File:0352.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 12, A. J. Downing, ''Suspension [[bridge]] across the [[Canal]]'' [proposed], 1851.]]
[[File:0351.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 13, A. J. Downing, “Presidents Arch at the end of Penn<sup>a</sup> Avenue,” 1851.]]
[[File:0042.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 14, Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.]]
Downing’s plan divided the Public Grounds into six sections [Fig. 11]. The U.S. Capitol Grounds would connect to the national [[Botanic Garden]], located on the site of the former [[Columbian Institute]], and then, continuing westward, to “Fountain Park,” the “Smithsonian Pleasure Grounds,” “Evergreen Garden,” and “Monument Park” (the area surrounding the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]]). A suspension [[bridge]] [Fig. 12] would cross the Tiber Canal, connecting the “Monument Park” to the circular [[lawn]] of the “Parade or President’s Park” and then the “President’s Grounds” located adjacent to the White House. Downing proposed a marble triumphal “President’s Arch” [Fig. 13], located at the end of Pennsylvania Avenue near the “President’s Grounds,” to mark the main entrance to the Public Grounds from the city. With the exception of the “Evergreen Garden” and the “Parade or President’s Park,” Downing intended for the Public Grounds to be landscaped in what he called the [[natural style]], with curving [[walk]]s and [[picturesque]] arrangement of trees and artificial [[lake]]s [Fig. 14].<ref>Twombly 2012, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; see also Schuyler 1996, 196—198, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]; and O’Malley 2002, 64—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Downing_1851_cite"></span>In accordance with his views on the functions of public parks noted above, Downing’s goals for the redevelopment of the [[National Mall]] were, in part, pedagogical. He wrote that he hoped the Public Grounds would “become a Public School of Instruction in every thing [sic] that relates to the growth and culture of trees” ([[#Downing_1851|view text]]).

President Fillmore approved the western portion of Downing’s plan in April 1851, and the clearing, draining, and grading of the area around the Smithsonian began almost immediately. However, Downing’s life and career were tragically cut short when, on July 28, 1852, the steamship ''Henry Clay'', on which Downing was traveling between Newburgh and New York City, caught fire and he drowned. In his memory, the so-called Downing Urn was sponsored by the American Pomological Society, designed by Vaux, and sculpted in marble by Robert E. Launitz (1806—1870). Erected in 1856, it was the first monument to be completed on the [[National Mall]].<ref>President Fillmore met with Downing in November 1850, and Downing completed a plan in February 1851. Fillmore approved the plans west of 7th Street in April 1851 and the plans east of 7th Street in February 1853, after Downing’s death. Twombly 2012, 23—24, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 199, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. In response to the burning of the ''Henry Clay'', the architect Robert Mills wrote to Fillmore in August 1852 to propose a solution to protect steamers and prevent similar tragedies. Mills did not refer to Downing by name in his letter but did note the “hecatomb of victims.” Letter from Robert Mills to President Millard Fillmore, August 6, 1852, quoted in H. M. Pierce Gallagher, ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781—1855'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), 208—9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero]. See also O’Malley 2002, 76n61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero]. Since 1989, the urn has been located in the Enid A. Haupt Garden behind the Smithsonian Castle. Smithsonian Gardens website, http://www.gardens.si.edu/our-gardens/downing-urn.html.</ref>

Through his writing and landscape projects, Downing left a legacy that continued to shape landscape design—and especially the urban [[park]] movement—in the United States long after his death. As designers of New York City’s Central Park, Vaux and Olmsted acknowledged that Downing’s design principles inspired their 1857—58 plan for the urban [[park]].<ref>Twombly 2012, 15, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view in Zotero].</ref> In 1889 Vaux and Olmsted joined forces again to plan the Andrew Jackson Downing Memorial Park, which was dedicated in Newburgh, New York, to the memory of their friend and collaborator.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Downing_1832"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, September 1832, “Rural Embellishments” (2012: 144)<ref name="Downing_2012">A. J. Downing, ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'', ed. Robert Twombly (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/58ISW6RH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In this age of improvement, perhaps nothing is advancing more rapidly, though to many imperceptibly, than the science of Horticulture. Our native forests are fast disappearing, the luscious apple and the melting peach now occupy the places once tenanted by worthless crabs and thorns, and the floral and pomonal treasures of the four continents bloom and flourish in many a spot which had long been overshadowed by ancient oak and elm.
:“The eye of an observing person is constantly reminding him of the rapid increase of costly and beautiful mansions, the abode of the wealthy farmer or the retreat of the retired citizen; and a few remarks on the rural embellishment of these are my principle reason for troubling you with this communication. That branch of horticulture called [[landscape gardening]] is, as yet, completely in its infancy among us; in fact, many—far too many—of our landed proprietors who are actively engaged in giving a character as to the appearance of their estates have but a feeble knowledge of the existence, much less the practice, of such an art.” [[#Downing_1832_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The branch of the art least understood and least practised in the United States is ''[[landscape gardening]]''. The [[modern style|modern]] or [[picturesque]] style of laying out grounds is most generally attempted of late, and, we regret to see, in some cases where the [[geometric style|geometric]] would be more in character with the country and the situations. The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[seat]], [[Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]] may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia.”

*<div id="Downing_1841 preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1841, Preface to ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1841: ii—iii)<ref name="Downing_1841">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“While we have treatises in abundance on the various departments of the arts and sciences, there has not appeared even a single essay on the elegant art of [[Landscape Gardening]]. Hundreds of individuals who wish to ornament their grounds and embellish their places, are at a loss how to proceed, from the want of some ''leading principles'', with the knowledge of which they would find it comparatively easy to produce delightful and satisfactory results.
:“In the following pages I have attempted to trace out such principles, and to suggest practicable methods of embellishing our Rural Residences, on a scale commensurate to the views and means of our proprietors. While I have availed myself of the works of European authors, and especially those of Britain, where [[Landscape Gardening]] was first raised to the rank of a fine art, I have also endeavoured to adapt my suggestions especially to this country and to the peculiar wants of its inhabitants. . .
:“The love of country is inseparably connected with the ''love of home''. Whatever, therefore, leads man to assemble the comforts and elegancies of life around his habitation, tends to increase local attachments, and render domestic life more delightful; thus not only augmenting his own enjoyment, but strengthening his patriotism and making him a better citizen. And there is no employment or recreation which affords the mind greater or more permanent satisfaction, than that of cultivating the earth and adorning our property.” [[#Downing_1841 preface_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1841_excerpt"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1841, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1841: 34—35)<ref name="Downing_1841"/>
:“A fac-simile imitation of nature in gardening, that is, a scene like wild nature, in which only wild trees, shrubs, and plants, are employed, and which is precisely like wild nature, produces pleasure only as it deceives us, and appears to be nature itself. An artistical imitation, affords pleasure to the mind, not only by the expressions of natural beauty which we discover in it, but by the more novel and choicer forms in which they are displayed, and by the tasteful art apparent in the arrangement. The relative merit of the two may be illustrated, by comparing the first, to the counterfeit of the human figure in wax, which at a short distance may be thought to be real, and the last, to the painted landscape or the marble [[statue]]. The two latter are no less imitations of nature, than the former, but they are expressive and elegant imitations only, which are never to be mistaken for the originals, as in the case of the wax figure.
:“One of the chief elements of artistical imitation in [[Landscape Gardening]], being a difference in the materials employed in the imitation of nature from those in nature herself, nothing can be more apparent, than the necessity of introducing largely, exotic ornamental trees, shrubs and plants, instead of those of indigenous growth. Thus, to take the simplest example, if we suppose a [[lawn]] of an acre, arranged with groups of trees, the groups composed of lindens, horse-chestnuts and magnolias, where the native forests are only filled with oak and ash trees, the variety of the foliage and blossoms alone, will at once suggest the recognition of art. [[Border]]s of rare flowers, and climbing plants,—gravel [[walk]]s, in the place of common paths or roads,—smooth turf, instead of wild [[meadow]],—elegant [[vase]]s and architectural ornaments, with many other accessories, bespeaking the presence of tasteful and enlightened mind; all these are the essential characteristics of [[Landscape Gardening]], considered as an art of imitation.” [[#Downing_1841_excerpt_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1842_preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1842, Preface to ''Cottage Residences'' (1842: ii—iv)<ref name="Downing_1842">A. J. Downing, ''Cottage Residences; or A Series of Designs for Rural Cottages and Cottage-Villas and their Gardens and Grounds. Adapted to North America'', (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVDP37KI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . I wish to inspire all persons with a love of beautiful forms and a desire to assemble them around their daily walks of life. I wish them to appreciate how superior is the charm of that home where we discover the tasteful cottage or villa, and the well designed and neatly kept garden or grounds, full of beauty and harmony, not the less beautiful and harmonious because simple and limited, and to become aware that these superior forms, and the higher and more refined enjoyment derived from them, may be had at the same cost and with the same labor as a clumsy dwelling, and its uncouth and ill designed accessories. . .
:“The relation between a country house and its ‘surroundings,’ have led me to consider, under the term Residences, both the architectural and the gardening designs. To constitute an agreeable whole, these should indeed have a harmonious correspondence one with the other; and although most of the following designs have not actually be carried into execution, yet it is believed that they will, either entirely or in part, be found adapted to many cases of every day occurrence, or at least, furnish hints for variations suitable for peculiar circumstances and situations.” [[#Downing_1842_preface_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1844"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 59—60)<ref name="Downing_1844">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Within the last five years, we think the [[picturesque]] is beginning to be preferred. It has, when a suitable locality offers, great advantage for us. The raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface, by the margin of many of our rivers and brooks, are at once appropriated with so much effect, and so little art, in the [[picturesque]] mode; the annual tax on the purse too, is so comparatively little, and the charm so great!
:“On the other hand, the residences of a country of level plains, usually allow only, the beauty of simple, and graceful forms; and the larger desmesne, with its swelling hills and noble masses of [[wood]], (may we not, prospectively, say the prairie too,) should always, in the hands of the man of wealth, be made to display all the freeness and beauty of the Graceful school.
:“But there are many persons with small, cottage places, of little decided character, who have neither room, time, nor income, to attempt the improvement of their grounds fully, after either of those two schools. How shall they render their places tasteful and agreeable, in the easiest manner? We answer, ''by attempting only the simple and the natural''; and the unfailing way to secure this, is by employing only trees and grass. A soft verdant [[lawn]], and a few forest or ornamental trees, well grouped, give universal pleasure—they contain in themselves, in fact, the basis of all our agreeable sensations in a landscape garden—(natural beauty, and the recognition of art,) and they are the most enduring sources of enjoyment in any place.” [[#Downing_1844_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1844_excerpt"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1844, Excerpt from “Note on Professional Quackery,” Appendix IV in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 493)<ref name="Downing_1844"/>
:“[[Landscape Gardening]], like all other arts, is not ignorant pretenders of knowledge, who, without a spark of appreciation for the beautiful in nature, boldly undertake to remodel, in what they consider a tasteful and fashionable style, every piece of natural landscape, whether of a simple or highly [[picturesque]] character. . . We have seen one or two examples lately where a froeign ''soi-disant'' landscape gardener has completely spoiled the simply grand beauty of a fine river residence, by cutting up the breadth of a fine [[lawn]] with a ridiculous effort at what he considered a very charming arrangement of [[walk]]s and groups of tree. In this case he only followed a mode sufficiently common and appropriate in a level inland country, like that of Germany, from whence he introduced it, but entirely out of keeping with the bold and [[lake]]-like features of the landscape which he thus made discordant.” [[#Downing_1844_excerpt_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1848"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, October 1848, “A Talk about Public Parks and Gardens” (1853: 146)<ref name="Downing_1853"/>
:“. . . what an important influence these public resorts, of a rational and refined character, must exert in elevating the national character, and softening the many little jealousies of social life by a community of enjoyments. A people will have its pleasures, as certainly as its religion or laws; and whether these pleasures are poisonous and hurtful, or innocent and salutary, must greatly depend on the interest taken in them by the directing minds of the age. Get some country town of the first class to set the example by making a public [[park]] or garden of this kind. Let our people once see for themselves the influence for good which it would effect, no less than the healthful enjoyment it will afford, and I feel confident that the taste for public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], in the United States, will spread as rapidly as that for [[cemetery|cemeteries]] has done. If my own observation of the effect of these places in Germany is worth any thing, you may take my word for it that they will be better preachers of temperance than temperance societies, better refiners of national manners than dancing-schools, and better promoters of general good feeling than any lectures on the philosophy of happiness ever delivered in the lecture-room. In short, I am in earnest about the matter, and must therefore talk, write, preach, do all I can about it, and beg the assistance of all those who have public influence, till some good experiment of the kind is fairly tried in this country.” [[#Downing_1848_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, August 1849, “The Philosophy of Rural Taste” (1853: 105)<ref name="Downing_1853">A. J. Downing, ''Rural Essays'' (New York: George P. Putnam and Company, 1853), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USXH6MA2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The corollary to be drawn from this learned and curious investigation of the history of national sensibility and taste, is a very clear and satisfactory one, viz., that as success, in 'the art of composing a landscape' (as Humboldt significantly calls [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]), depends on appreciation of nature, the taste of the individual as well as that of a nation, will be in direct proportion to the profound sensibility with which he perceives the Beautiful in natural scenery.”

*<div id="Downing_1850_preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1850, Preface to ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850: v—vi)<ref name="Downing_1850")>A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DBKSQR9M View on Zotero]</ref>
:“There are three excellent reasons why my countrymen should have good houses.
:“The first, is because a good house (and by this I mean a fitting, tasteful, and significant dwelling) is a powerful means of civilization. A nation, whose rural population is content to live in mean huts and miserable hovels, is certain to be behind its neighbors in education, the arts, and all that makes up the external signs of progress. With the perception of proportion, symmetry, order and beauty, awakens the desire for possession, and with them comes that refinement of manners which distinguishes a civilized from a coarse and brutal people. So long as men are forced to dwell in log huts and follow a hunter’s life, we must not be surprised at lynch law and the use of the bowie knife. But, when smiling [[lawn]]s and tasteful cottages begin to embellish the country, we know that order and culture are established. And, as the first incentive towards this change is awakened in the minds of most men by the perception of beauty and superiority in external objects, it must follow that the interest manifested in the Rural Architecture of a country like this, has much to do with the progress of its civilization.
:“The second reason is, because the ''individual home'' has a great social value for a people. Whatever new systems may be needed for the regeneration of an old and enfeebled nation, we are persuaded that, in America, not only is the distinct family the best social form, but those elementary forces which give rise to the highest genius and the finest character may, for the most part, be traced back to the farm-house and the rural cottage. It is the solitude and freedom of the family home in the country which constantly preserves the purity of the nation, and invigorates its intellectual powers. The battle of life, carried on in cities, gives a sharper edge to the weapon of character, but its temper is, for the most part, fixed amid those communings with nature and the family, where individuality takes its most natural and strongest development.
:“The third reason is, because there is a moral influence in a country house—when, among an educated, truthful, and refined people, it is an echo of their character—which is more powerful than any mere oral teachings of virtue and morality. . .
:“After the volumes I have previously written on this subject, it is needless for me to add more on the purpose of this work. But it is, perhaps, proper that I should say, that it is rather intended to develop the growing taste of the people, than as a scientific work on art. Rural Architecture is, indeed, so much more a sentiment, and so much less a science, than Civil Architecture, that the majority of persons will always build for themselves, and, unconsciously, throw something of their own character into their dwellings. To do this well and gracefully, and not awkwardly and clumsily, is always found more difficult than is supposed. I have, therefore, written this volume, in the hope that it may be of some little assistance to the popular taste. For the same reason, I have endeavored to explain the whole subject in so familiar a manner, as to interest all classes of readers who can find anything interesting in beauty, convenience or fitness of a house in the country.” [[#Downing_1850_preface_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, June 1850, “Our Country Villages” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 540)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Our Country Villages,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The indispensable desiderata in rural villages of this kind [newly planned in the suburbs of a great city], are the following: 1st, a large open space, [[common]], or [[park]], situated in the middle of the village—not less than 20 acres; and better, if 50 or more in extent. This should be well planted with groups of trees, and kept as a [[lawn]]. The expense of mowing it would be paid by the grass in some cases; and in others a considerable part of the space might be enclosed with a wire [[fence]], and fed by sheep or cows, like many of the public [[park]]s in England.
:“This [[park]] would be the nucleus or ''heart of the village'', and would give it an essentially rural character. Around it should be grouped all the best cottages and residences of the place; and this would be secured by selling no lots fronting upon it of less than one-fourth of an acre in extent.”

*<div id="Downing_1851"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, March 3, 1851, “Explanatory Notes,” describing plans for improving the Public Grounds in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 54, 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (March 1967): 52—59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My object in this Plan has been three-fold:
:“1st: To form a national [[Park]], which should be an ornament to the Capital of the United States; 2nd: To give an example of the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening|Landscape Gardening]] which may have an influence on the general taste of the Country; 3rd: To form a collection of all the trees that will grown in the climate of Washington, and, by having these trees plainly labelled with their popular and scientific names, to form a public museum of living trees and shrubs where every person visiting Washington could become familiar with the habits and growth of all the hardy trees. . .
:“A national [[Park]] like this, laid out and planted in a thorough manner, would exercise as much influence on the public taste as [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, has done. Though only twenty years have elapsed since that spot was laid out, the lesson there taught has been so largely influential that at the present moment the United States, while they have no public [[park]]s, are acknowledged to possess the finest rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the world. The Public Grounds at Washington treated in the manner I have here suggested, would undoubtedly become a Public School of Instruction in every thing that relates to the tasteful arrangement of [[park]]s and grounds, and the growth and culture of trees, while they would serve, more than anything else that could be devised, to embellish and give interest to the Capital. The straight lines and broad [[Avenue]]s of the streets of Washington would be pleasantly relieved and contrasted by the beauty of curved lines and natural groups of trees in the various [[park]]s. By its numerous public buildings and broad [[Avenue]]s, Washington will one day command the attention of every stranger, and if its un-improved [[public ground|public grounds]] are tastefully improved they will form the most perfect background or setting to the City, concealing many of its defects and heightening all its beauties.” [[#Downing_1851_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, September 1852 (''Horticulturist'' 7: 394—95)<ref>Anonymous, “Mr. Downing and the Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 9 (September 1852): 393–97, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F3WPTQZW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the editorship of the HORTICULTURIST, he has shown, perhaps, better than in his other writings, the peculiar fitness of his talents to educate the popular taste for the beautiful in nature and art. The success which has attended this periodical, and the increased attention which is being paid to [[Landscape Gardening]], Horticulture and Rural Decoration, are proof of the beneficial influence of his labors. . . Mr. Downing was not by eminance a theorist. It was not his aim to build castles too grand and lofty for human realization, or to show the power of his intellect by forming conceptions, which imagination only could give being to. The great question with him, was, how much of the really beautiful can be made subservient to the public good? how far can elegance and utility be combined? how much of the spirit of the amateur can be infused into the mass of the rural population? He has answered these questions by his deeds.”

*Anonymous, September 1852, obituaries for A. J. Downing (''Horticulturist'' 7: 430)<ref>“Tributes to the Memory of Mr. Downing,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 9 (September 1852): 427–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FD8APCU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[''From the New York Evening Post'']
:“These publications of Mr. Downing, more than any other agency, had worked a change in our style of building, and created a general improvement in taste. He was commissioned, by a large number of gentlemen about to construct private residences, to prepare the designs and lay out the grounds. The evidence of his fine professional accomplishments now meet us in all parts of the country, and his loss is one that will be felt far beyond the bereaved circle of which he was the ornament and pride.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2244.jpg|Downing, A. J. (Andrew Jackson), 1815-1852, in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece

File:2154.jpg|Anonymous, ''Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic Garden]]s and Nurseries'', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:2155.jpg|A. J. Downing, “Advertisement. Professional Landscape Gardening,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8.

File: 0350.jpg| A. J. Davis, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece

File:1874.jpg|Anonymous, “Residence of the Author, near Newburgh, N.Y.,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 398, bottom image.

File:1967.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.

File:0023.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.

File:0351.jpg|A. J. Downing, “Presidents Arch at the end of Penn<sup>a</sup> Avenue,” 1851.

File:1172b.jpg| Anonymous, “Example in grouping,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 135, fig. 34.

File:0352.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Suspension [[bridge]] across the [[Canal]]'' [proposed], 1851.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851.

File:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: [[View]] of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.

File:1266.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: [[View]] of Gardener's Cottage and Barns'', 1852.

File:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

File:2156.jpg|Unknown, “Residence of the Late A. J. Downing, Newburgh on the Hudson” and “General Plan of House & Grounds,” in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturist'' 3, new series (1853), frontispiece.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80050049.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://tclf.org/pioneer/andrew-jackson-downing The Cultural Landscape Foundation]

[http://www.anb.org/articles/17/17-00235.html American National Biography]

[https://gardens.si.edu/gardens/haupt-garden/downing-urn/ Smithsonian Gardens - The Downing Urn]

[https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/downing Columbia University Libraries Online - A. J. Downing & His Legacy]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Do]]

File:2297.jpg

2021-04-08T19:25:09Z

V-Federici:

<br>
Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. Vassar 13.312, Archives and Special Collections, Vassar College Library.

Fence

2021-04-08T15:59:12Z

V-Federici: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Lewis Miller, “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. (George) Gregory|G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view text]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report'' (Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the [[view]] of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view text]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union [[Square]] [[Park]].]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington [[Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view text]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in Francis Guy’s chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at Green-Wood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view text]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as walls. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view text]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape [[View]] of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, William Halfpenny, “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Acute angular Paleing” and “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as Westover, on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1849) and William H. Ranlett (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, ''A [[view]] of Col. Lincoln’s [[Seat]], Casnovia [sic]'', c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''[[View]] Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view text]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by William and John Halfpenny (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view text]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view text]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in Francis Guy’s 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[square]]s, roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view text]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view text]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone. . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted. . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view text]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing'''. . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*Penn, William, c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance. . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted. . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner. . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees. . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting. . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.” [[#Anburey_cite|back up to History]]

*Washington, George, 1785, diary entries (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4: 199)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978">Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, eds., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:[March 11] “Planted. . . 13 Yellow Willow trees alternately along the Post and Rail '''fence''' from the Kitchen to the South [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|ha-haw]] and from the Servants’ Hall to the Smith’s Shop. . .

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.” [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to History]]

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the President’s House:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.” [[#Waln_cite|back up to History]]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.” [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to History]]

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants. . . '', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.” [[#Watson_cite|back up to History]]

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . .
:“GARDENING. . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.” [[#Gregory_cite|back up to History]]

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>

:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work. . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.” [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to History]]

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20] [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to History]]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]]. . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.” [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.” [[#Sayers_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live Hedges” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 4 (April 1838): 121–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . The European hawthorn. . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll. . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Johnson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America. . . '', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): 211–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 7 (January 1850): 310–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|Lewis Miller, “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale '''fence''',” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|Lewis Miller, “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a '''fence''' of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:0526.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Picket Fence'', 1828-35.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front '''Fences''',” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

Image:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm '''fence''', in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 115, fig. 25. “At ''i'', a light inconspicuous wire '''fence'''. . .”

Image:1559.jpg|Anonymous, "Invisible Iron '''Fence'''," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 4, No. 5 (November 1849), 212, fig. 86.

Image:0788.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Elevations and profiles of wood '''fences''', in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787—92.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Yale College. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern [[View]] of the Public [[Square]] or [[Green]] in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at Green-Wood [[Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697. Fence is the zigzag line running vertically in center.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, ''Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:1946.jpg|Anonymous, Residence of John Quincy Adams, Quincy, Massachusetts, 1846

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725—1757)'', c. 1742-46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748-50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Acute angular Paleing” and “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on '''Fence''', 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.<ref name="Sothebys">Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787-93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. A '''fence''' is visible near the point indicated with the letter "f".

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, ''A [[View]] of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States'', 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a '''Fence''', c. 1791.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “[[View]] at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. [[view]] of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:2251.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, ''Map of Deming [[Orchard]]'', after 1798.

Image:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800. Worm-fence in foreground.

Image:2277.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:2277_detail.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'' [detail], 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “[[View]] on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], [[seat]] of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165_2.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''[[View]] of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800-20.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''[[Vauxhall Garden]] 1803'', 1856.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805-25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.

Image:0714.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Daniel Ma–'', c. 1810.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811-13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''[[View]] of the Water Works at Centre [[Square]] Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 27.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail '''fence''', c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813. A fence is seen across the left side horizon.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:0044_detail3.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', [detail] 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

Image:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, ''A [[view]] of Col. Lincoln’s [[Seat]], Casnovia [sic]'', c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall [[Park]] From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “[[View]] of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|Hugh Bridport, ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''[[View]] Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

Image:1941.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''Residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams'', 1831.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington [[Square]]'', 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1106.jpg|Anonymous, "Massachusetts Hospital for the Insane, at Worcester," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 8 (April 1835): 325.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape [[View]] of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

Image:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A [[View]] of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

Image:1608.jpg|Anonymous, "Residence of Mr. D. Barnes, Middletown, Ct.," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1, 1851), pl. opp. 153.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Fence located along the perimeter of the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union [[Square]] New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:1485.jpg|Anonymous, "Another workingman's cottage of humble means," (second type), ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 3 (September 1846), pl. opp. 105, fig. 31.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many '''Fences''''', c. 1847.

Image:0406.jpg|Henry Howe, "Ohio University, at Athens," 1848.

Image:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

Image:1942.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of the Birthplaces of Presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams'', 1849.

Image:1943.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of "The Old House" residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams Adams'', 1849.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:1131.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''Leedom Farm'', 1849.

Image:1945.jpg|John Adams Whipple, Daguerreotype of Old House, 1849.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] [[Fountain]],” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. 30.

Image:0446.jpg|Joseph Goodhue Chandler, ''Charles H. Sisson'', 1850. Fence around the house on left.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “''[[View]] of Washington'',” c. 1850.

Image:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, ''Front Elevation on Live Oak Street'', 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, [[View]] Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861. A fence can be seen along right edge of the house grounds.

Image:2260_detail1.jpg|Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt [detail], Unknown maker, Massachusetts, United States, 1800-1850.

Image:2260.jpg|Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt, Unknown maker, Massachusetts, United States, 1800-1850.

</gallery>

<hr>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

File:1608.jpg

2021-04-08T15:54:55Z

V-Federici:

{{break}}
Anonymous, "Residence of Mr. D. Barnes, Middletown, Ct.," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1, 1851), pl. opp. 153. Private Collection.

Basin

2021-04-08T15:51:37Z

V-Federici:

(Bason) <br/>
See also: [[Canal]], [[Fountain]]

==History==
[[File:0496.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Charles Fraser]], ''A '''Bason''' and Storehouse Belonging to the Santee [[Canal]]'', 1803.]]

[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|Fig.2, Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the [[Square]] and the Town of Bath'', 1809.]]

The term basin had at least two applications in American landscape design vocabulary: as a part of a waterway and as a receptacle of water. As part of a waterway, the term referred to a protected area of a river or sea or a widening in a [[canal]] where boats, such as those in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser's]] painting of the basin on the Santee [[Canal]] in South Carolina [Fig. 1], were moored, repaired, loaded, and unloaded. While basins on navigable canals were rarely landscaped, they were occasionally incorporated into public landscape designs, such as those at Fairmount Waterworks in Philadelphia and at the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC. A [[canal]] and basin were created expressly for a public garden in Charles Varlé’s plan for the town of Bath, which included a [[jet|''jet d’eau'']] in the center of the rectangular basin [Fig. 2]. In the second application of the term, “basin” described a receptacle of water issued from a spring (the garden of Charles Wistar in Philadelphia), a stream (Mr. V.’s residence in [[Hallowell, Maine]], as described by [[Timothy Dwight]]), underground pipes ([[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] estate, [[Belfield]]), or a [[fountain]] (W. H. Corcoran’s garden in Washington, DC, as described by C. M. Hovey). Both meanings of the term appear to have been consistent throughout the period under study, and the frequency of associating basins with fountains likely increased with the introduction of pressurized water systems.<span id="Loudon_cite"></span>

[[File:2249.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3,Unknown, Derby Garden, circa 1795–1799.]]
Two treatises identified construction materials for basins. [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826) noted that large garden basins may be formed of clay-lined excavations or lined with pavement, tiles, or lead ([[#Loudon|view text]]), and <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>[[Jane Loudon]] (1845) recommended that “all geometrical or architectural basins of water ought to have margins of masonry” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). <span id="Peale_cite"></span>It is difficult to determine whether most garden basins were built according to such treatise advice, but two examples specify other materials.<span id="Trollope_cite"></span> In 1814, [[Charles Willson Peale]] described having his basin at [[Belfield]] “walled up with a proper mortar” ([[#Peale|view text]]), and in another letter mentioned a marble basin. Frances Trollope in 1830 described the stone basin at Fairmount Waterworks complete with a cup “for the service of the thirsty traveller” ([[#Trollope|view text]]).

[[File:0063.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.]]
The visual and textual evidence for basins suggests that they were located in a variety of contexts in garden plans. Inscribed images of basins are relatively rare, but the drawing by an unknown artist for the layout of the Elias Hasket Derby Farm in Peabody, Massachusetts [Fig. 3], depicts a basin in the center of the plan for a [[kitchen garden]]. Although the Derby garden is curiously off-axis with the house, the basin is the central feature of the garden, and marks the intersection of the [[walk]]s. Other unlabelled paintings and plans depict similar circular, centrally placed water receptacles, which are most likely to be interpreted as basins. For example, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]] plan of 1819 for the Place d’Armes (renamed Jackson Square) in New Orleans [Fig. 4], and the painting of Col. George Boyd’s [[seat]] in Portsmouth, New Hampshire [Fig. 5], both include central basins. In other instances, basins were placed in [[rockery|rockeries]] or in locations determined by water sources such as springs and streams.

[[File:2262.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.]]

[[File:0594.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Section of the northern course of the [[canal]] from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp, 1803.]]
<span id="Forsyth_cite"></span>
As treatises suggested, basins of water not only cooled and animated the garden but, as William Forsyth (1802) noted, they also provided the practical functions of drainage and rain collection ([[#Forsyth|view text]]). [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]] used basins as water collection points for his hydraulic system, and [[Robert Mills|Robert Mills's]] plan for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC, called for water from [[fountain]]s to be collected in basins and transported through underground pipes for irrigating the public garden. Landscape design on an urban scale often required the redirection and creation of alternative waterways. Drawings by [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] for the creation of a national university on the [[national Mall|Mall]] [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]] and for the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal [Fig. 6] indicated that basins were key elements in his designs.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . as you draw nearer [the house] new beauties discover themselves, first the fruitful Vine manteling up the wall loading with delicious Clusters; next a spacious '''bason''' in the midst of a large [[green]] presents itself as you enter the [[gate]] that leads to the house.”

*Anonymous, January 30, 1749, describing a plantation for sale near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“TO BE SOLD at Public Vendue. . . his [[plantation]]s on the ''Ashley-River'' and ''Wappoo-Creek''. . . [with] a very large garden both for pleasure and profit, with variety of pleasant [[walk]]s, [[mount]]s, '''basons''', [[canal]]s.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing the residence of Mr. V., [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:219)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: T. Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Behind the garden is a wild and solitary valley; at the bottom of which runs a small mill stream. Its bed is formed, universally, of rocks and stones. In three successive instances strata of rocks cross the stream obliquely; and present a face so nearly perpendicular, as to furnish in each instance, a charming [[cascade]]. These succeed each other at distances conveniently near; and yet so great, that one of them only can be seen at a time. The remaining course of the stream is an alternation of currents, and handsome '''basins'''.”

* Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1806: 25)<ref>Joseph Scott, ''A Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. They consist of a '''basin''', excavated, partly in the bed of the river Schuylkill, three feet deeper than low-water mark. The '''basin''' is protected in front, towards the river, by a solid wall of wrought granite, 72 feet long and 16 thick. It is founded upon the rock, which forms the bed of the river, and is raised 16 feet above high-water mark, so as to secure it against every fresh. In the centre of this wall is a sluice, which admits or excludes, at pleasure, the water of the '''basin'''. The '''basin''' extends easterly to high-water mark, where it is secured by another wall and sluice, admitting the water to a [[canal]] 40 feet wide, and 200 feet long.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing the garden of Charles Wistar, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 40)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There is a Spring belonging to Chas Wistar in the most romantic scinery [''sic]'' your imagination can conceive. . . The spring comes out a large rock into a '''bason''' which is covered with another large rock, then passes beneath a rock under your feet, and bursts out again before it joins the creek.”

[[File:0044_detail3.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'' [detail], 1816.]]
* <div id="Peale"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1814, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:239, 266)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family,'' vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[15, 27, 29 March] As soon as the weather becomes settled & warm, I will have the '''Bason''' walled up with a proper morter, and when that is doing I shall put a Cock to the Leaden pipe to let the water pass out untill the '''Bason''' is prepaired to receive it.

:“[14 September] . . . The fountain '''Bason''' now holds water completly, and the [[jet]] is 12 feet high, and is kept continually playing; Day & night, Rubens has placed all his plants round the '''Bason''', and it is very handsome.” [Fig. 7] [[#Peale_cite|back up to History]]

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the [[National Mall|Mall]]: as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university, 1816. [[#Fig_8_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 1816, describing his drawing for the creation of a national university on the Mall (Library of Congress)

:“'''Basin''' at the mouth of the Tiber, being the entrance of the [[Canal]].” [Fig. 8]

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:383)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family,'' vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . below the [[greenhouse|Green house]] he made a round '''bason''' to receive the Water from the cave back of it—and from the fish-[[pond]] near the spring-house, to this '''bason''' in the Garden is a fall of 15 feet, and in order to have a [[fountain]] in the '''Bason''' he put log-pipes under ground, and thus had a [[jet]] of 13 feet high but of small diameter, in order that it might constantly [be] rising. but unfortunately he make the bore of his logs only of one inch diameter, the consequence was that Frogs in two instances got into the bore of the logs and not being able to pass through all the joints, stopped the water, of course to free the passage of the logs, gave much labour. had these things been foreseen, trouble might have been prevented, by making the bore of the logs of a greater diameter, with other provisions to keep the passage free.”

[[File:0541.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.]]
*<div id="Trollope"></div>Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:43–44)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Fair Mount] is, in truth, one of the prettiest spots the eye can look upon. A broad wear is thrown across the river Schuylkill, which produces the sound and look of a [[cascade]]. On the farther side of the river is a gentleman’s [[seat]], the beautiful [[lawn]]s of which slope to the water’s edge, and groups of weeping-willows and other trees throw their shadows on the stream. The works themselves are enclosed in a simple but very handsome building of freestone, which has an extended front opening upon a [[terrace]], which overhangs the river: behind the building, and divided from it only by a [[lawn]], rises a lofty [[wall]] of solid lime-stone rock, which has, at one or two points, been cut into, for the passage of the water into the noble reservoir above. From the crevices of this rock the catalpa was every where pushing forth, covered with its beautiful blossom. Beneath one of these trees an artificial opening in the rock gives passage to a stream of water, clear and bright as crystal, which is received in a stone '''basin''' of simple workmanship, having a cup for the service of the thirsty traveller.” [Fig. 9] [[#Trollope_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett, describing his design for the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The main building for the Institution is located about 300 feet south of the [[wall]] fronting the [[Botanic garden]], from which it is separated by a circular road, in the centre of which is a [[fountain]] of water from the '''basin''' of which pipes are led underground thro’ the [[walk]]s of the garden, for irrigating the same at pleasure, the [[fountain]]s may be supplied from the [[canal]] flowing near the north [[wall]] of inclosure.” [Fig. 10]

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1845, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing the garden of W. H. Corcoran, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 245)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and all useful discoveries and improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 7 (July 1846): 241–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S9UVTJM3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At one end of the garden, is a very neatly constructed [[rockwork|rock work]], with a '''basin''' in the centre, supplied with water from a cistern placed at some distance, but which is only a few feet higher than the water. Small tubes project through the [[rockwork|rock work]], and by turning a cock, the water is thrown up in several small [[jet]]s and falls into the '''basin'''. Such [[fountain]]s are constructed at very little expense, and in small gardens they afford much gratification.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the public grounds in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“5th: [[Fountain]] Park
:“This Park would be chiefly remarkable for its water features. The [[Fountain]] would be supplied from a '''basin''' in the Capitol. The pond or lake might either be formed from the overflow of this [[fountain]], or from a filtering drain from the [[canal]].”

===Citations===

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–202)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (1728; repr. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.'' . . .

:“XVIII. That the Intersections of [[Walk]]s be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, [[Grove]]s, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest Trees, '''Basons''', [[Fountain]]s, [[sundial|Sun-Dials]], and [[Obelisk]]s. . .

:“XXXIV. Where Water is easy to be had, always introduce a '''Basin''' or [[Fountain]] in every [[flower garden|Flower]] and Fruit-Garden, [[Grove]], and other pleasing Ornaments, in the several private Parts of your rural Garden.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BASON''' is also used on various occasions for a small reservatory of water: as the '''''bason''''' of a [[jet|jet d’eau]], or [[fountain]]; the '''''bason''''' of a port, of a bath, ''&c''. which last Vitruvius calls ''labrum''. See [[Fountain|FOUNTAIN]].”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BASIN'''. ''n.s.'' [''basun'', Fr. ''bacile'', ''bacino'', Ital. It is often written ''bason'', but not according to etymology.]

:“1. A small vessel to hold water for washing, or other uses. . .

:“2. A small [[pond]]. . .

:“5. A dock for repairing and building ships.”

*<div id="Forsyth"></div>Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 147),<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Gardens, if possible, should lie near a river, or brook, that they may be well supplied with water. . .

:“If the ground be wet and spewy, it will be proper to make a '''bason''' in the most convenient place, to receive the water that comes from the drains, and to collect the rain that falls on the [[walk]]s.” [[#Forsyth_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:1321.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], “[[Pond]]s or large '''basins'''" and “Tanks or cisterns,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 339, figs. 286–88.]]
[[File:1368.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the [[Ancient_style|ancient style]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.]]
*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 339, 1009)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1718. ''Reservoirs'' may be either tanks, cisterns, '''basins''', or [[pond]]s. . .

:“1719. ''[[Pond]]s or large '''basins'''''. . . are reservoirs formed in excavations, either in soils retentive of water, or rendered so by the use of clay. . . Sometimes these '''basins''' are lined with pavement, tiles, or even lead, and the last material is the best, where complete dryness is an object around the margin. . . [Fig. 11]

:“7216. ''Water''. . .forms a part of every garden in the [[ancient style]], in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong [[canal]]s, [[pond]]s, '''basins''', [[cascade]]s, and ''[[jet|jets d’eaux]]''. . .” [Fig. 12] [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BAS'IN''', n. ''básn''. [Fr. ''bassin''; Ir. ''baisin''; Arm. ''baçzin''; It. ''bacino'', or ''bacile''; Port. ''bacia''. . .]

:“1. A hollow vessel or dish, to hold water for washing, and for various other uses.

:“2. In ''hydraulics'', any reservoir of water.

:“3. That which resembles a '''basin''' in containing water, as a [[pond]], a dock for ships, a hollow place for liquids, or an inclosed part of water, forming a broad space within a strait or narrow entrance; a little bay.”

[[File:0402.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "A simple jet. . . the simplest and most pleasing of fountains," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 92.]]
*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 413)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. [[A. J. Downing]] (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Water as an element of landscape scenery, is exhibited in small gardens either in ponds or '''basins''', of regular geometrical or architectural forms; or in [[pond]]s or small [[lake]]s of irregular forms in imitation of the shapes seen in natural landscape. In general all geometrical or architectural '''basins''' of water ought to have the margins of masonry, or at least of stones placed so as to imitate a rocky margin. The reason is, that by these means the artificial character is heightened, and also a colour is introduced between the surrounding grass, vegetation, gravel, or dug-ground, which harmonizes the water with the land. Artificial shapes of this kind should never be of great diameter, because in that case the artificial character is comparatively lost, and the idea of nature occurs to the spectator.” [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 471)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A simple [[jet]]. . . issuing from a circular '''basin''' of water, or a cluster of perpendicular [[jet]]s (candelabra [[jet]]s), is at once the simplest and most pleasing of [[fountain]]s. Such are almost the only kinds of [[fountain]]s which can be introduced with propriety in simple scenes where the predominant objects are sylvan, not architectural.” [Fig. 13]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1055.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “Four Designs for Cloisters,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9. Fig. 2nd, on the bottom left, has “an eight corner’d '''Bason'''.”

Image:1385.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. “. . . the House to the ''North'' opens upon a ''noble circular '''Basin''' of Water'' B. . .”

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “In the Center of this [[Parterre]] is an octagon '''Basin''' of Water. . .”

Image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA. The small circle in the middle of the [[Kitchen Garden]] is marked '''Bason'''.

Image:0496.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''A '''Bason''' and Storehouse Belonging to the Santee Canal'', 1803.

Image:0594.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Section of the northern course of the [[canal]] from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp, 1803. The '''Basin''' is between the [[canal]] and the Elk River.

Image:2259.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807. “C. '''Bason''' or reservoir with running & fragrant waters.”

Image:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'', 1809. “B” marks “'''Bason'''” on the right of the plan.

Image:0414.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the [[National Mall|Mall]]: as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university, 1816. “'''Basin''' at the mouth of the Tiber, being the entrance of the [[Canal]].”

Image:1221.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Plan of wings and courtyards, South Carolina Insane Asylum, 1821. “[[Fountain]] '''basin'''.”

Image:1321.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “[[Pond]]s or large '''basins'''” and “Tanks or cisterns,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 339, figs. 286–88.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the [[Ancient_style|ancient style]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1009, fig. 694. “[Water] forms a part of every garden in the [[Ancient_style|ancient style]], in the various artificial characters which it there assumes. . . '''basins'''. . .”

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the Washington [[Canal]],” 1831.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838. “There are six '''basins''' (a bird’s eye [[view]] of which is shown in the vignette).”

Image:0402.jpg|Anonymous, "A simple [[jet]]. . . the simplest and most pleasing of [[fountain]]s," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 471, fig. 92. “A simple [[jet]]. . . issuing from a circular '''basin''' of water. . .”

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0258.jpg|William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder'' (Mary Stoughton Sloss), 1793.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck [[Pond]]'', c. 1820.

Image:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

Noah Webster

2021-04-08T10:33:50Z

V-Federici: /* Images */

'''Noah Webster''' (October 16, 1758–May 28, 1843), a lexicographer, editor, political writer, and author, made important contributions to the articulation of a distinctive national culture in post-Revolutionary America. He is best known as the creator of the first comprehensive American dictionary, which documented many of the differences between American and British usage of the English language.

==History==
[[File:2285.jpg|thumb|350px|Fig. 1, James Herring, Noah Webster, 1833.]]
Following an unsatisfactory early education, Noah Webster studied Latin and Greek privately and, at the age of fifteen, entered Yale College, where he came under the influence of Ezra Stiles and [[Timothy Dwight]]. He went on to study law and teach school before turning his attention to writing a series of newspaper articles promoting the American Revolution and urging a permanent separation from Britain. After founding a private school in Goshen, New York, he produced a three-volume compendium, ''A Grammatical Institute of the English Language'', consisting of a speller (1783), a grammar (1784), and a reader (1785).<ref>David Micklethwait, ''Noah Webster and the American Dictionary'' (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2005), 21–22, 54–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T756K4GR view on Zotero].</ref> These works provided alternatives to imported English textbooks and established a uniquely American approach to teaching children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. Webster’s speller was the most popular American book of its time, with 15 million copies sold by 1837.<ref>Catherine Reef, ''Education and Learning in America'' (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009), 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B3D537IS view on Zotero].</ref> In 1787 Webster founded the ''American Magazine'' with the intention of promoting an American cultural identity distinct from that of Britain.<ref>Edward E. Chielens, “Periodicals and the Development of an American Literature,” in ''Making America, Making American Literature'', ed. A. Robert Lee and W. M. Verhoeven (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996), 95–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G25NKMA3 view on Zotero].</ref>

Proceeds from the speller funded Webster’s work on a dictionary through which he intended to promote an American language with its own idioms, pronunciation, and style. In 1806 Webster published ''A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language'', the first truly American dictionary. He immediately began work on a more ambitious work, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828). His research on word origins necessitated learning twenty-eight languages, including Anglo-Saxon, Aramaic, Russian, and Sanskrit.<ref>Joshua Kendall, ''The Forgotten Founding Father: Noah Webster’s Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture'' (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q9UNXXKS view on Zotero].</ref> Webster also documented unique American words that had not yet appeared in British dictionaries. Comprising 70,000 words—12,000 of which had never been published before—the ''American Dictionary'' surpassed the scope and authority of Samuel Johnson’s magisterial ''Dictionary of the English Language'', published in London in 1755.<ref>Joshua Lawrence Eason, “Dictionary-Making in the English Language,” ''Peabody Journal of Education'' 5 (May 1928): 349, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JX6ARZAD view on Zotero]; Joseph W. Reed Jr., “Noah Webster’s Debt to Samuel Johnson,” ''American Speech'' 37 (1962): 95–105, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DI5ACAS9 view on Zotero].</ref> Although British examples predominate, <span id="WebsterAvenue_cite"></span>Webster also referred to the American context for words such as [[avenue]] (“A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia”) ([[#WebsterAvenue|view text]]); differentiated American usage from British in the case of words such as [[meadow]], [[orchard]], [[plantation]], and [[wood]]; <span id="WebsterCataract_cite"></span>and included quotations from American authors who imbued the English language with New World associations, as in the phrase attributed to Washington Irving, “The tremendous [[cataract]]s of America thundering in their solitudes [''sic'']” ([[#WebsterCataract|view text]]). Despite his monumental achievement, Webster made little money from his dictionary and he went deeply into debt in order to finance a revised and expanded second edition, which was published in 1841, two years before his death.

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>'''

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[alley|AL'LEY]], ''n. al'ly'' [Fr. ''allée'', a passage, from ''aller'' to go; Ir. ''alladh''. Literally, a passing or going.]

:“1. A [[walk]] in a garden; a narrow passage.

:“2. A narrow passage or way in a city, as distinct from a public street.

:“3. A place in London where stocks are bought and sold. ''Ash''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arbor|ARBOR]], ''n''. [The French express the sense by ''berceau'', a cradle, an ''[[arbor]]'', or [[bower]]; Sp. ''emparrade'', from ''parra'', a vine raised on stakes, and nailed to a [[wall]]. Qu. L. ''[[arbor]]'', a tree, and the primary sense.]

:“1. A frame of lattice work, covered with vines, branches of trees or other plants, for shade; a [[bower]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arcade|ARCA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''arcus''; Sp. ''arcada''.] A long or continued [[arch]]; a [[walk]] arched above. ''Johnson''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arch|ARCH]], ''n''. [See ''Arc''.] A segment or part of a circle. A concave or hollow structure of stone or brick, supported by its own curve. It may be constructed of wood, and supported by the mechanism of the work. This species of structure is much used in [[bridge]]s.

:“A vault is properly a broad [[arch]]. ''Encyc''.

:“2. The space between two piers of a [[bridge]], when arched; or any place covered with an [[arch]].

:“3. Any curvature, in form of an [[arch]].

:“4. The vault of heaven, or sky. ''Shak''.

:“''Triumphal [[arch|arches]]'' are magnificent structures at the entrance of cities, erected to adorn a triumph and perpetuate the memory of the event.”

*<div id="WebsterAvenue"></div>1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[avenue|AV'ENUE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]

:“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.

:“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc''.

:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.”
: [[#WebsterAvenue_cite|back up to History]]

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[aviary|A'VIARY]], ''n''. [L. ''aviarium'', from ''avis'', a fowl.]

:“A [[bird cage]]; an inclosure for keeping birds confined. ''Wotton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[basin|BAS'IN]], ''n''. ''básn''. [Fr. ''bassin''; Ir. ''baisin''; Arm. ''baçzin''; It. ''bacino'', or ''bacile''; Port. ''bacia''. . .]

:“1. A hollow vessel or dish, to hold water for washing, and for various other uses.

:“2. In ''hydraulics'', any reservoir of water.

:“3. That which resembles a [[basin]] in containing water, as a [[pond]], a dock for ships, a hollow place for liquids, or an inclosed part of water, forming a broad space within a strait or narrow entrance; a little bay.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bath|B`ATH]], ''n''. [Sax. ''baeth'', ''batho'', a [[bath]]; ''bathian'', to bathe; W. ''badh'', or ''baz''; D. G. Sw. Dan. ''bad'', a ''[[bath]]''; Ir. ''[[bath]]'', the sea; Old Phrygian ''bedu'', water. Qu. W. ''bozi'', to immerse.]

:“1. A place for bathing; a convenient vat or receptacle of water for persons to plunge or wash their bodies in. [[Bath]]s are warm or tepid, hot or cold, more generally called ''warm'' and ''cold''. They are also ''natural'' or ''artificial''. ''Natural'' [[bath]]s are those which consist of spring water, either hot or cold, which is often impregnated with iron, and called chalybeate, or with sulphur, carbonic acid, and other mineral qualities. These waters are often very efficacious in scorbutic, bilious, dyspeptic and other complaints.

:“2. A place in which heat is applied to a body immersed in some substance. Thus,

:“A ''dry'' [[bath]] is made of hot sand, ashes, salt, or other matter, for the purpose of applying heat to a body immersed in them.

:“A ''vapor'' [[bath]] is formed by filling an apartment with hot steam or vapor, in which the body sweats copiously, as in Russia; or the term is used, for the application of hot steam to a diseased part of the body. ''Encyc. Tooke''.

:“A ''metalline'' [[bath]] is water impregnated with iron or other metallic substance, and applied to a diseased part. ''Encyc''. . .

:“3. A house for bathing. In some eastern countries, [[bath]]s are very magnificent edifices.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bed|BED]], ''n''. [Sax. ''[[bed]]''; D. ''[[bed]]''; G. ''bett'' or ''beet''; Goth. ''badi''. The sense is a lay or spread, from laying or setting.] . . .

:“4. A ''[[plat]]'' or level piece of ground in a garden, usually a little raised above the adjoining ground. ''Bacon''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“BEE'-GARDEN, ''n''. [''bee'' and ''garden''.] A garden, or inclosure to set [[beehive|bee-hives]] in. ''Johnson''. . .”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[belvedere|BEL'VIDERE]], ''n''. [L. ''bellus'', fine, and ''video'', to see.] . . .

:“2. In ''Italian architecture'', a [[pavilion]] on the top of an edifice; an artificial [[eminence]] in a garden. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[border|BORD'ER]], ''n''. [Fr. ''bord''; Arm. ''id''; Sp. ''bordo''; Port. ''borda''; It. ''bordo''. See ''Board''.]

:“The exterior part of a garden, and hence a bank raised at the side of a garden, for the cultivation of flowers, and a row of plants.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“BOTAN'IC, BOTAN'ICAL, ''a''. [See ''Botany''.] Pertaining to botany; relating to plants in general; also, containing plants, as a [[botanic garden|''botanic'' garden]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bower|BOW'ER]], ''n''. [Sax. ''bur'', a chamber or private apartment, a hut, a cottage; W. ''bwr'', an inclosure.]

:“1. A shelter or covered place in a garden, made with boughs of trees bent and twined together. It differs from ''[[arbor]]'' in that it may be round or square, whereas an [[arbor]] is long and arched. ''Milton. Encyc.''

:“2. A bed-chamber; any room in a house except the hall. ''Spencer. Mason.''

:“3. A country [[seat]]; a cottage. ''Shenston., B. Johnson.''

:“4. A shady recess; a [[plantation]] for shade. ''W. Brown''. . .

:“[[bower|BOW'ERY]], ''a''. Covering; shading as a [[bower]]; also, containing [[bower]]s. ''Thomson''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bowling green|BOWLING-GREEN]], ''n''. [''bowl'' and ''green''.]

:“A level piece of ground kept smooth for bowling.

:“2. In ''gardening'', a [[parterre]] in a [[grove]], laid with fine turf, with compartments of divers figures, with dwarf trees and other decorations. It may be used for bowling; but the French and Italians have such greens for ornament. ''Encyc.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bridge|BRIDGE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''bric, brieg, brigg'', or ''brye, bryeg''; Dan. ''broe''; Sw. ''bryggia, bro''; D. ''brug''; Ger. ''brücke''; Prus. ''brigge''.]

:“1. Any structure of wood, stone, brick, or iron, raised over a river, [[pond]], or [[lake]], for the passage of men and other animals. Among rude nations, [[bridge]]s are sometimes formed of other materials; and sometimes they are formed of boats, or logs of wood lying on the water, fastened together, covered with planks, and called floating [[bridge]]s. A [[bridge]] over a marsh is made of logs or other materials laid upon the surface of the earth. . . ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[canal|CANAL']], ''n''. [L. ''canalis'', a channel or kennel; these being the same word differently written; Fr. ''canal''; Arm. ''can'', or ''canol''; Sp. Port. ''canal''; It. ''canale''. See. ''Cane''. It denotes a passage, from shooting, or passing.]

:“1. A passage for water; a water course; properly, a long trench or excavation in the earth for conducting water, and confining it to narrow limits; but the term may be applied to other water courses. It is chiefly applied to artificial cuts or passages for water, used for transportation; whereas channel is applicable to a natural water course.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[cascade|CASCA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. ''cascade''; Sp. ''cascada''; It. ''cascata'', from ''cascare'', to fall.]

:“A [[waterfall]]; a steep fall or flowing of water over a precipice, in a river or natural stream; or an artificial fall in a garden. The word is applied to falls that are less than a [[cataract]]. . . .”

*<div id="WebsterCataract"></div>1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[cataract|CAT'ARACT]], ''n''. [L. ''cataracta''; . . . ]

:“1. A great fall of water over a precipice; as that of Niagara, of the Rhine, Danube and Nile. It is a [[cascade]] up on a great scale.

:“The tremendous cataracts of America thundering in their solitudes. ''Irving''. . .”
:[[#WebsterCataract_cite|back up to History]]

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[clump|CLUMP]], ''n''. [Ger. ''klump''; D. ''klomp''; Sw. ''klimp''; Dan. ''klump'', a ''lump''; W. ''clamp''. It is ''lump'' with a prefix. It coincides with ''plump'', and L. ''plumbum'', lead; as the D. ''lood'', G. ''loth'', Dan. ''lod''., Eng. ''lead'', coincide with ''clod''. It signifies a mass or collection. . .]

:“1. A thick, short piece of wood, or other solid substance; a shapeless mass. Hence ''clumper'', a clot or clod.

:“2. A cluster of trees or shrubs; formerly written ''plump''. In some parts of England, it is an adjective signifying lazy, unhandy. ''Bailey.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[column|COL'UMN]], ''n. col'um.'' [L. ''columna, columen''; W. ''colov'', a stalk or stem, a prop; ''colovyn'', Arm. ''coulouenn''; Fr. ''colonne''; It. ''colonna''; Sp. ''columna''; Port. ''columna'' or ''coluna''. This word is from the Celtic, signifying the stem of a tree, such stems being the first [[column]]s used. The primary sense is a shoot, or that which is set.]

:“1. In ''architecture'', a long round body of wood or stone, used to support or adorn a building, composed of a base, a shaft and a capital. The shaft tapers from the base, in imitation of the stem of a tree. There are five kinds or orders of [[column]]s. 1. The Tuscan, rude, simple and massy; the highth [''sic''] of which is fourteen semidiameters or modules, and the diminution at the top from one sixth to one eighth of inferior diameter. 2. The Doric, which is next in strength to the Tuscan, has a robust, masculine aspect; its highth [''sic''] is sixteen modules. 3. The Ionic is more slender than the Tuscan and Doric; its highth [''sic''] is eighteen modules. 4. The Corinthian is more delicate in its form and proportions, and enriched with ornaments; its highth [''sic''] should be twenty modules. 5. The Composite is a species of the Corinthian, and of the same highth [''sic'']. ''Encyc.''

:“In strictness, the shaft of a [[column]] consists of one entire piece; but it is often composed of different pieces, so united, as to have the appearance of one entire piece. It differs in this respect from a ''[[pillar]]'', which primarily signifies a ''pile'', composed of small pieces. But the two things are unfortunately confounded; and a [[column]] consisting of a single piece of timber is absurdly called a ''[[pillar]]'' or pile.

:“2. An erect or elevated structure resembling a [[column]] in architecture; as the ''astronomical [[column]]'' at Paris, a kind of hollow tower with a spiral ascent to the top; ''gnomonic [[column]]'', a cylinder on which the hour of the day is indicated by the shadow of a style; ''military [[column]]'', among the Romans; ''triumphal [[column]]''; &c.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“COP'PICE, [[copse|COPSE]], ''n''. [Norm. ''coupiz'', from ''couper'', to cut, Gr. . . .]

:“A [[wood]] of small growth, or consisting of underwood or brushwood; a [[wood]] cut at certain times for fuel.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[Dovecote|DOVE-COT]], ''n''. A small building or box in which domestic pigeons breed. . .

:“[[Dovecote|DOVE-HOUSE]], ''n''. A house or shelter for doves. . .

:“PIG'EON, ''n''. . .

:“The domestic pigeon breeds in a box, often attached to a building, called a ''[[dovecote|dovecot]]'' or ''[[pigeon house|pigeon-house]]''. The wild pigeon builds a nest on a tree in the forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[edging|EDG'ING]], ''n''. That which is added on the [[border]], or which forms the edge; as lace, fringe, trimming, added to a garment for ornament. . .

:“2. A narrow lace.

:“3. In ''gardening'', a row of small plants set along, the border of a flower-bed; as an ''[[edging]]'' of box. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[eminence|EM'INENCE]], EM'INENCY, ''n''. [L. ''eminentia'', from ''eminens, emineo'', to stand or show itself above; ''e'' and ''minor'', to threaten, that is, to stand or push forward. . . .]

:“1. Elevation, highth [''sic''], in a literal sense; but usually, a rising ground; a hill of moderate elevation above the adjacent ground.

:“The [[temple]] of honor ought to be seated on an ''[[eminence]]''. ''Burke''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“FISH-[[pond|POND]], ''n''. A [[pond]] in which fishes are bred and kept.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“FOUNT', [[fountain|FOUNT'AIN]], ''n''. [L. ''fons''; Fr. ''fontaine''; Sp. ''fuente'', It. ''fonte, fontana''; W. ''fynnon'', a [[fountain]] or source; ''fyniaw, fynu'', to produce, to generate, to abound; ''fwn'', a source, breath, puff; ''fwnt'', produce.]

:“1. A spring, or source of water; properly, a spring or issuing of water from the earth. This word accords in sense with ''well'', in our mother tongue; but we now distinguish them, applying ''[[fountain]]'' to a natural spring of water, and ''well'' to an artificial pit of water, issuing from the interior of the earth.

:“2. A small [[basin]] of springing water. ''Taylor''.

:“3. A [[jet]]; a spouting of water; an artificial spring. ''Bacon''.

:“4. The head or source of a river. ''Dryden''.

:“5. Original; first principle or cause; the source of any thing.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[gate|GATE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''gate, geat''; Ir. ''greata''; Scot. ''gait''; The Goth. ''gatwo'', Dan. ''gade'', Sw. ''gat''a, G. ''gasse'', Sans. ''gaut'', is a way or street. In D. ''gat'' is a gap or channel. . .]

:“1. A large door which gives entrance into a walled city, a castle, a [[temple]], palace or other large edifice. It differs from ''door'' chiefly in being larger. ''[[Gate]]'' signifies both the opening or passage, and the frame of boards, planks or timber which closes the passage.

:“2. A frame of timber which opens or closes a passage into any court, garden or other inclosed ground; also, the passage.

:“3. The frame which shuts or stops the passage of water through a dam into a flume.

:“4. An [[avenue]]; an opening; a way. ''Knolles''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[green|GREEN]], ''n''. The color of growing plants. . . .

:“2. A grassy plain or [[plat]]; a piece of ground covered with verdant herbage.

:“O'er the smooth enameled ''[[green]]''. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“GROT, [[grotto|GROT'TO]], ''n''. [Fr. ''grotte'', It. ''grotta'', Sp. and Port. ''gruta''; G. and Dan. ''grotte''; D. ''grot''; Sax. ''grut''. ''Grotta'' is not used.]

:“1. A large cave or den; a subterraneous cavern, and primarily, a natural cave or rent in the earth, or such as is formed by a current of water, or an earthquake. ''Pope. Prior. Dryden.''

:“2. A cave for coolness and refreshment.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[grove|GROVE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''groef, graf'', a ''grave'', a cave, a ''[[grove]]''; Goth. ''groba''; from cutting an [[avenue]], or from the resemblance of an [[avenue]] to a channel.]

:“1. In ''gardening'', a small [[wood]] or cluster of trees with a shaded [[avenue]], or a [[wood]] impervious to the rays of the sun. A [[grove]] is either open or close; open, when consisting of large trees whose branches shade the ground below; close, when consisting of trees and underwood, which defend the [[avenue]]s from the rays of the sun and from violent winds. ''Encyc''.

:“2. A [[wood]] of small extent. In America, the word is applied to a [[wood]] of natural growth in the field, as well as to planted trees in a garden, but only to a [[wood]] of small extent and not to a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[hedge|HEDGE]], ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', hedge, protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .]

:“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[hermitage|HER'MITAGE]], ''n''. The habitation of a hermit; a house or hut with its appendages, in a solitary place, where a hermit dwells. ''Milton''.

:“2. The cell in a recluse place, but annexed to an abbey. ''Encyc''.

:“3. A kind of wine.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[icehouse|ICEHOUSE]], ''n''. [''ice'' and ''house''.] A repository for the preservation of ice during warm weather; a pit with a drain for conveying off the water of the ice when dissolved, and usually covered with a roof.”

<br/>
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 2 (New York: S. Converse, 1828)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 2 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7CI5MCGT view on Zotero].</ref>'''

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[labyrinth|LAB'YRINTH]], ''n''. [L. ''labyrinthus''. . .]

:“1. Among the ancients, an edifice or place full of intricacies, or formed with winding passages, which rendered it difficult to find the way from the interior to the entrance. The most remarkable of these edifices mentioned, are the Egyptian and the Cretan [[labyrinth]]s. ''Encyc. Lempriere''.

:“2. A maze; an inexplicable difficulty.

:“3. Formerly, an ornamental maze or [[wilderness]] in gardens. ''Spenser''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[lake|LAKE]], ''n''. [G. ''lache'', a puddle; Fr. ''lac''; L. ''lacus''; Sp. It. ''lago''; Sax. ''luh''; Scot. ''loch''; Ir. ''lough''; Ice. ''laugh''. A [[lake]] is a stand of water, from the root of ''lay''. Hence L. ''lagena'', Eng. ''flagon'', and Sp. ''laguna'', lagoon.]

:“1. A large and extensive collection of water contained in a cavity or hollow of the earth. It differs from a ''[[pond]]'' in size, the latter being a collection of small extent; but sometimes a collection of water is called a [[pond]] or a [[lake]] indifferently.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[lawn|LAWN]], ''n''. [W. ''llan'', an open, clear place. It is the same word as ''land'', with an appropriate signification, and coincides with ''plain, planus'', Ir. ''cluain''.]

:“A open space between [[wood]]s, or a plain in a [[park]] or adjoining a noble [[seat]].

:“Betwixt them ''[[lawn]]s'' or level downs, and flocks

:“Grazing the tender herbs, were interspers'd. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mall|MALL]], ''n. mal''. [Arm. ''mailh''. Qu. from a play with [[mall]] and ball, or a beaten [[walk]].]

:“A public [[walk]]; a level shaded [[walk]]. ''Allée d’arbres battue et bordée. Gregoire’s Arm. Dict.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“MEAD, [[meadow|MEADOW]], ''n. meed, med’o.'' [Sax. ''moede, moedewe''; G. ''matte'', a mat, and a [[meadow]]; Ir. ''madh''. The sense is extended or flat depressed land. It is supposed that this word enters into the name ''Mediolanum'', now ''Milan'', in Italy; that is, ''mead-land''.]

:“A tract of low land. In America, the word is applied particularly to the low ground on the banks of rivers, consisting of a rich mold or an alluvial soil, whether grass land, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land; as the ''[[meadow]]s'' on the banks of the Connecticut. The word with us does not necessarily imply wet land. This species of land is called, in the western states, ''bottoms'', or ''bottom land''. The word is also used for other low or flat lands, particularly lands appropriated to the culture of grass.

:“The word is said to be applied in Great Britain to land somewhat watery, but covered with grass. ''Johnson''.

:“[[Meadow]] means pasture or grass land, annually mown for hay; but more particularly, land too moist for cattle to graze on in winter, without spoiling the sward. ''Encyc. Cyc''.

:“[''Mead'' is used chiefly in poetry.]"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mound|MOUND]], ''n''. [Sax. ''mund''; W. ''mwnt'', from ''mwn''; L. ''mons''. See ''Mount''.]

:“Something raised as a defense or fortification, usually a bank of earth or stone; a bulwark; a rampart or [[fence]].

:“God has thrown

:“That mountain as his garden ''[[mound]]'', high raised. ''Milton''.

:“To thrid the [[thicket]]s or to leap the ''[[mound]]s''. ''Dryden''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mount|MOUNT]], ''n''. [Fr. ''mont''; Sax. ''munt''; It. Port. Sp. ''monte''; Arm. ''menez, mene''; W. ''munt'', a [[mount]], mountain or [[mound]], a heap; L. ''mons'', literally a heap or an elevation. Ir. ''moin'' or ''muine''; Basque, ''mendia''. . .]

:“1. A mass of earth, or earth and rock, rising considerably above the common surface of the surrounding land. ''[[Mount]]'' is used for an [[eminence]] or elevation of earth, indefinite in highth [''sic''] or size, and may be a hillock, hill or mountain. We apply it to ''[[Mount]]'' Blanc, in Switzerland, to ''[[Mount]]'' Tom and ''[[Mount]]'' Holyoke, in Massachusetts, and it is applied in Scripture to the small hillocks on which sacrifice was offered, as well as to ''[[Mount]]'' Sinai. Jacob offered sacrifice on the ''[[mount]]'' or heap of stones raised for a witness between him and Laban. Gen. xxxi.

:“2. A [[mound]]; a bulwark for offense or defense.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[nursery|NURS'ERY]], ''n''. . .

:“2. A place where young trees are propagated for the purpose of being transplanted; a [[plantation]] of young trees. ''Bacon''.

:“3. The place where anything is fostered and the growth promoted.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[obelisk|OB'ELISK]], ''n''. [L. ''obeliscus''; Gr. . . .]

:“1. A truncated, quadrangular and slender pyramid intended as an ornament, and often charged with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. Some ancient [[obelisk|obelisks]] appear to have been erected in honor of distinguished persons or their achievements. Ptolemy Philadelphus raised one of 88 cubits high in honor of Arsinee. Augustus erected one in the Campus Martius at Rome, which served to mark the hours on a horizontal dial drawn on the pavement. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[orchard|OR'CHARD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''ortgeard''; Goth. ''aurtigards''; Dan. ''urtegaard''; Sw. ''ortegard''; that is, ''wort-yard'', a [[yard]] for herbs. The Germans call it ''baumgarten'', tree-garden, and the Dutch ''boomgaard'', tree-yard. See ''[[Yard]]''.]

:“An inclosure for fruit trees. In Great Britain, a department of the garden appropriated to fruit trees of all kinds, but chiefly to apples trees. In America, any piece of land set with apple trees, is called an [[orchard]]; and [[orchard]]s are usually cultivated land, being either grounds for mowing or tillage. In some parts of the country, a piece of ground planted with peach trees is called a peach-[[orchard]]. But in most cases, I believe the [[orchard]] in both countries is distinct from the garden.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[park|P`ARK]], ''n''. [Sax. ''parruc, pearruc''; Scot. ''parrok''; W. ''parc''; Fr. ''id''.; It. ''parco''; Sp. ''parque''; Ir. ''pairc''; G. Sw. ''park''; D. ''perk''. . . .]

:“A large piece of ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase, in England, by the king’s grant or by prescription. To constitute a [[park]], three things are required; a royal grant or license; inclosure by pales, a [[wall]] or [[hedge]]; and beasts of chase, as [[deer park|deer]], &c. ''Encyc.''

:“''[[Park]] of artillery'', or ''artillery [[park]]'', a place in the rear of both lines of an army for encamping the artillery, which is formed in lines, the guns in front, the ammunition-wagons behind the guns. . . ''Encyc''. . .

:“''[[Park]] of provisions'', the place where the sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, and that where the bread wagons are stationed.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pavilion|PAVILION]], ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a [[pavilion]]. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]

:“1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.

:“2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes square and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a [[pavilion]] is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[piazza|PIAZ'ZA]], ''n''. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id''.; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]

:“In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch|arches]] or [[column]]s. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[plantation|PLANTA'TION]], ''n''. [L. ''plantatio'', from ''planto'', to plant.]

:“1. The act of planting or setting in the earth for growth.

:“2. The place planted; applied to ground planted with trees, as an [[orchard]] or the like. ''Addison''.

:“3. In ''the United States'' and ''the West Indies'', a cultivated estate; a farm. In ''the United States'', this word is applied to an estate, a tract of land occupied and cultivated, in those states only where the labor is performed by slaves, and where the land is more or less appropriated to the culture of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton, that is, from Maryland to Georgia inclusive, on the Atlantic, and in the western states where the land is appropriated to the same articles or to the culture of the sugar cane. From Maryland, northward and eastward, estates in land are called ''farms''.

:“4. An original settlement in a new country; a town or village planted. . .

:“5. A colony.

:“6. A first planting; introduction; establishment; as the ''[[plantation]]'' of Christianity in England. ''K. Charles''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pleasure ground|PLEAS'URE-GROUND]], ''n''. Ground laid out in an ornamental manner and appropriated to pleasure or amusement. ''Graves''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“GARDEN-[[plot|PLOT]], ''n''. The [[plot]] or [[plantation]] of a garden. ''Milton''. . .

:“[[plot|PLOT]], ''n''. [a different orthography of ''plat''.]

:“1. A [[plat]] or small extent of ground, as a garden ''[[plot]]''. ''Locke''.

:“2. A [[plantation]] laid out. ''Sidney''.

:“3. A plan or scheme. . . ''Spenser''.

:“4. In ''surveying'', a plan or draught of a field, farm or manor surveyed and delineated on paper.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pond|POND]], ''n''. [Sp. ''Port''. It. ''pantano'', a pool of stagnant water, also in Sp. hinderance, obstacle, difficulty. The name imports standing water, from setting or confining. It may be allied to L. ''pono''; Sax. ''pyndan'', to pound, to pen, to restrain, and L. ''pontus'', the sea, may be of the same family.]

:“1. A body of stagnant water without an outlet, larger than a puddle, and smaller than a [[lake]]; or a like body of water with a small outlet. In the United States, we give this name to collections of water in the interior country, which are fed by springs, and from which issues a small stream. These [[pond]]s are often a mile or two or even more in length, and the current issuing from them is used to drive the wheels of mills and furnaces.

:“2. A collection of water raised in a river by a dam, for the purpose of propelling mill-wheels. These artificial [[pond]]s are called ''mill-[[pond]]s''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[porch|PORCH]], ''n''. [Fr. ''porche'', from L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'', a [[gate]], entrance or passage, or from ''portus'', a shelter.]

:“1. In ''architecture'', a kind of vestibule supported by [[column]]s at the entrance of [[temple]]s, halls, churches or other buildings. ''Encyc''.

:“2. A [[portico]]; a covered [[walk]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[portico|PORTICO]], ''n''. [It. ''portico''; L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'' or ''portus''.]

:“In ''architecture'', a kind of gallery on the ground, or a [[piazza]] encompassed with [[arch|arches]] supported by [[column]]s; a covered [[walk]]. The roof is sometimes flat; sometimes vaulted. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pot|POT]], ''n''. [Fr. ''pot''; Arm. ''pod''; Ir. ''pota''; Sw. ''potta''; Dan. ''potte''; W. ''pot'', a [[pot]], and ''potel'', a bottle; ''poten'', a pudding, the paunch, something bulging; D. ''pot''; a [[pot]], a stake, a hoard; ''potten'', to hoard.]

:“1. A vessel more deep than broad, made of earth, or iron or other metal, used for several domestic purposes; as an iron ''[[pot]]'', for boiling meat or vegetables; a ''[[pot]]'' for holding liquors; a cup, as a ''[[pot]]'' of ale; and earthern ''[[pot]]'' for plants, called a ''flower'' ''[[pot]]'', &c.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[promenade|PROMENA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''promener''; ''pro'' and ''mener'', to lead.]

:“1. A walk for amusement or exercise.

:“2. A place for walking.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[prospect|PROS'PECT]], ''n''. [L. ''prospectus'', ''prospicio'', to look forward; ''pro'' and ''specio'', to see.]

:“1. View of things within the reach of the eye.

:“Eden and all the coast in ''[[prospect]]'' lay. ''Milton''.

:“2. View of things to come; intellectual sight; expectation. . .

:“3. That which is presented to the eye; the place and the objects seen. There is a noble ''[[prospect]]'' from the dome of the state house in Boston, a ''[[prospect]]'' diversified with land and water, and every thing that can please the eye.

:“4. Object of view.

:“Man to himself

:“Is a large ''[[prospect]]''. ''Denham''.

:“5. [[View]] delineated or painted; [[picturesque]] representation of a landscape. ''Reynolds''.

:“6. Place which affords an extended [[view]]. ''Milton''.

:“7. Position of the front of a building; as a ''[[prospect]]'' towards the south or north. Ezek. xl.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[quarter|QUARTER]], ''n''. ''quort'er''. [Fr. ''quart'', ''quartier''; It. ''quartiere''; Sp. ''quartel''; D. ''kwartier''; G. ''quartier''; Sw. ''quart'', ''quartal''; Dan. ''quart'', ''quartal'', ''quarteer''; L. ''quartus'', the fourth part; from W. ''cwar'', a square.] . . .

:“6. A particular region of a town, city or country; as all ''[[quarter|quarters]]'' of the city; in every ''[[quarter]]'' of the country or of the continent. Hence,

:“7. Usually in the plural, ''[[quarter|quarters]]'', the place of lodging or temporary residence; appropriately, the place where officers and soldiers lodge, but applied to the lodgings of any temporary resident. He called on the general at his ''[[quarter|quarters]]''; the place furnished good winter ''[[quarter|quarters]]'' for the troops. I saw the stranger at his ''[[quarter|quarters]]''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[rockwork|ROCK'-WORK]], ''n''. Stones fixed in mortar in imitation of the asperities of rocks, forming a [[wall]].

:“2. A natural [[wall]] of rock. ''Addison''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[rustic style|RUST'IC]], RUST'ICAL, ''a''. [L. ''rusticus'', from ''rus'', the country.]

:“1. Pertaining to the country; rural; as the ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' gods of antiquity. ''Encyc''.

:“2. Rude; unpolished; rough; awkward; as ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' manners or behavior.

:“3. Coarse; plain; simple; as ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' entertainment; ''[[rustic style|rustic dress]]''.

:“4. Simple; artless; unadorned. ''Pope''.

:“''[[rustic style|Rustic]]'' ''work'', in a building, is when the stones, &c. in the face of it, are hacked or pecked so as to be rough. ''Encyc''. . .

:“[[rustic style|RUSTIC]], ''n''. An inhabitant of the country; a clown.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[seat|SEAT]], ''n''. [It. ''sedia''; Sp. ''sede'', ''sitio'', from L. ''sedes'', ''situs''; Sw. ''sate''; Dan. ''soede''; G. ''sitz''; D. ''zetel'', ''zitplaats''; W. ''sez''; Ir. ''saidh''; W. with a prefix, ''gosod'', whence ''gosodi'', to ''set''. See ''Set'' and ''Sit''. . .]

:“1. That on which one sits. . .

:“3. Mansion; residence; dwelling; abode; as Italy the ''[[seat]]'' of empire. The Greeks sent colonies to seek a new ''[[seat]]'' in Gaul.

:“In Alba he shall fix his royal ''[[seat]]''. ''Dryden''.

:“4. Site; situation. The ''[[seat]]'' of Eden has never been incontrovertibly ascertained. . .

:“8. The place where a thing is settled or established. London is the ''[[seat]]'' of business and opulence. So we say, the ''[[seat]]'' of the muses, the ''[[seat]]'' of ''arts'', the seat of commerce.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[shrubbery|SHRUB'BERY]], ''n''. Shrubs in general.

:“2. A [[plantation]] of shrubs.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[square|SQUARE]], ''n''. . .

:“2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.

:“The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large ''[[square]]'' of the town. ''Addison''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[statue|STAT'UE]], ''n''. [L. ''statua''; ''statuo'', to set; that which is set or fixed.]

:“An image; a solid substance formed by carving into the likeness of a whole living being; as a ''[[statue]]'' of Hercules or of a lion.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[summerhouse|SUM'MER-HOUSE]], ''n''. 1. A house or apartment in a garden to be used in summer. ''Pope, Watts''.

:“2. A house for summer’s residence.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

*“[[sundial|SUN'DIAL]], ''n''. [''sun'' and ''dial''], An instrument to show the time of day, by means of the shadow of a gnomon or style on a plate. ''Locke''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[temple|TEM'PLE]], ''n''. [Fr.; L. ''templum''; It. ''tempio''; Sp. ''templo''; W. ''temyl'', [[temple]], that is extended, a [[seat]]; ''temlu'', for form a [[seat]], expanse or [[temple]]; Gaelic, ''teampul''.]

:“1. A public edifice erected in honor of some deity. Among pagans, a building erected to some pretended deity, and in which the people assembled to worship.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“TREILLAGE, ''n. trel'lage''. [Fr. from ''treillis'', [[trellis]].]

:“In ''gardening'', a sort of rail-work, consisting of light posts and rails for supporting [[espalier]]s, and sometimes for [[wall]] trees. ''Cyc''. . .

:“[[trellis|TREL'LIS]], ''n''. [Fr. ''treillis'', grated work.] In ''gardening'', a structure or frame of cross-barred work, or lattice work, used like the treillage for supporting plants.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[urn|URN]] . . . A kind of [[vase]] of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''. . .

:“[[vase|VASE]], ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]

:“1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a ''[[vase]]'' for sacrifice, an [[urn]], &c.

:“2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.

:“3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-[[pot]]s, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.

:“4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[veranda|VERAN'DA]], ''n''. An oriental word denoting a kind of open [[portico]], formed by extending a sloping roof beyond the main building. ''Todd''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[view|VIEW]], ''n. vu''. [[Prospect]]; sight; reach of the eye. . .

:“2. The whole extent seen. . .

:“3. Sight; power of seeing, or limit of sight. . .

:“4. Intellectual or mental sight. . . .

:“5. Act of seeing. . .

:“6. Sight; eye. . .

:“7. Survey; inspection; . . .

:“9. Appearance; show. . .

:“10. Display; . . .

:“11. [[Prospect]] of interest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“GRAV'EL-[[walk|WALK]], ''n''. A [[walk]] or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall|malls]]''. . .

:“WALK, ''n. wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.

:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning ''walk''; an evening ''walk''. ''Pope''.

:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long ''[[walk]]''; a short ''[[walk]]''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant ''[[walk|walks]]''.

:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wall|WALL]], ''n''. [L. ''vallum''; Sax. ''weal''; D. ''wal''; Ir. Gaelic, ''balla'' and ''fal''; Russ. ''val''; W. ''gwal''. In L. ''vallus'' is a stake or post, and probably ''vallum'' was originally a [[fence]] of stakes, a palisade or stockade; the first rude fortification of uncivilized men. The primary sense of ''vallus'' is a shoot, or that which is set, and the latter may be the sense of ''[[wall]]'', whether it is from ''vallus'', or from some other root.].

:“1. A work or structure of stone, brick or other materials, raised to some highth [''sic''], and intended for a defense or security. ''[[Wall]]s'' of stone, with or without cement, are much used in America for [[fence]]s on farms; ''[[wall]]s'' are laid as the foundation of houses and the security of cellars. ''[[Wall]]s'' of stone or brick from the exterior of buildings, and they are often raised round cities and forts as a defense against enemies.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[waterfall|WATERFALL]], ''n''. [''water'' and ''fall''.] A fall or perpendicular descent of the water of a river or stream, or a descent nearly perpendicular; a [[cascade]]; a [[cataract]]. But the word is generally used of the fall of a small river or rivulet. It is particularly used to express a [[cascade]] in a garden, or an artificial descent of water, designed as an ornament. ''Cyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wilderness|WIL'DERNESS]], ''n.'' [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the ''[[wilderness]]'' forty years.

:“2. The ocean. . .

:“3. A state of disorder. . .

:“4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wood|WOOD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''wuda'', ''wudu''; D. ''woud''; W. ''gwyz''.]

:“1. A large and thick collection of trees; a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[yard|YARD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''geard, gerd, gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . . .

:“2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The [[yard]] in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-[[yard]]''. In the United States, a small [[yard]] is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-[[yard]]'', or ''cow-[[yard]]''.”

<br />

===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>'''

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 32)

:“[[alcove|AL'COVE]], AL-COVE, n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to [[arch]], to construct with an [[arch]], and its derivatives, an [[arch]], a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .

:“3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.

:“4. A recess in a [[grove]].”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 65)

:“[[arboretum|ARBORETUM]], ''n''. A place in a park, nursery, &C, in which a collection of trees, consisting of one of each kind, is cultivated. ''Brande''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 363)

:“[[dovecote|DOVE'-COT]], (duv’-kot,) ''n''. A small building or box, raised to a considerable hight [''sic''] above the ground, in which domestic pigeons breed.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language . . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 776)

:“[[orangery|OR'AN-GER-Y]], ''n''. [Fr. ''orangerie''.]

:“A place for raising oranges; a [[plantation]] of orange-trees.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 806)

:“[[pavilion|PAVILION]], ''n. pavil'yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a [[pavilion]]. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]

:“1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.

:“2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, . . . ''Gwilt''.

:“The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summerhouse|summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 824)

:“[[piazza|PIAZ'ZA]], ''n''. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id''.; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]

:“1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch|arches]] or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.

:“2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 848)

:“[[portico|POR'TI-CO]], ''n''. [It. ''portico''; L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'' or ''portus''.]

:“In ''architecture'', originally, a colonnade or covered ambulatory; but at present, a covered space, inclosed by [[column]]s at the entrance of a building. ''P. Cyc''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 961)

:“[[rockwork|ROCK'-WORK]], (-wurk,) ''n''. 1. Stones fixed in mortar in imitation of the asperities of rocks, forming a [[wall]].

:“2. In ''gardening'', a pile of stones or rocks, . . . for growing plants adapted for such a situation. ''P. Cyc''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 972)

:“[[rustic style|RUST'IC]], RUST'ICAL, ''a''. [L. ''rusticus'', from ''rus'', the country.]. . .

:“5. In ''architecture'', a term denoting a species of masonry, the joints of which are worked with grooves, or channels, to render them conspicuous. The surface of the work is sometimes left or purposely made rough, and sometimes even or smooth. ''Gloss. of Archit''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 1139)

:“[[terrace|TER'RACE]], ''n''. [Fr. ''terrasse''; It. ''terrazzo''; Sp. ''terrado''; from L. ''terra'', the earth.]

:“1. A raised level space or platform of earth, supported on one or more sides by a [[wall]] or bank of turf, &c., used either for cultivation or for a [[promenade]].

:“2. A balcony or open gallery. ''Johnson''.

:“3. The flat roof of a house.”

<br />

===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850)<ref name="Webster_1850">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>'''

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 252)

:“[[conservatory|CON-SERV'A-TO-RY]], ''n''. A place for preserving any thing in a state desired, as from loss, decay, waste, or injury. . .

:“2. A [[greenhouse]] for exotics, often attached to a dwelling-house as an ornament. In large ''[[conservatory|conservatories]]'', properly so called, the plants are reared on the free soil, and not in pots. ''Brande''.”

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 409)

:“[[espalier|ES-PAL'IER]], (es-pal’yer,) ''n''. [Fr. ''espalier''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.]

:“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in [[hedge]]s, so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close [[hedge]] or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.

:“2. A lattice-work of wood, on which to train fruit-trees and ornamental shrubs. ''Brande''.”

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 1239)

:“[[vista|VIS'TA]], ''n''. [It., ''sight''; from L. ''visus, video''.]

:“A [[view]] or [[prospect]] through an [[avenue]], as between rows of trees; hence, the trees or other things that form the [[avenue]].

:“The finished garden to the [[view]]

:“Its ''[[vista|vistas]]'' opens and its [[alley]]s green. ''Thomson''.”

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n78094002.html Library of Congress Name Authority File]

[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/68670 Dictionary of National Biography]

[http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00943.html?a=1&n=noah%20webster&d=10&ss=0&q=1 American National Biography]

[https://noahwebsterhouse.org/noahwebsterhistory/ Noah Webster House and West Hartford Historical Society]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2189.jpg|Samuel Finley Breese Morse, ''Portrait of Noah Webster'', [1823].

File:2285.jpg|James Herring, Noah Webster, 1833.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Webster, Noah]]

File:2189.jpg

2021-04-08T10:32:51Z

V-Federici:

<br>
Samuel Finley Breese Morse, ''Portrait of Noah Webster'', [1823], oil painting, 84.7 x 72.7 cm., [YCAL MSS 488, Series V. 1976-1977 Addition, Box 31 (Art)]. Paul Leicester Ford Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden

2021-04-08T09:39:44Z

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'''Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden''' was a nursery founded in 1825 by the Belgian-born horticulturist, [[André Parmentier]], who immigrated with his family to Brooklyn in May 1824. Clearly, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] had designs of creating a nursery in the United States even before departing Belgium: in the notice of his election to the New-York Horticultural Society in June 1824, he is described as having brought with him “an extensive collection of fruit trees, rare plants, and seeds.”<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''New-York American'' (June 28, 1824), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref> He was recognized almost immediately in the horticultural press for introducing several rose species into this country.<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (May 19, 1827), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XT8G5JP2 view on Zotero].</ref>

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden; Horticultural Botanic Garden; Horticultural Garden; Parmentier’s Garden<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1825–1833<br/>
'''Site Owner(s)''': André Joseph Ghislain Parmentier (1780–1830); Sylvie Parmentier (1793–1882)<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Grant Thorburn (1773–1863), agent; George Fuller (d. 1830), laborer; Owen Redden (dates unknown), laborer; Dr. Adrian Vanderveer (1796–1857)<br/>
'''Location:''' Brooklyn, NY, on the site of what is now the Brooklyn Academy of Music<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>
[https://www.google.com/maps/place/Brooklyn+Academy+of+Music/@40.6864925,-73.9798375,17z/data=!3m2!4b1!5s0x89c25bb2230c6207:0x66b41367ae2f3e10!4m5!3m4!1s0x89c25bb222ef61bd:0x93b2b536d094bf28!8m2!3d40.6864885!4d-73.9776488 View on Google maps]

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==History==
[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “Rustic prospect-arbor,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
One of the earliest advertisements for the nursery, published in the ''New-York Evening Post'' on June 6, 1825, describes the location of the garden at the intersection of Jamaica and Flatbush turnpikes—which, at the time, was just outside the village of Brooklyn.<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref> The site, according to one period commentator, was originally “one of the most stony, rugged, sterile pieces of ground on the whole island,” but was transformed by [[André Parmentier|Parmentier’s]] industry into a richly stocked [[nursery]], laid out according to the principles of “[[picturesque]] gardening.”<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref> It featured winding, sinuous [[walk|walking paths]] and, most notably, a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere]] (and was occasionally referred to as an [[arbor]]) [Fig. 1] that allowed for “a view of the whole garden and the surrounding scenery . . . including Staten Island, the Bay, Governor’s Island, and the city of New York.”<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: —North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/foreign%20notices view on Zotero].</ref> Although the primary business of the [[nursery]] was to sell plants—with a focus on grape vines, fruit trees, and roses—it also served a dual purpose as a place for public enjoyment.<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref> Indeed, many of [[André Parmentier|Parmentier’s]] sales were made through the post or through agents, such as the seedsman Grant Thorburn, and the Horticultural and Botanical Garden functioned more as promotional tool, drawing visitors and modeling how they might lay out the plants acquired there.<ref>Grant Thorburn, a Scottish-born seedsman and author, is identified as an agent in numerous advertisements for Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden. Other agents mentioned in various advertisements include the grocers Charles Swan, Harvey Spencer, and John J. Moore.</ref> To that end, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] also offered his services as a landscape designer, and was identified by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] as “the only practitioner . . . of any note” in the United States. Downing described his [[nursery]] as having offered “a specimen of the [[natural style]] of laying out grounds, . . . and contributed not a little to the dissemination of a taste for the [[natural style|natural mode]] of [[landscape gardening]].”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York & London: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), 21–22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

In about 1828 [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] published a broadside of his Horticultural and Botanical Garden featuring a map of the grounds, offering a most detailed view of the layout and design of his [[nursery]] [Fig. 2]. The vineyards and rose [[shrubbery|shrubs]] were enclosed by meandering [[walk]]s that led to the “[[rustic style|Rustic]] [[arbor|Arbour]]” and “French Saloon” at the east corner of the [[plot]] (situated at the upper left on the map), and straight [[alley]]s, lined with fruit trees, divided his [[orchard]]s. Along the eastern edge of the nursery, abutting the Jamaica Turnpike, was a small cluster of buildings that included the barn, [[greenhouse]]s, tool and work houses, as well as the Parmentier family’s home and living quarters for laborers; adjacent to these buildings were hot [[bed]]s and an herbaceous plant garden.<ref>The close quarters may have led to a dispute in July 1830, when one of his laborers beat another with a garden hoe. Newspaper reports are mute on what precipitated the attack but noted that the victim, George Fuller, died shortly thereafter. His attacker, Owen Redden, was tried for murder but eventually acquitted by reason of insanity. See “Outrage,” ''New-York Morning Herald'' (July 9, 1830), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SZ2JVFV8 view on Zotero], and “Oyer and Terminer,” ''American'' (June 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VCM3W7RT view on Zotero].</ref>The broadside is likely the document Parmentier sent to the Société d’Horticulture de Paris in 1829, and it was later reprinted, with some alterations, in the February 1832 issue of ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement''.<ref>The editor of the ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' noted that Parmentier sent a map of his nursery, along with a letter on the propagation of fruit trees in America; see “Sur les Arbres fruitiers d’Amérique,” ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' 4 (1829): 352, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WRFUH5XB view on Zotero]. For the 1832 reprint of the map, see ''Gardener's Magazine'' (February 1832): 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/foreign%20notices view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2227.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Prosper Desobry, ''Map of Parmentier's Garden, Brooklyn, to be sold at auction on Wednesday, Novr. 13th, 1833, at 12 o'clock at the Merchant's Exchange by Pine & Van Antwerp, 1833''.]]
The article that accompanied the 1832 publication of the map was intended to aid in the sale of the Horticultural and Botanical Garden. [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] had died in November 1830 after a prolonged illness, and his widow, Sylvie, endeavored to maintain the property following his death under increasingly difficult circumstances. In March 1831 parts of the property, including a barn and outhouses, were destroyed by arson, and in September of that year the Parmentiers’ son Léon died at the age 12.<ref>For information on the fire at Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden, see ''American'' (March 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TNER2ST7 view on Zotero], and for the death notice of Léon Ghislain Leopold Parmentier, see ''American'' (September 20, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R2NERJC5 view on Zotero].</ref> Sylvie Parmentier subsequently put the nursery up for sale in November 1831. Finding no immediate buyers, she continued to oversee the garden until November 1833, when she sold it to Dr. Adrian Vanderveer of nearby Flatbush. Vanderveer paid $53,000 for the garden, which he divided into lots and sold them at auction for nearly $70,000.<ref>Some papers cite the original sale price as $57,000; see “Price of Farms,” ''New-York American'' (November 22, 1833), p. 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZB28JDE7 view on Zotero]. For additional details of the sale and subsequent auction, see “Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56/q/parmentier's%20garden view on Zotero], “All in the Wrong,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' (November 9, 1833), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4AV8M7X3 view on Zotero], and ''New-York American'' (November 19, 1833), p. 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CQZTHBC6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Athens''

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==Texts==
*Anonymous, June 6, 1825, advertisement for Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[André Parmentier|ANDREW PARMENTIER]] has established himself in America with a view to Horticulture, and has already set on foot a [[nursery]] of considerable extent and variety, of ornamental & fruit-bearing trees, at the cross-roads formed by the intersection of the Jamaica & Flatbush turnpikes. . . He has also a fine collection of [[shrubbery|shrubs]] and flowers, in [[pot]]s, for sale.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. P.]] intends to devote particular care to adding to his collection, those European fruits and remarkable rare trees, which are as yet unknown here, or have not been generally introduced into the United States.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] will be happy to exhibit his garden and [[nursery]] to the ladies and gentlemen of New York, who may honor him with a visit.”

*Anonymous, March 4, 1826, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (March 4, 1826), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QW4A64CE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. ANDREW PARMENTIER]], lately from Europe, where these gardens are generally adopted, has made at his place, at the division of the Jamaica and Flatbush turnpike, at Brooklyn, L. I. a garden of this kind, which will be the more interesting on account of the great variety of foreign trees and plants he has there introduced. —It is but half an hour’s walk from New York.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. P.]] by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and [[picturesque]] gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, one collection of his drawings of cottages, [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s; [[Dutch style|Dutch]], [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[pavilion]]s, [[temple]]s, [[hermitage]]s, rotundas, &c. For further particulars inquire personally or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, which will be attended to.”

*A Horticulturist [pseud.], August 1, 1826, “To the Editor of the N. Y. Advertiser” (''Commercial Advertiser'')<ref>A Horticulturist [pseud.], “To the Editor of the N. Y. Advertiser,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' (August 1, 1826): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5THTV3GU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Sir—I went yesterday to see the Garden owned by [[André Parmentier|Mr. Andrew Parmentier]]. . . The improvements he has made in that establishment, during the short time he has been there, are really astonishing; among which may be seen peach trees planted in April, 1825, which were inoculated in the same year, and are at present between three and four feet high, having been planted but 15 months. His flower plants, which are kept covered during the heat of the day by a simple and easy method, are by that means kept a long time in blossom, and form a charming and delightful [[view]]. There are always a great number in blossom, his collection amounting to above 5000 in [[pot]]s. He has besides planted 20,000 grape vines, which will occupy at least five acres of ground, and are likely, in a very few years, to furnish the market of the city of New-York with an abundant supply of that excellent and wholesome fruit. [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] has arranged his garden in the [[modern style|picturesque style]], with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere|Belvidere]] placed at the corner of Jamaica road, which displays a most extensive perspective. It is the first of the kind erected in the United States, and will be covered with grape vines next fall. Mr. Parmentier was very polite and attentive to me, in showing me all the details of his large establishment, which contains 24 acres of land, and is surrounded with a solid stone [[fence]].

:“This [[Botanic Garden]] can be visited free of expense; and, as it is likely to become the most important one of the kind in the United States, strangers of taste visiting New-York, will find it to their gratification to view this garden, which is only two miles from New-York.”

*Anonymous, May 19, 1827, “Mr. Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (May 19, 1827), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XT8G5JP2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the [[greenhouse|green houses]] in Mr. Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden in Brooklyn. . . the admirers of flowers may see many rare and elegant varieties of roses, together with many other curious and beautiful flowers now in blossom. . . [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] has introduced into this country the species of rose with red petals emitting the perfume of tea, sometimes called the red tea rose of Florence; this is also in flower. The Napoleon rose, and the Maria Louisa rose, with a number of others, will also be in bloom in a few days. As these plants are cultivated in [[pot]]s, their transportation may be safely effected at any season.”

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, “Rural Scenery” (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Landscape and Picturesque Gardens.''—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than [[picturesque]] and landscape gardens. . .

:“For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of [[landscape gardening|landscape]] and [[picturesque]] gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the Horticultural Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrubbery|shrubs]] that are found in his [[nursery|nurseries]]. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France.”

*Viator [pseud.], August 15, 1828, “Nurseries and Gardens on Long Island” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 25)<ref>Viator [pseud.], “Nurseries and Gardens on Long Island,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 4 (August 15, 1828): 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HFMDHNUX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At Brooklyn we called at the celebrated Horticultural Garden of [[André Parmentier|Mr. ANDRE PARMENTIER]]. This is a recent establishment begun in 1825. It contains 20 acres, and is surrounded by a [[wall]] of masonry, after the manner which we are told is practised on the old continent. . . This garden, so far as completed, has been laid out by the very intelligent proprietor in the most [[modern style]] and with great taste; for in the branch of ornamental and [[picturesque]] gardening, [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]], it is believed, greatly excels.”

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden, Near Brooklyn” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden, Near Brooklyn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E/q/parmentier's view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To the left of the garden an [[avenue]] leads to a [[rustic style|Rustic]] [[Arbor]] curiously constructed of the crooked limbs of trees, in their rough state, covered with bark and moss; from the top of this [[arbor]] a [[view]] of the whole garden, and the surrounding scenery is exhibited, extending to Staten Island, the bay, Governor’s Island, and the city; at some distance from the [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor]] is the French saloon, a beautiful oval, skirted with privet. . .

:“The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier’s]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eye, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce [[picturesque]] effect.”

*Anonymous, March 17, 1831, describing an act of arson at Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden (''New-York American'')<ref>''New-York American'' (March 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R6RNKXMT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We regret to be obliged to state, that the barn and outhouses attached to Madame Parmentier’s garden, near Brooklyn, were destroyed last night by fire, together with carts, garden tools and a horse. . . [W]e are authorized by one of Mrs. Parmentier’s neighbors to offer a reward of one hundred dollars for the apprehension and conviction of the incendiary.”

*Anonymous, November 26, 1831, advertisement for the sale of Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden (''Commercial Advertiser'')<ref>Advertisement, ''Commercial Advertiser'' (November 26, 1831), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6B8X5KFK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Horticultural Garden of the Late [[André Parmentier|Andrew Parmentier]], Is Offered For Sale. The reputation of this establishment is not confined to the vicinity of New-York, but is well known throughout the United States, and different parts of Europe. It is situated two miles from the city of New-York, at Brooklyn, Long Island, at the junction of the Jamaica and Flatbush Roads, and contains 24 acres.

:“The Grounds are in a very high state of cultivation, and laid out with judgment and taste. The situation is very healthy, and the [[view]] very extensive, commanding the Bay, the city, &c. The garden is enclosed by a pointed stone [[fence]], and inside of that is a hawthorn [[hedge]]. The [[Nursery]] contains a fine and extensive collection of Fruit, Forest and Ornamental Trees; also, a splendid collection of Roses and Herbaceous Plants,—the object of its late Proprietor having always been to collect every new variety.

:“On the premises are a Dwelling House, two Laborers’ Houses, seven Cisterns, and a never-failing Pump of excellent Water—four [[greenhouse|Green]] and [[hothouse|Hot Houses]], containing a rich variety of rare exotics.

:“The advantages to be derived by any person who wishes to engage in the occupation of Gardening, by the purchase of this property, are very great: the business already secured is very extensive, and the prospect of increased encouragement is such as to warrant the belief that the purchase of the property will amply repay the enterprise of any one who may engage in the business.

:“Terms will be made known by applying to Mrs. Parmentier, on the premises.”

*S., J. W., February 1832, “Parmentier’s Garden, Near Brooklyn,” (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 70–72)<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: —North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/J.%20W.%20S. view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have compiled from different authorities. . . an account of one of the first [[botanic garden]]s which has ever been established in this country, viz. that of [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] about two miles from Brooklyn, Long Island. The following map. . . will serve to convey some idea of the general disposition of the whole; but I am confident that neither plan nor description can furnish any adequate idea of the particular beauties of the place. Its establishment may, indeed, be looked upon as an epoch in the history of American horticulture; as, though the various branches of that science were before understood and practised by most of our gardeners, it had not attained its full perfection until the arrival of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]]. . . [T]he garden of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]] is, perhaps, the most striking instance we have of all the different departments of gardening being combined extensively and with scientific skill. The rapidity with which this garden was formed added to its effect. Nearly twenty-five acres of ground were originally enclosed; and the inhabitants of the vicinity beheld, with astonishment, in the short space of three years, one of the most stony, rugged, sterile pieces of ground on the whole island, which seemed to bid defiance to the labours of man, stored with the most luxuriant fruit, and blooming with the most beautiful flowers. . .

:“In the northern parts of the garden are [[nursery|nurseries]], containing young plants of every kind of tree which is to be found in the beds. To the left of the garden, an [[avenue]] leads to a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss: from the top of this [[arbor|arbour]], a [[view]] of the whole garden and the surrounding scenery is obtained; including Staten Island, the Bay, Governor’s Island, and the city of New York. . .

:“In short, this establishment is well worthy of notice as one of the few examples in the neighbourhood of New York, of the art of laying out a garden so as to combine the principles of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]] with the conveniences of the [[nursery]] or [[orchard]].”

*Anonymous, June 20, 1833, “Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Spectator'')<ref>“Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Spectator'' (June 20, 1833), p. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ARQEVA2S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those ladies and gentlemen who have not entirely yielded themselves to languor and repose during the brightest hours of the morning, would find themselves richly repaid by a visit to the “garden of roses” (as we must be permitted to call it) of Mrs. Parmentier. . . A lady’s taste is visible in the neatness and floral embellishments of Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden, and though there is a large domain to superintend, and though a vast variety of trees and [[Shrubbery]] for the ornament and for use, call for attention in the liberal department of the [[nursery]], yet nothing is neglected—all is equally subject to the most assiduous care and preserving industry.”

*Anonymous, October 23, 1833, “Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We learn that Mrs. Parmentier has recently disposed of, at private sale, the ground now occupied by her as a Garden, for the sum of ''fifty-three thousand dollars''. . . . The rage for speculation in Brooklyn, has enabled Mrs. Parmentier to retire from active life, with a competency for herself and interesting daughters—the just reward of virtuous and well-spent lives.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849: 459–60)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: George P. Putnam; London: Longman, Brown, Green & Longman, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those of our readers who may have visited the delightful garden and grounds of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]], near Brooklyn, some half a dozen years since. . . will readily remember the rustic prospect-[[arbor]] or [[belvedere|tower]], Fig. 87, which was situated at the extremity of his place. . . from its summit, though the garden [[walk]]s afforded no [[prospect]], a beautiful reach of neighborhood for many miles was enjoyed.”

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==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:2227.jpg|Prosper Desobry, ''Map of Parmentier's Garden, Brooklyn, to be sold at auction on Wednesday, Novr. 13th, 1833, at 12 o'clock at the Merchant's Exchange by Pine & Van Antwerp, 1833.''

File:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] prospect-arbor,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.

File:2225.jpg|William Hooker, ''Hooker’s map of the village of Brooklyn in the year 1827'', 1861.

File:2225_detail.jpg|William Hooker, ''Hooker’s map of the village of Brooklyn in the year 1827'' [detail], 1861.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[https://www.brooklynhistory.org/blog/brooklyns-secret-garden/ Brooklyn Historical Society]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:Places|Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]]

Walk

2021-04-08T09:37:20Z

V-Federici: /* Associated */

==History==
[[File:0226.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.]]
As an integral element of circulation routes through the designed landscape, walk is one of the most common terms in American garden descriptions. Walks were highly varied in their composition, arrangement, and plantings. While widths varied, a narrow walk limited to foot traffic was often called a path, while a broad, straight walk lined with trees was often called an [[avenue]]. Walks were configured in numerous ways and composed of different materials such as brick, shell, gravel, packed dirt, tan (or tan bark), and turf. From most images of walks it is difficult to discern their composition, but contrary to brick paving, which was popular only in colonial revival gardens, textual references appear to indicate that gravel was a surface commonly used. <span id="Forsyth_cite"></span>William Forsyth in his 1802 treatise recommended sand or sea-coal ashes on a foundation of brick rubble or gravel for building a walk in a [[kitchen garden]]. He noted the ease of maintenance of such surfaces, which were weeded simply by raking ([[#Forsyth|view text]]). It is interesting to note that despite changing trends in garden styles, treatises remained remarkably consistent in their advice and instruction. Entire passages were frequently borrowed or adapted from earlier publications.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:1192.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.]]
[[File:0091.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “Walks in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”]]
Walks were planted in a variety of ways. They could have [[border]]s of low [[shrubbery]] or plants, as in a painting by Charles Fraser [Fig. 1], or be lined with [[pot]]s or [[statue]]s, as at [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York in 1816. Lombardy poplars and other tall, straight trees accentuated the linearity of axial walks and the formality of urban [[avenue]]s, including Pennsylvania Ave. in Washington, DC [Fig. 2]. Such spreading shade trees as elm, myrtle, and live oak formed arching canopies over walks, <span id="d'Argenville_cite"></span>an effect that John James in his 1712 translation of A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville called “Close” walks ([[#d'Argenville|view text]]). Although this term does not appear to be used in America, the technique, which framed [[view]]s and invited cooling strolls, was described at sites such as [[Boston Common]].

While their form varied widely, walks served essentially the same functions: to provide passage and to direct movement through the garden; to focus a viewer’s gaze toward an object, building, or [[prospect]]; and to structure and divide the garden. In colonial gardens, the walk was often the principal structuring element of the space, dividing a small garden adjacent to a structure into regular geometric shapes, such as the walks depicted in an unidentified late 18th-century garden [Fig. 3]. In more naturalistic and [[picturesque]] designs that became popular in the 19th century, walks created routes by which visitors were led to carefully sited garden structures or to crafted [[vista]]s, as described in [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson’s]] c. 1804 plan for his mountaintop landscape [Fig. 4] or [[A. J. Downing|A. J. Downing’s]] 1849 plan for a country [[seat]]. In addition, walks offered a means to organize the visual logic of a site by directing a visitor’s gaze to distant [[view]]s or focal points within the garden, such as [[obelisk]]s, [[pavilion]]s, [[gate]]s, or [[seat]]s. Walks could also create the illusion of distance if their designers manipulated their dimensions and layout. This resulted in an impression of greater depth, a particularly useful effect in smaller urban lots. The dimensions of walks were determined by the scale of their settings and their use. Forsyth (1802), for instance, recommended that walks be wide enough to admit a cart in [[kitchen garden]]s, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>and Joseph Breck (1851) cautioned designers to leave enough room for persons to “walk comfortably in a social manner” ([[#Breck|view text]]).

[[File:0404.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.]]
[[File:0254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child,'' c. 1798–1810.]]
[[File:2256.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.]]
In pictorial representations, walks served many of these same functions. In a perspective view of a building’s front façade, the viewer is often encouraged to focus upon the main entrance located at the terminus of a central walk or [[avenue]] [Fig. 5]. In the backgrounds of portraits, particularly those from the second half of the 18th century, artists often depicted glimpses through a window of their sitters' gardens, in which walks were presented in perspective with converging sides to suggest the illusion of depth [Fig. 6]. In aerial views, walks were often the principle means of indicating the location and existence of a garden, since plants, changing topography, and surface treatments were less easily rendered in plan. In other images, the walk invites the viewer to dwell upon a destination, such as a garden [[seat]] or viewing point, or to venture further into the unseen garden, as in John Trumbull’s 1793 plan for Yale College [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]]. In all of these types of images, tracing the line of the walk conveys a sense of movement through the landscape, much as a visitor might have experienced surprising “discoveries” of [[view]]s.

In addition to being a common feature in early American gardens, walks were also the setting for much recorded activity. <span id="Byrd_cite"></span>William Byrd II in his diary (1732) frequently mentioned his own perambulations in the garden, either alone or with gentlemen guests after he had entertained them with a meal ([[#Byrd|view text]]). [[Charles Willson Peale]] described strolling through the gardens of Annapolis, Maryland, in language that echoes published accounts of British and European tours.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero.] </ref> Walks were social venues in public landscape designs such as [[Boston Common]], the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, a levee in New Orleans, the Battery Park in New York, Fairmount Park in Philadelphia [Fig. 7], and the [[avenue]]s of Washington, DC. They were places to see and be seen, and images of them in the second quarter of the 19th century portray their rising popularity as [[promenade]]s for the general populace. Numerous descriptions and treatises of this period also praised the health-giving properties of these walks and the virtues of fresh air and exercise, particularly for the infirm, mentally ill, and urban poor.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1629, describing the Charles River in Massachusetts (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“in the maine you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, '''Walkes''', [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s, one adjoyning to another, leaving every of them invironed with two, three, foure, or six, or so many rowes of well growne trees as you will, ready growne to your hands, to defend them from ill weather.”

*Penn, William, March 19, 1685, in a letter to James Harrison, regarding Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 59)<ref name="Thomforde">Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“If Ralph this fall, could gett twenty yound populars, about 18 inch round beheaded, to twenty foot, to plant in a '''walk''' below ye Steps to ye water It were not emiss. perhaps to 15 foot long for a Round head, may do as well, plant ym in ye 8 mo. [October] is well.”

*Penn, William, October 15, 1685, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 54)<ref name="Thomforde"></ref>
:“I desire a. . . handsome '''walk''' to ye house of Gravel, or paved wth pitt stones—smooth stones.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1724, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:48)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . stands the Palace or Governor’s House, a magnificent structure built at the publick Expense, finished and beautified with [[Gate]]s, fine Gardens, Offices, '''Walks''', a fine [[Canal]], [[Orchard]]s, and with a great number of the best arms nicely posited by the ingenious Contrivance of the accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*<div id="Byrd"></div>Byrd, William, II, September 28, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1970: 357–58, 360)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. by John Spencer Bassett (New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 [[Terrace]] '''Walks''' that fall in [[Slope]]s one below another. . .
<p></p>
:“The afternoon was devoted to the ladys, who shew’d me one of their most beautiful '''Walks'''. They conducted me thro’ a Shady Lane to the Landing, and by the way made me drink some very fine Water that issued from a Marble [[Fountain]], and ran incessantly.” [[#Byrd_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, February 2, 1734, describing property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“To Be Let or Sold. . . On the island is a New Dwelling House &c. built on a high Bluff, which commands an entire [[prospect]] of the Harbour, from the Barr to the Town. A delightful [[Wilderness]] with shady '''Walks''' and [[arbor|Arbours]], cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground, where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced, and planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees, capable of being made a very good Vineyard.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. by Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“From the back door is a spacious '''walk''' a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpenting manner with flowers.”

*Moore, Francis, 1744, describing the [[Trustees’_Garden|Trustees' Garden]], Savannah, GA (quoted in Marye and Marye 1933: 15)<ref>Florence Marye (Nisbet) and Philip Thornton Marye, ''Garden History of Georgia, 1733–1933'', ed. by Hattie C. Rainwater and Loraine M. Cooney (Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Garden Club, 1933), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GNC4U42D view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Garden is laid out with Cross-'''walks''' planted with Orange-trees, but the last Winter a good deal of Snow having fallen, had killed those upon the Top of the Hill down to their Roots, but they being cut down, sprouted again, as I saw when I returned to Savannah.”

*Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16: 375)
:“passing a a long spacious '''walk''', set on each side with trees, on the summit of a gradual ascent, we saw the proprietor’s house, & walkt in the gardens, where besides the beautiful '''walk''', ornamented with evergreens, we saw fruit trees. . . [with] oranges, limes, lemons, citrons. . . Spruce [[hedge]]s cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad '''walk''' of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel '''walk''', to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . .”

*Grant, Anne, 1769, describing Oswego, NY (1809: 236)<ref>Anne MacVicar Grant, ''Memoirs of an American Lady: With Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as They Existed Prior to the Revolution'' (New York: S. Campbell, 1809), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z7JD6GEV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“A [[summerhouse|summer house]] in a tree, a fish-[[pond]], and a gravel-'''walk''', were finished before the end of May.”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 117)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre '''walk''' is terminated by a small green [[mount]], close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive [[view]] of the bay, and the adjacent country.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 109)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Area of the Triangle made by the Wash-House, Stable, & School-House is perfectly levil, & designed for a [[bowling green|bowling-Green]], laid out in rectangular '''Walks''' which are paved with Brick, & covered over with burnt Oyster-Shells.”

*Adams, John, February 23, 1777, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 139)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“There is a most beautiful '''walk''' from the house down to the water; there is a descent not far from the house; you have a fine garden then you descend a few steps and have another fine garden; you go down a few more and have another.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 405)<ref>Fred Shelley, “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At this Front of the College is a large Court Yard, ornamented with Gravel '''Walks''', Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass.”

*Rush, Dr. Benjamin, July 15, 1782, describing the country seat of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 87)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground contiguous to this shed was cut into beautiful '''walks''' and divided with cedar and pine branches into artificial [[grove]]s. The whole, both the buildings and '''walks''', were accommodated with [[seat]]s.”

*Washington, George, February 28, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 99–100)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My Gardens have gravel '''walks''' (as you possibly may recollect) in the usual Style, but if a better composition has been discovered for these, I should gladly adopt it. the matter however which I wish principally to be informed in, is, whether your '''walks''' are designed for Carriages, and if so, how they are prepared, to resist the impression of the Wheels. I am making a serpentine road to my door, and have doubts. . . whether any thing short of solid pavement will answer.”

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:96, 97)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“[February 28] Planted all the Mulberry trees, Maple trees, & Black gums in my Serpentine '''walks''' and the Poplars on the right '''walk'''—the Sap of which and the Mulberry appeared to be moving. Also planted 4 trees from H. Hole the name unknown but of a brittle wood which has the smell of Mulberry. . .
<p></p>
:“[March 2]. . . Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine '''walks'''—the remainder of the fringe trees in the Shrubberies—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each [[clump]]—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees.”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 2, 1787, describing Middletown, CT (1987: 215–16)<ref name="Cutler 87">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the northern end of the city is a '''walk''' of two rows of buttonwood trees, from the front [[gate]] of a gentleman’s house down to a summer-house on the bank of the river, by far the most beautiful I ever saw. He permits the people of the city to improve it as a [[mall]].”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref name="Cutler 87"></ref>
:“The numerous '''walks''' are well graveled and rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s ‘Line of Beauty’ is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of [[Samuel Vaughan|Mr. Sam’l Vaughan, Esq.]], for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 2, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Dinner we took a '''walk''' on the [[Mall]] as it is called which is a very excellent: Gravel '''walk''' about half a Mile in Lenth with Trees on each side which is kept in very good order and is by far the best thing of the kind I have yet seen in america.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789: 331)
:“The state house [[yard]], is a neat, elegant and spacious public '''walk''', ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The serpentine gravel '''walks''', which are irregularly regular, seem to point different ways; they however terminate in one object.”

*[[L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Departments of State contigous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the [[park]] and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique '''walk''' and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, accademies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. [[#Fig_8_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel '''walk''' should lead thro [sic] the [[Shrubbery]] to those buildings. . .
<p></p>
:“The yellow is intended to express the gravel '''walks'''—& the green the grass and planting. . .
<p></p>
:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs. . .
<p></p>
:“The ground in front of the Buildings to be divided by two broad '''walks''' leading up to the Chapel and Lecture Rooms, and the sides of the '''walks''' to be planted with Elms or other Forest Trees. . .
<p></p>
:“Behind the buildings, the '''walks''' may be irregular and winding, beginning behind the two Chapels, and corresponding to the two broad ones in their front.” [Fig. 8]

*Drayton, John, 1793, describing the Battery Park, New York, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:130)<ref name="Deák">Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After passing these islands [Governor’s, etc.], we came opposite the battery; which is at the extreme point of the town. . . It has no merlons, or embrasuers; but the guns. . . are placed upon carriages on a stone platform ''en barbette'', some few feet above the level of the water. Between the guns, and the water is a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform: and going round the ground upon which the battery is placed. Some little distance behind the guns, two rows of elm trees are planted; which in a short time will afford an agreeable shade.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1977: 165)<ref>
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground on the West front is laid out in a level [[lawn]] bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine '''walk''', shaded by weeping Willows.”

*Brooks, Joshua, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 18)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At the back of the house is a covered staircase to the kitchen or cellar. Here many male and female negroes were at work digging and carrying away the ground to make a level grass plot with a gravel '''walk''' around it, at one end of which is an ice house.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14 and 18)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass '''walk''' and is skirted on each side by [[bed]]s devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own. . .
<p></p>
:“Among the varied enjoyments of this settlement [Bethlehem], is a pleasant '''walk''' on the banks of the river Lehigh. Nature has furnished a shade, by means of the trees, which grow near the margin. But, this is improved by a row of locust trees between them and the road or '''walk'''.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, ‘People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited’, ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983), 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and [[summer house]]s at the termination of each '''walk''', [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

*Pintard, John, 1801, describing New Orleans, LA (quoted in Sterling 1951: 231)<ref>David Lee Sterling, “New Orleans, 1801: An Account by John Pintard,” ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 34 (1951): 217–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8A58JVVT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The only public '''walk''' is the leveé, which is externally thronged with all sorts & conditions of people. It is far from an eligible [[promenade]] for the ladies—who are obliged to frequent it for exercise—It is about 8 feet wide, the [[slope]] towards the river presents all the shipping of the harbour with their usual concomitants of noisey [''sic''] drunken labourers & sailors.”

*Anonymous, 1801, describing in the ''Supplement to the Warner & Hanna Directory'' Chatsworth’s Gardens, Baltimore, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“CHATSWORTH’S GARDENS, Situated in a westerly direction, about half a mile from town, at the intersection of Green and Saratoga streets. The present proprietor, Mr. Mang, has been but a short time there—the arrangement of these Gardens are said to be extremely neat, such as forming pleasant [[summer house]], serpentine '''walks''', shady [[grove]]s, and every other rural appearance, which may give a pleasing relaxation to the leisure hours of the industrious citizen.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 1806, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 323)<ref>
Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level '''walks''' successively along it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill & intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>Garden</u> consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of '''walk''', & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. The outer side of the '''walk''' is adorned here & there, by scattered forest trees, thick & thin. It is bounded, partly as is described—partly by the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] & a creek exhibiting a Mill & where it is scarcely noticed, by a common post & rail. The '''walk''' is said to be a mile long—perhaps it is something less. One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this '''walk''', one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion.”

*Anonymous, January 2, 1808, describing in the ''Washington Expositor'' the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 99–100)<ref name ="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At present these large appropriations afford an increase to the pasturage of the city, more beneficial to the poor citizens, than their culture in the ordinary courses. . . by laying off those in their occupancy so as to afford ample '''walks''' open at seasonable hours and under proper regulations to the public, it will give to the city, much earlier than there is otherwise reasonable cause to hope for, agreeable [[promenade]]s, as conducive to the health of the inhabitants, as to the beauty of the places.”

*Graydon, Alexander, 1811, describing the garden of Israel Pemberton, Philadelphia, PA (1811: 34–35)<ref>Alexander Graydon, ''Memoirs of a Life Chiefly Passed in Pennsylvania within the Last Sixty Years'' (Harrisburg, PA: John Wyeth, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SIZFRZVI/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . laid out in the old fashioned style of uniformity, with '''walks''' and allies nodding to their brothers, and decorated with a number of evergreens, carefully clipped into pyramidal and conical forms.”

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Lengthways of the house, and thro’ the hall, is a '''walk''', which extends on a [[terrace]] at each end for some way.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 272–73)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January) (1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The house is a spacious and noble building. . . It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a '''walk''' of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other '''walks''', on all of which are growing trees and [[shrubbery]] of various kinds.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (1816: 2:61)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The [[Vauxhall_Garden|Vauxhall garden]] is situated in the Bowery Road about two miles from the City Hall. It is a neat [[plantation]], with gravel '''walks''' adorned with shrubs, trees, busts, and [[statue]]s.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Savannah, GA (1816: 2:265–66)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“This range of buildings extends nearly three quarters of a mile along the town; and opposite to it is a beautiful '''walk''' or [[mall]], planted with a double row of trees, the same as those at Charleston— (''Melia Azedarach'', or Pride of India). . .
<p></p>
:“About the centre of the '''walk''', and just on the verge of the cliff, stands the Exchange, a large brick building, which contains some public offices; and an assembly-room, where a concert and ball are held once a fortnight during the winter.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], August 14, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing his painting of [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al. 1991: 3:435)<ref>Lillian B. Miller, et al., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'' vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I have been so long neglecting the [[view]] I am about in the Garden that the Tree’s & Shrubery have grown so high that I cannot represent them truely without almost hiding the '''walks''', therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make others smaller.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43–45)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] '''walks''' & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The '''Walks''' are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, June 13, 1820, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 104)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My husband had secretly, cut a long and beautiful shady '''walk''', by our spring along the margin of Forman’s Creek to the Irishmen’s dam. It was a most agreeable surprise and highly pleased all our company. The Ivy was in bloom on each side, the '''walk''', which with the Hemlock Spruce gave it a very pretty effect.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled '''walk''', by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] [[eminence]].”

*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“Four '''walks''' have been laid out, one on Pennsylvania Avenue, one on Maryland Avenue, one opposite the circular road around the west side of the Capitol, and one in the center of the ground leading to the [[pond]]. The three '''walks''' on the sides of the garden are 20 feet wide, with [[border]]s of 26 feet, in which to plant trees and shrubs; the center '''walk''' or road is 15 feet wide; the whole is well graveled.”

*Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . .
<p></p>
:“The hill-side was laid off in [[terrace]]s and winding '''walks'''.”

*Bacon, Edmund, c. 1825, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, V (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The grounds, around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were '''walks''', and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early in the spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful [[lawn]] of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.”

*Hunt, Henry, William Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing a proposed memorial in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)

:“Cool and shady '''walks''' will be formed in the neighborhood of the Capitol; the science of Botany encouraged; and a delightful scene from the Capitol created to please the eye of the stranger and citizen.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 439)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The refreshing shade of the numerous '''walks''', all swept as clean as a parlour floor, add to the charms of this place. Many of these '''walks''' are tastefully ornamented with Orange, Lemon, Shad-dock, Neriums, and other exotics; among which we observed a Myrtle 10 years old, and raised from seed.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hudson Square, New York, NY (1832: 2:160)<ref name="Trollope">Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“it will give some idea of the care bestowed on its decoration, to know that the gravel for the '''walks''' was conveyed by barges from Boston, not as ballast, but as freight.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hoboken, NJ (1832: 2:167)<ref name="Trollope"></ref>

:“A gentleman who possessed a handsome mansion and grounds there, also possessed the right of ferry, and to render this productive, he has restricted his [[pleasure ground]]s to a few beautiful acres, laying out the remainder simply and tastefully as a public '''walk'''. It is hardly possible to imagine one of greater attraction; a broad belt of light underwood and flowering shrubs, studded at intervals with lofty forest trees, runs for two miles along a cliff which overhangs the matchless Hudson.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the house, gravelled '''walks''' diverge and extend in opposite directions nearly half a mile, exhibiting a diversified scenery of hills and dales, now descending a sloping declivity on the verge of a precipice, again ascending to a commanding plain, opening a scene of unrivalled beauty.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:88)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“On a firm, smooth, gravelled '''walk''' elevated about four feet, by a gradual ascent from the street—one side open to the river, and the other lined with the ‘Pride of China,’ or India tree, we pursued our way to Chartres-street, the ‘Broadway’ of New-Orleans.”

*Anonymous, January 1, 1836, “Leaves from My Note Book” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 32–33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from My Note Book,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 29–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is one thing about the improvements in New York I very much like, and which, as you are a man of influence, I hope you will endeavor to impress on the Bostonians;—the disposition to ornament the streets with rows of trees, thus giving to them an air of freshness and beauty very much wanting in our large cities and in country towns, for nothing adds more to beauty than rows of trees along the public '''walks''', which may be placed there for a trifling expense.
<p></p>
:“The Battery, St. John’s Park, Washington Square, and many other public '''walks''' exhibit the taste of the New Yorkers in this respect, and their practice of making every open and beautiful piece of ground an object of ornament to the city, and a pleasant resort for the inhabitants, is worthy of observation.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–38)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and [[square]]s and public '''walks'''; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which ‘blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;’ or a few public [[square]]s, remembrances though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the ‘city of brotherly love’ shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1838, describing Portland, ME ([Adams] 1838: 31)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“An equally striking indication of the spirit of improvement peculiar to these times is the public '''walk''' recently laid out in Portland. This '''walk''', consisting of a carriage and foot way, shaded with trees, is nearly two miles in length, extending in an oval form around a hill, on which is the telegraph [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|observatory]], and commanding a [[view]] of the adjacent scenery, which may be classed among the best in the country.”

*Hovey, C. M., November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled; a '''walk''' from thence conducts directly, in a straight line, nearly to the edge of the river, where it terminates in a rustic [[arch]] and [[vase]] on the [[lawn]]; on each side of the '''walk''' there is turf, with circles of flowers at the distance of ten or twelve feet; these are each backed by a line of buckthorn [[hedge]]s, with a [[view]] to screen both the fruit garden on the east, and the vegetable garden on the west, from sight.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Saratoga, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:424)<ref name="Deák"></ref>

:“When the gentleman has swallowed his muriate and four carbonates in proper quantity, a smooth serpentine '''walk''' leads to the summit of a prettily wooded hill, where he may either grind himself round a circular rail-road in a self-moving chair, or ramble off to the shade, for a little meditation.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel '''walks''', and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref name="Buckingham">James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-'''walks''' or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public '''walk''', where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Rochester, NY (2:215)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A large piece of ground immediately overlooking the principal Falls of the Genesee, and called the Falls Promenade, is about to be laid out as a public '''walk''' and garden, and will be a fine ornament to the town.”

*Hovey, C. M., September 1841, describing the residence of R. F. Carman, Fort Washington, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 326)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes Made During a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington and intermediate places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 9 (September 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS/q/notes%20made view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] is laid out in angular shaped [[bed]]s of small size, occupying a [[square]] of about one hundred feet, with the '''walks''' edged with box. The only fault we have to find with the plan is the narrowness of the '''walks''', not being above two feet wide, and, consequently, not allowing two to '''walk''' abreast. The same error we saw committed at other places. It should be laid down as a rule, never to make the '''walks''' less than three feet wide, and if three and a half, it will be better.”

*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1842: 153–54)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The President’s mansion is more like an English club-house, both within and without, than any other kind of establishment with which I can compare it. The ornamental ground about it has been laid out in garden '''walks'''; they are pretty, and agreeable to the eye; though they have that uncomfortable air of having been made yesterday, which is far from favourable to the display of such beauties.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1844, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 24)<ref>
Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the brick '''walks''', for use when the ground is soft or covered with snow, have been extended; other '''walks''' have been laid out through the different [[grove]]s, and covered with tan, and their extension, now in progress, will give us more than a mile in the men’s division, and nearly as much in that appropriated to the females. These '''walks''' have been so located as to embrace our finest and most diversified [[view]]s, to wind through the [[wood]]s and [[clump]]s of trees which are scattered through the enclosure; and among them, it is hoped, will soon be seen summer-houses, rustic [[seat]]s, and other objects of interest, to tempt the patients voluntarily to prolong their '''walks''', and to spend a greater portion of their time out of the wards, and engaged in some agreeable occupation.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private '''walk'''. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0995.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “The Espalier Walk in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1847, describing Wodenethe, residence of Henry Winthrop Sargent, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 1: 504)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC9R5CZQ/q/wodenethe view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Our FRONTISPIECE gives a glimpse of this ''Vinery'', at the termination of the main '''walk''' of the fruit-garden. This '''walk''' is 428 feet long, and is bordered with an [[espalier]] rail, upon which many of the choicest peaches, grapes, plums, etc., are trained—not from necessity or for greater protection, as in gardens farther north, for all those fruits ripen perfectly on common standards here, but to give an illustration of this more perfect kind of culture, and to obtain fruit of a larger size and higher color than standards usually produce.” [Fig. 9]

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight '''walks''' with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 445)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the first place, the [[nursery]] is laid out in angular divisions, diverging from a common centre. These divisions are separated from each other by wide '''walks''' and [[avenue]]s, on each side of which is a [[border]] some eight or nine feet wide. These [[border]]s are planted with specimen trees, inside of which are the [[quarter]]s for the [[nursery]] stock.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The house is situated some distance back from the road, as you approach in front, you pass through a fine iron [[gateway]] and '''walk''' strait until about halfway to the house. The '''walk''' then branches off and forms a circular in front of the residence. There are also small circulars on each side. All of these are laid out in flower and cedars and the balance of the [[yard]] in front is filed up with cedars and forest trees.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''walks''' will be made in every direction and as some compensation for filling up the beautiful vale south of the Monument a capacious fountain will be placed in the centre of the '''walk''' leading into Bank street, from which [[fountain]] a [[jet d’eau]] will rise, fully thirty feet in height.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5, 537)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with '''walks''', crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge: For there may be therein '''walkes''' eyther open or close, eyther pub-like or private. . . for the fairer and larger your allies and '''walkes''' be, the more grace your Garden shall have, the lesse harme the herbes and flowers shall receive, by passing by them that grow next unto the allies sides, and the better shall your Weeders cleanse both the [[bed]]s and the allies. . . .
<p></p>
:“Having an [[Orchard]] containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large '''walke''' betweene the [[wall]] and it. . . and by compassing your [[Orchard]] on the inside with a [[hedge]] (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low shrubs or bushes).”

*<div id="d'Argenville"></div>Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J., 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 40–41),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . '', trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712; repr., London: Farnborough, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' in Gardens, like Streets in a Town, serve to communicate between Place and Place, and are as so many Guidances and Means to conduct us throughout a Garden. . .
<p></p>
:“Among the several Sorts of '''Walks''', I shall take Notice of the Close and the Open, the Single and the Double.
<p></p>
:“The Close are those formed by Trees or Palisades, which joining together at Top, shut out even the Sight of the Sky, and by their Obscurity give a Coolness not penetrable by the greatest Heat of the Sun.
<p></p>
:“These '''Walks''' are very delightful in hot Weather, when you may '''walk''' under the Shade of them in the very middle of the Day. . .
<p></p>
:“’Tis a general Rule to keep open the principal '''Walks''', such as those that face a Building, [[Pavilion]], [[Cascade]], or the like; and these likewise should be kept wider than the others, that from the End of the '''Walk''' you may see Part of the Front of a House, or some other handsome Object. . .
<p></p>
:“SINGLE '''Walks''' are those that consist but of two Rows of Trees or Palisades, to distinguish them from double '''Walks''' that have four, which form three [[Alley]]s close together, a large one in the Middle, and two on the Sides that accompany it, and are called Counter-'''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“As to the Names and different Figures of '''Walks''', they may all be included in these that follow: The Parallel-'''walk''', the Strait-'''walk''', the Cross-'''walk''', the Winding or Circular-'''walk''', the '''Walk''' returned [[square]], and the Diagonal or Thwart-'''walk''', in respect of that at Right Angles.” [[#d'Argenville_cite|back up to History]]

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 3:46)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . '', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“And why, is not a level easy '''Walk''' of Gravel or Sand shaded over with Trees, and running thro’ a Corn Field or Pasture Ground, as pleasing as the largest '''Walk''' in the most magnificent Garden one can think of?”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a [[Temple]], made for a Person of Quality, and propos’d to have been placed in the Center of four '''Walks'''; so that a [[Portico]] might front each '''Walk'''. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn’d with Niches and crown’d with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J.Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“VIII. That shady '''Walks''' be planted from the End-[[View]]s of a House, and terminate in those open [[Grove]]s that enclose the Sides of the plain [[Parterre]], that thereby you may enter into immediate Shade, as soon as out of the House, without being heated by the Scorching Rays of the Sun. . .
<p></p>
:“IX. That all the Trees of your shady '''Walks''' and [[Grove]]s be planted with Sweet-Brier, White Jessemine, and Honey-Suckles, environ’d at Bottom with a small Circle of Dwarf-Stock, Candy-Turf, and Pinks. . .
<p></p>
:“XIV. That the '''Walks''' leading up the [[Slope]] of a [[Mount]], have their Breadth contracted at the Top, full on half Part; and if that contracted Part be enclosed on the Sides with a [[Hedge]] whose Leaves are of a light Green, ’twill seemingly add a great Addition to the Length of the '''Walk''', when view’d from the other End.
<p></p>
:“XV. That all '''Walks''' whose Lengths are short, and lead away from any Point of [[View]], be made narrower at their further Ends than at the hither Part; for by Inclination of their Sides, they appear to be of a much greater Length than they really are; and the further End of every long '''Walk''', [[Avenue]], ''&c''. appears to be much narrower than that End where you stand.
<p></p>
:“And the Reason is, that notwithstanding the Sides of such '''Walks''' are parallel to each other, yet as the Breadth of the further End is seen under a lesser Angle, than the Breadth of that Part where you stand, it will therefore appear as if contracted, altho’ the Sides are actually parallel; for equal Objects always appear under equal Angles, Q. E. D.
<p></p>
:“XVI. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
<p></p>
:“XVII. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country.
<p></p>
:“XVIII. That the Intersections of '''Walks''' be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, [[Grove]]s, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest Trees, Basons, [[Fountain]]s, Sun-Dials, and [[Obelisk]]s. . .
<p></p>
:L“XXI. Such '''Walks''' as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[Aviary/Bird_cage/Birdhouse|aviary]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular [[Hedge]]s ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance. . .
<p></p>
:“XXIV. [[Canal]]s, Fish-[[Pond]]s, ''&c''. are most beautiful when environ’d with a '''Walk''' of stately Pines, and terminate at each End with a fine [[Grove]] of Forest-Trees, or Ever-Greens. . .
<p></p>
:“XXVI. All Grass-'''Walks''' should be laid with the same Curvature as Gravel-'''Walks''', and particularly in wet and cold Lands; for, by their being made flat or level from Side to Side, they soon settle into Holes in the Middle, by often walking on, and therein retain Wet, ''&c''. which a circular surfaced '''Walk''' resists. The Proportion for the Heights of the Crown, or middle Part of any Grass or Gravel-'''Walk''', is as five is to one, that is, if the '''Walk''' be five Foot in Breadth, the Height of the Middle, above the Level of the Sides, must be one Inch; if ten Foot, two Inches; fifteen Foot, three Inches, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“XXIX. Little '''Walks''' by purling Streams in [[Meadow]]s, and through Corn-fields, [[Thicket]]s, ''&c''. are delightful Entertainments.
<p></p>
:“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.
<p></p>
:“The entire Breadth of every [[Avenue]] should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand '''Walk''', must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-'''Walks''' on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of [[Avenue]]s fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand '''Walk''' be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[AVENUE]]. . .
<p></p>
:All ''[[avenue]]s'', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an ''avenue'' to an house, whatever the length of the '''walk''' is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better. . .
<p></p>
:“[[AVENUE]], in gardening, is a '''walk''', planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE. . .
<p></p>
:“GRASS ''[[plot]]s'', and '''''walks''''', make a considerable article in gardening, ''&c''. See '''WALK''', ''&c''.
<p></p>
:“Grass, or ''green-[[plot]]s'' are had either by sowing of hayseed, or laying of turf: for the first, which is the cheapest way, the seed of the finest upland pastures is to be chose, well sifted and cleansed.
<p></p>
:“For the second, the turf should be cut on a down, or [[green]], or [[common]], or sheep-'''walk''', where the ''grass'' is short and fine; if there be any knobs, or roughnesses, the place must be cleansed and rolled after a shower, before it be cut up. The turf is cut in [[square]]s, marked out with lines, raised with a knife, and rolled up; about three inches thick. The [[quarter]]s, or verges are to be prepared with a fine coat of poor earth to lay the turf on; and after laying, the turf must be well watered, rolled, ''&c.''. . .
<p></p>
:“GRAVEL '''''walk''''', in gardening.—To lay, or form a '''walk''' with ''gravel'', all the good soil is to be pared away, below the roots of any grass, or weeds; then the place to be filled two or three inches with coarse gravel unsearsed, laying it highest in the middle; then rolling it. . .
<p></p>
:“Note, the sides next the [[bed]]s should be laid a foot and an half, or two foot with turf, from whence the heat of the sun cannot be reflected as from gravel, to the prejudice of the neighbouring flowers.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1503–4)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Gravel-'''walks''' are very necessary near the House; because, being soon dry after Rain, they are proper for walking on, in all Seasons. But then these should be but few, and those ought to be large and magnificient, proportionable to the Grandeur of the House and Garden. The principal of these '''Walks''' should be elevated parallel with the House, so as to form a [[Terrace]]: this should extend itself each way, in proportion to the Width of the Garden; so that from this there may be a Communication with the Sand-'''walks''', without going on the Grass; or there should be Side-'''Walks''' of Gravel to lead to them, that there may be a dry '''Walk''' continued quite through the Gardens. But there is not a more ridiculous Sight, than that of a straight Gravel-'''walk''', leading to the Front of the House, intersecting the Grass, so as to make it appear like the stiff formal Grass [[plot]]s frequently made in little Court-yards by Persons of low Taste.
<p></p>
:“Grass-'''walks''' in a Garden are both ornamental and delightful in Summer-time and dry Weather.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard. . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc. '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The next thing to be observed is to continue a dry '''walk''', which should lead quite round the whole garden, for as Gardens are designed to promote the exercise of walking, the greater the extent of this dry '''walk''', the better it will answer the Intent. . . and such '''walks''', if laid either with Gravel or Sand, may lead through different [[Plantation]]s, gently winding about in an easy natural way, which will be more agreeable than those long strait '''walks''', which are too frequently seen in gardens.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Sometimes grass-'''walks''' are used, but these are rather improper for general use in Kitchen-gardens, especially in such parts of the garden where wheel-barrows are obliged to come often, which would cut and greatly deface them; besides, they are apt to be wet and disagreeable in all wet weather, and in winter; . . .
<p></p>
:“But when necessary to have the whole space of the Kitchen-garden employed for real use. . . and have a '''walk''' round the garden, not more than a yard wide; allowing the same width for the middle-'''walks''', or so as to admit of wheel-barrows passing to bring in the manure, &c. and may either have a four feet wide [[border]] all round each [[quarter]], next the '''walks''', or not, as you shall think proper; laying the '''walks''' neatly with any gravelly materials, or with coal-ashes, so as to have dry walking, and wheeling with a barrow in all weathers.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . ,'' 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALK''', wa’k. s. . . a length of space, or circuit through which one '''walks'''; an [[avenue]] set with trees; way, road, range, place of wandering.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:33, 55, 124–26)<ref>
Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''''walks''''' come next under construction [i.e. after [[wall]]s], and they are to be begun from the best [[wall]]; the [[border]] of which being regularly levelled and settled, the '''walk''' is to be governed by it. . .
<p></p>
:“The ''number'' and ''breadth'' of the '''walks''' must in a measure be determined by the quantity of allotted ground. . . But better be few and wide, than many and contracted. If the garden is small, one good '''walk''' all round is sufficient; and if long and narrow, the cross '''walks''' should not be many: six, or eight feet, is not too wide in a moderate sized garden. . .
<p></p>
:“''Grass plats'' and '''walks''' should be mowed, as often as there is the least hold for the scythe, for they lose much of their beauty, when the grass gets any thing long; leaves should not be suffered to remain on them as it stains the grass. . .
<p></p>
:“About the house some ''shady'' '''walks''' ought always to be provided, by thick planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering shrubs, and ''evergreens'', of which the ''laurel'' will be found most useful. . .
<p></p>
:“The '''''walks''''' should always be wide, some (in general) serpentine, and contrived as much as possible upon a ''level'', as walking up and down hills can hardly be called pleasure. That they may be extensive, they should skirt the grounds and seldom go across them. In small [[pleasure ground]]s the ''edges'' of the '''walks''' should be regularly planted with flowers, and long ones occasionally so, or with the most dwarf shrubs; and neat sheltered compartments of ''flowers'', (every now and then to be met with) have a pretty effect. If the '''walks''' are extended to distant [[plantation]]s of ''forest trees'', every opportunity should be taken, to introduce something of the herbaceous ''flowery'' kind, which will prove the more pleasing, as found in unexpected situations: The outer '''walk''' of [[pleasure ground]]s and [[plantation]]s, should every now and then break into open [[view]]s of the country, and to parts of the internal space, made pleasing, if not striking, by some ornaments of art and nature.”

*<div id="Forsyth"></div>Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 148)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In laying out the [[quarter]]s, you must be guided in a great measure by the form and size of the garden; but do not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part of the ground will be taken up with '''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“The middle '''walks''' should be about seven feet, which is wide enough to admit a cart; and the others about three or four feet broad; with a [[border]] on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the '''walk''' and the fruit-trees. '''Walks''' in [[kitchen garden]]s are generally gravelled, and but seldom laid with turf, as the frequent wheeling and treading soon destroys the grass and renders them very unsightly: But a binding sand makes good '''walks''' and they are easily kept; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a horse-hoe. . . by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the preference to sea-coal ashes, which in my opinion make the best '''walks''' for a [[kitchen garden]], and they are easier kept than any other, being firm and dry, and cleaner to '''walk''' on than sand, especially after frost.
<p></p>
:“The bottoms of the '''walks''' should be filled up with brick rubbish, chippings of stones, or gravel and stones; those raked off the [[quarter]]s will do very well, and by using them you will save carriage.
<p></p>
:“If the soil be stiff and wet, or subject to detain the moisture, there must be under ground drains made to carry off the water.” [[#Forsyth_cite|back up to History]]

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 83)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A gravel '''walk''' is an artificial convenience, and that it should be protected, is one of its first requisites: therefore, so long as good taste and good sense shall coincide, the eye will be pleased where the mind is satisfied.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:260)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE '''WALK''', in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the '''walk''' to lead the eye from [[view]] to view; in order that, while the tone of health is preserved, by the favourite exercise of nature, the mind may be thrown into unison, by the harmony of the surrounding objects.
<p></p>
:“THE direction of the '''walk''' ought to be guided by the points of [[view]] to which it leads, and the nature of the ground it passes over: it ought to be made subservient to the natural impediments— the Ground, [[Wood]], and Water—which fall in its way, without appearing to have any direction of its own. It can seldom, with propriety, run any distance, in a straight line; a thing which rarely occurs in a ''natural '''walk'''''.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 123)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This [March] is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well, or sow grass seed very thick, rake it in and roll the ground soon as it is dry.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59–60, 63)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the distribution of gravel-'''walks'''. . . first a magnificent one, from fifteen to twenty or thirty feet wide, should range immediately close and parallel to the front of the house, and be conducted directly across the [[lawn]] into the nearest side shrubberies; from this main '''walk''', other smaller ones, from five to ten or fifteen feet wide, according to the extent of the ground, should branch off at proper intervals, directed in the serpentine way. . . some leading through the ''outer'' boundary [[plantation]]s, as already hinted. . . others into the internal divisions, and others carried along the boundary [[plantation]] of the main [[lawn]]; all of which '''walks''' being conducted through the different parts, in order to afford the convenience of shade and retirement occasionally, as well as to enjoy the variety of the trees, shrubs, and flowers, variously presenting themselves at different turnings. . .
<p></p>
:“Sometimes, similar to the ancient designs, a spacious gravel '''walk''' is extended in a perpendicular line immediately from the front of the house, dividing the [[lawn]], or extended on both boundaries and in other directions, with a wide [[border]] on each side, either straight or sometimes a little serpentined, and planted with the most curious low flowering shrubs, ever-greens, and herbaceous flowering plants.
<p></p>
:“All these gravel-'''walks''' should be laid with the best gravel, six or eight inches deep, at least; but if more the better. . .
<p></p>
:“As to [[avenue]]s and '''walks''' of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, [[avenue]]s and grass '''walks''', planted with fine ever-green trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the [[avenue]], though sometimes grand '''walks''' of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in [[avenue]]s and '''walks''', at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

*Mease, James, c. 1813 (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 149–52)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn"></ref>

:“'''Walks''' are either of grass or gravel. The former are best made in March, the latter in April; and the sooner in March the grass ones are commenced the better. . .
<p></p>
:“Grass '''walks''' are troublesome and attended with a constant demand for labour in cutting every new growth of the herbage; besides, in rainy weather, and early in the morning before the dew of the night has been drawn off by the sun, they are damp and productive of colds: yet, where gravel is difficult to be had, they will often be resorted to, and therefore it may be of use to say a few words here upon the manner of making them. . .
<p></p>
:“Gravel '''walks''' however should be preferred, and if possible accomplished. . . The course of the '''walks''' being marked out by stumps and lines, the earth should be dug out of them to the depth of eight inches, and thrown into the middle of the plats to give them a convexity, which is agreeable to the eye. That done, rake the bottom of the '''walk''' quite level, and lay on the gravel so that the '''walks''' shall be at their edges three inches lower than the surface of the plats on either side, as when otherwise they have a mean and flat appearance.
<p></p>
:“If [[edging]]s are to be made to separate the earth from the gravel, especially if of stone, or [[wood]], or box, they should be done first, and they will be a good rule to lay the '''walks''' by.”

*[[Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M24K832A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Vol. 3] [[Wilderness|WILDERNESS]]. . .
<p></p>
:“As to the '''walks''', those that have the appearance of meanders, where the eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all others, and these should now and then lead into an open circular piece of grass; in the centre of which may be placed either an [[obelisk]], [[statue]], or [[fountain]]; and, if in the middle of the [[wilderness]] there is contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may be erected a dome or banqueting house, surrounded with a green [[plot]] of grass, it will be of a considerable addition to the beauty of the whole. From the sides of the '''walks''' and openings, the trees should rise gradually one above another to the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing trees, so that the heads of all the trees may appear to [[view]], while their stems will be hid from the sight. . .
<p></p>
:“But beside the grand '''walks''' and openings, there should be some smaller '''walks''' through the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where persons may retire for privacy; and by the sides of those private '''walks''' may also be scattered some wood flowers and plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good effect.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 463–64)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The '''Walk'''''.—A common principle is, especially where the field is small, to carry a gravel-'''walk''''''Bold text''' completely round, so near the outward boundary as to leave only an intervening [[border]] for flowers and shrubs. As this method produces the longest tract without sharp returns, and admits many expedients for concealing the opposite boundaries, there seems no reason for departing from it, except to lead the spectator to some object that would otherwise escape him, or to keep some intractable deformity out of sight. . .
<p></p>
:“the '''walk''', by curving round them, will take that variety of direction which essentially conduces to a series of interesting effects; allowing parts without any common relation, independent scenes, and fragments of scenes, to be seen only progressively; and disclosing entire [[prospect]]s at the most advantageous station.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 19 and 33)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March] Make new '''walks''' where wanted— clean and roll your gravel and grass '''walks'''. . .
<p></p>
:“This is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well or sow grass seed very thick, and rake it in and roll the ground as soon as it is dry. Clean grass and gravel '''walks''': the latter may be dug, turning the top to the bottom, which will destroy the weeds and moss, roll them well afterwards. Weed all your flower [[border]]s well, and prepare more for next month.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:'''''Walks''', Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong [[Square]]'', instead of a ''[[Square]] of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 796, fig. 549.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 796)<ref>
J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6105. '''''Walks'''''. In most styles of [[parterre]]s these are formed of gravel; but in the modern sort. . . which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug [[bed]]s (1 and 2), and surrounded by [[shrubbery]]. . . [Fig. 10]
<p></p>
:“6106. ''In extensive and irregular [[parterre]]s'', one gravel-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as '''walks''' by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting '''walks''' of the same width, of gravel and smaller '''walks''' for displaying particular details. The main '''walk''', however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box''.—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden '''walks''' and flower [[bed]]s. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“GRAV’EL-'''WALK''', ''n''. A '''walk''' or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall]]s''. . .
<p></p>
:“'''WALK''', ''n''. ''wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.
<p></p>
:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning '''''walk'''''; an evening '''''walk'''''. ''Pope''.
<p></p>
:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long '''''walk''''';a short '''''walk'''''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant '''''walks'''''.
<p></p>
:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 410–11)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To these remarks for small [[plot]]s of ground, we would add a few common place rules, such as, that straight lines particularly for short distances, unless terminating in bold curves, are not pleasing to the eye; narrow '''walks''', unless winding at short intervals through [[wood]]s, are by no means desirable. . .
<p></p>
:“An [[arbor]] or [[trellis]] covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a '''walk''', which should branch off close round the [[trellis]], to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few shrubs might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 128)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A frequent error in landscape gardens, is a multiplicity and confusion of objects. So many things are crowded together, that the spectator does not know to which to direct his attention first. The '''walks''' are often so numerous and so intricate, that they only serve to perplex. This may be easily avoided by adopting as a rule, that there shall be but one principal or leading '''walk''' throughout the whole. It may, by easy curves, be conducted in sight of every material object of [[view]], and return finally to the place of entrance. In this way the same scene need never be exhibited twice. From this main '''walk''' there may be branches, to exhibit different scenes in detail; but it ought to be an invariable rule, that these episodal '''walks''' should never be one half the width of the principal '''walk''', and should always branch off nearly at right angles from it, so that a stranger may never mistake one of them for the main '''walk'''. Where flowers are introduced they should commonly be in [[bed]]s near the '''walk''', while the taller shrubs and trees should be placed back more at a distance.
<p></p>
:“At favorable points, and those only, should the [[view]] be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The '''walk''' should be so directed as not to exhibit these [[view]]s except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a '''walk''' should always exist from some cause either real or apparent.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''walks''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should if possible be wide enough for two persons to '''walk''' abreast, in order to give a social effect, which should always be the first consideration in the flower garden.”

*[[Robert_Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 11, 32)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For perspicuity, admit that the area to be enclosed [for a [[flower garden]]] should be from one to three acres, a circumambient '''walk''' should be traced at some distance within the [[fence]], by which the whole is enclosed; the inferior '''walks''' should partly circumscribe and intersect the general surface in an easy serpentine and sweeping manner, and at such distances as would allow an agreeable [[view]] of the flowers when walking for exercise. '''Walks''' may be in breadth from three to twenty feet, although from four to ten feet is generally adopted. . . covered with gravel, and then firmly rolled with a heavy roller. . .
<p></p>
:“Grass verges for '''walks''' and [[border]]s, although frequently used, are, by no means, desirable, except where variety is required; they are the most laborious to keep in order, and at best are inelegant, and the only object in their favour is, there being everywhere accessible.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: iii-vii, 34, 68, 76, and 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii-iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“CHIVES. ''Allium schoenoprasum''. . .
:“Plant the roots for edging to a [[walk]] or [[border]], two inches deep, and the same distance apart, in the form you wish them to be. <p></p>
:“SORREL FRENCH. ''Rumex acetosa''. . .
:“You may have it in a [[bed]] any size, the rows being a foot apart, or for [[edging]] along the side of a [[walk]]. . .<p></p>
:“THYME. ''Thumus vulgaris''. . .
:“Plant slips in rows four inches apart, for [[edging]]. It does well for a [[walk]] side, or you may make a [[bed]] the same distance, the rows a foot apart. <p></p>
:“It [[kitchen garden|[a kitchen garden]]] may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. . .”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 102)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In fig. 25, is shown a small piece of ground, on one side of a cottage, in which a [[picturesque]] character is attempted to be maintained. The [[plantation]]s here, are made mostly with shrubs instead of trees, the latter being only sparingly introduced, for the want of room. In the disposition of these shrubs, however, the same attention to [[picturesque]] effect is paid as we have already pointed out in our remarks on grouping ; and by connecting the [[thicket]]s and groups here and there, so as to conceal one '''walk''' from the other, a surprising variety and effect will frequently be produced, in an exceedingly limited spot."

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 406–9)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' may be considered with reference to their direction, their construction, and their management. In a small garden, the direction of the main '''walks''' should generally be governed by the boundary lines; and hence, in a [[plot]] of ground which is [[square]] or oblong, the '''walks''' should be straight and rectangular; the object in such a case being to produce the beauties of regularity and symmetry. On the other hand, when the boundaries of the garden are irregular, the surrounding '''walk''' may be irregular also; the object in this irregularity being to create variety by contrast in the direction. When a garden bounded by straight lines, is so large as to contain an acre or two, and the whole of the interior is to be laid out as a pleasure-ground, then the '''walks''' may be varied in direction; the boundary being concealed by trees and shrubs, or by artificial undulations of the soil. In general, it may be laid down as a principle, that all '''walks''' should be straight when there is no obvious reason why they should be otherwise; and hence, in the case of all winding '''walks''', if there is not a natural and apparently unavoidable reason for their deviating from the straight line, an artificial reason ought to be created. . . All straight '''walks''' should lead to some conspicuous object at the further end of the '''walk''', and facing it, so as to appear to belong to it; and this object should be seen the moment the '''walk''' is entered upon. . . A winding '''walk''', on the contrary, requires no object at the further end to allure the spectator; because every turn has the effect of an object by exciting his curiosity and inducing him to advance to see what is beyond.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 26, 73, 269–70, 620)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[Alley|ALLEYS]] are of two kinds. 1. The narrow '''walks''' which divide the compartments of the [[kitchen garden]]; and 2. Narrow '''walks''' in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. . .
<p></p>
:“[[AVENUE]]. . . These kind of '''walks''' were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present. . .
<p></p>
:“GRAVEL '''WALKS''', like all other '''''Walks''''', (''vide'',) require a good substratum of drainage, and the facing of about five inches deep of gravel. It must have no stones mixed with it larger than good-sized marbles, and about one-fourth of it must be much smaller. If a portion of clay is by nature or art incorporated with the gravel, is will bind more firmly, and present when rolled a more compact and even surface. . .
<p></p>
:“'''WALKS'''. See ''Gravel''. It may be observed here, that of whatever material a '''walk''' is composed, that it is essential to have it well under-drained, and for this purpose an understratum of flints or brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not too much. '''Walks''' so founded, are never wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant winter '''walk''', particularly on tenacious soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, either during rain or after frost; half an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise makes a soft and pleasant summer '''walk''', and from its loose nature, is readily cleared from weeds. If not wanted during summer, it may readily be swept clean off after a few dry days. It is invaluable for covering '''walks''' or footpaths in the [[kitchen garden]], when there is much wheeling of manure or soil. . . —''Gard. Chron''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''; i, beds, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/small%20flower view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, Mr. LOUDON. It is supposed to be formed in a [[plot]] of smooth level [[lawn]], and to be surrounded by a boundary '''walk''', which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering shrubs. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 11]

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''foot-'''walks''''' should be four or five feet wide, and should, when practicable, lead to some object—a [[view]]—or a [[summer house]]—or a fine tree, and continue on, so that the return may be by another path. If at convenient points, rough [[seat]]s are placed, it adds to their pleasures; for one can rest, if necessary.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 114, 342, 530–31)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Walks''''' are laid out for purposes similar to [[Drive]]s, but are much more common, and may be introduced into every scene, however limited. They are intended solely for [[promenade]]s or exercise on foot, and should therefore be dry and firm, if possible, at all seasons when it is desirable to use them. Some may be open to the south, sheltered with evergreens, and made dry and hard for a warm [[promenade]] in winter; others formed of closely mown turf, and thickly shaded by a leafy canopy of verdure, for a cool retreat in the midst of summer. Others again may lead to some sequestered spot, and terminate in a secluded rustic [[seat]], or conduct to some shaded dell or rugged [[eminence]], where an extensive [[prospect]] can be enjoyed. Indeed, the genius of the place must suggest the direction, length, and number of the '''walks''' to be laid out, as no fixed rules can be imposed in a subject so everchanging and different. It should, however, never be forgotten, that the '''walk''' ought always to correspond to the scene it traverses, being rough where the latter is wild and [[picturesque]], sometimes scarcely differing from a common footpath, and more polished as the surrounding objects show evidence of culture and high keeping. . .
<p></p>
:“In our remarks on '''walks''' and roads, we omitted to say anything of the best manner of making gravel '''walks'''. . . A very thin coat of gravel will render a '''walk''' superior to a path which consists only of the natural soil, and such surfacing in our dry climate (though it frequently requires renewing), is often sufficient for distant '''walks''', or those little used except in fine weather. But the approach road, and all '''walks''' immediately about the dwelling, should be laid at least a foot thick with gravel, to insure dryness, and a firm footing at all times and seasons. . .
<p></p>
:“Undoubtedly in almost all examples in the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]] slate-colored gravel. . . is much the most agreeable to the eye, being unobtrusive, just differing sufficiently with soil to be readily recognised as artistical in its effect, while it harmonizes with the color of the ground, and the soft tints of vegetation. A thirst after something new has induced some persons, even in the interior, to substitute, at considerable cost, the white gravel of the sea-shore for the common pit or beach gravel. The change, we think, is, in point of taste, not a happy one. The strong white of this gravel, as the painters would say, disturbs the tone of a simply beautiful landscape, whose prevailing tints are those of the broad [[lawn]] and rich overshadowing trees; and the glare of these snowy white pebbles is not, we confess, so pleasing in our eyes as the cooler and more quiet color of the slate or grey gravel.”

*<div id="Breck"></div>Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Width of '''Walks'''''.—The main '''walk''', or '''walks''', of a [flower] garden, should be laid out on a liberal scale. Nothing detracts so much from the pleasures of the flower-garden as contracted '''walks'''. When we wish to enjoy the company of a friend, in the flower-garden, it is much more agreeable to have him by our side, arm in arm, than to be under the necessity of making the tour of the garden in Indian file. The main '''walks''' should, therefore, be calculated so as to admit two persons to '''walk''' comfortably in a social manner; and, if wide enough for a little one in addition, so much the better. From five to six feet will not be too wide for the main [[avenue]]. The internal compartments, of course, should have much narrower '''walks''', the width of which must be graduated in a degree by the size of the garden.
<p></p>
:“The '''walks''' of the flower-garden should be constructed of such material as will make firm and dry walking at all seasons of the year.” [[#Breck_cite|back up to History]]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated lawns—pleasant '''walks''' amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [sic] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:47)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The little cottage. . . was built last year for Augustus W. Clason, Esq. of Westchester. . . The grounds contain fifteen acres, of which five are wooded with a very old growth, and the rest lie in grass. It is intended to throw '''walks''' through the [[lawn]] and adorn their [[border]]s, but not to set apart any one spot for a garden.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, “Trees in Cities” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 17, no. 2 (February 1851): 50−52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH/q/trees%20in%20cities view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-'''walks'''. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''walk'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-'''walks''' and the carriageway. . .
<p></p>
:“Take as an example [[Boston Common]]. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-'''walks''', and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances form each other. But suppose no tree or '''walk''' were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728. "Rope '''Walks'''" indicated in the center, above "Fort Hill".

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. “[[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha Ha]] '''Walk''' here” inscribed at center top.

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. Straight-lined '''walks''' are indicated at R and across the top linking X and X. Meandering '''walks''' begin at the four entrances marked by b.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. '''Walks''' are seen leading up to the [[mount]] at F.

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of [[View]], [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII. Caption for top figure also reads: “An Arbor in a Fortified Island.”

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady '''walks''' with [[Temple]]s of [[Trellis]] work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An [[Avenue]] in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

File:1398.jpg|Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including Walks'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. "Rope '''Walk'''" is inscribed at middle right.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768. '''Walk''' is written at the top left on this plan.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun<sup>r</sup> Esq<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The '''walk''' meanders across the grounds from the Mansion House at “a” to the [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|ah-ha]] at “g.”

Image:0071.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan for the City of Washington, March 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. There is a tree lined '''walk''' running east west on the central axis of the Mall in the center of the plan. The word "'''walk'''" is inscribed in the description of the plan on the bottom right.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. ". . .a gravel '''walk''' should lead into the [[shrubbery]]. . ."

Image:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1793.

image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

Image:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

Image:0091.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “'''Walks''' in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”

Image:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding '''walk''' surrounding the [[lawn]] before the house.”

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "[[walk|''Walks'']]", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 796, fig. 549.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of [[French_style|French]] [[parterre]] of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 797, fig. 550. ". . .one graven-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf. . . "

Image:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The botanic [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with a gravel-'''walk''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 801, fig. 553.

Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Ferme_ornée/Ornamental_farm|ferme ornée]] with wild and irregular [[hedge]]s, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1023, fig. 722.

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. "A '''walk''' 5 ft. in width, A A, of a semi-elliptical form. . . '''walks''' of 4 ft. width C C C C. . ."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the '''walk'''. . .”

image:1000.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.

Image:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''."

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:0995.jpg|Anonymous, “The Espalier '''Walk''' in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.

Image:0943.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a small [[Greenhouse|Green-House]]” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 259, figs. 32 and 33.

Image:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. “. . .Varied '''walks''', concealed from each other”.

Image:0380.jpg|Anonymous, “The Ravine '''Walk''' at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 350, fig. 40.

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. “. . . and the '''walks''' ''e''.”

image:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[plot]] showing the location of the house, '''walks''', roads &c. in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and [[shrub]] [[border]]s. "

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "O" marks "'''walks'''".

Image:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "T T, foot '''walks'''. . . "

Image:0790.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & [[Greenhouse|Green House]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43'

Image:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. "13. Plank '''Walk''' to Landing", on lower left, leading to n.8 Tomb.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] walks at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

Image:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

Image:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819).

Image:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne Views of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

image:1705.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], [[Kitchen garden]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “. . .on the north, at the surrounding '''walk''' (c). . .”

Image:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''[[View]] of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

Image:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on [[Boston Common]]'', 1837.

Image:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 161.

Image:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

Image:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 24.

Image:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery: or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 37. Steps and '''walks''' leading up to the reservoir seen in the background.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Walks are both the straight and winding paths across the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:1861.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grounds of a cottage orneé'', in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,'' (1844): 102, fig. 25.

Image:1049.jpg|N. Vautin, [[View]] of North Side (Rear) of Longfellow House, June 1845.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage,'' c. 1846. The walk is to the right of the cottage.

Image:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[Montgomery Place]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.

Image:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Seat]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0487.jpg|William Wade, ''Castle Garden: From the Battery'', 1848. ". . .a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform. . ."

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

Image:0374.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grouping to produce the Beautiful'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849), 102, fig. 21.

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric_style|Geometric]] Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''[[View]] of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

Image:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

Image:0366.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Pine Bank,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' , 4th ed. (1849; repr., 1991), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.

Image:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2

Image:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

Image:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye [[View]] of Boston'', c. 1850.

Image:0492.jpg|Anonymous, ''Saratoga Schottisch'', New York, 1851.

Image:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley Park, Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''[[View]] of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

Image:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d., a '''walk''' is visible in the background on the right hand side leading to the buildings.

Image:0703.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Yellow Sulphur Springs, Montgomery County,” n.d.

Image:1191.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of an unidentified garden, 18th century.

Image:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

Image:1192.jpg|Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:1377.jpg|Batty Langley, Garden with a [[canal]], in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1390.jpg|Batty Langley, “The Design of a [[Fountain]] & [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cascade]] after the grand Manner at Versailes,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVII.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A [[prospect]] of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748-50.

Image:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West [[Prospect]] of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

Image:0255.jpg|John Singleton Copley, ''Rebecca Boylston'', 1767.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788-90.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c.1787-93.

Image:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

Image:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

Image:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 1, no. 7 (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

Image:0452.jpg|The Denison Limner (Probably Joseph Steward), ''Captain Elisha Denison'', c. 1790.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753-1824)'', 1792.

Image:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg|William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder (Mary Stoughton Sloss)'', 1793.

Image:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793. A walk is seen across the lawn on the right hand side, between the tree and the summerhouse.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

Image:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, Kitchen Garden [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sedgeley, c. 1799.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0305.jpg|William Russell Birch, “State-House, with a view of Chesnut Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

Image:0173.jpg|Anonymous, ''Overmantel from the Bannister house'', c. 1800-20.

Image:0296.jpg|Anonymous, ''Townscape, Stonington, Connecticut'', 1800-25.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the [[plantation]] of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

Image:0254.jpg|Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child'', c. 1798–1810. A walk is depicted on the right, leading from the house through the garden.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 218, fig. 127.

Image:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

Image:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''[[View]] from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of M.<sup>r</sup> Manigault,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 79, pl. 19.

Image:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (1808), pl. 2.

Image:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “[[View]] of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 27.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

Image:2082.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Eaglesfield from the northeast, May 11th, 1817'', 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “[[View]] of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “[[Seat]] of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825-28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0675.jpg|Anthony Imbert after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826-28.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830-40.

Image:1244.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.

Image:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

Image:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).

Image:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831-34).

Image:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange [[Terrace]], La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831-34.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0651.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Southeastern [[view]] of Wesleyan University, Middletown,” in ''Connecticut Historical Collections'' (1836), 510.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.

Image:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

Image:0489.jpg|John William Hill (artist), William James Bennett (engraver), ''New York, from Brooklyn Heights'', 1837.

Image:1142.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], Philadelphia'', 1838.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0683.jpg|C. Foster, “Western Baptist Theological Institute, at Covington KY, opposite Cincinnati, Ohio,” in Charles Cist, ''Cincinnati in 1841: Its Early Annals and Future Prospects'' (1841), pl. opp. 270.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949), 132.

Image:0420.jpg|Anonymous, “Franklin College, in Athens, Georgia,” in ''Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion'' 6, no. 19 (May 13, 1854): 297.

Image:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

Image:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840-50.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), ''Map of [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia'', 1843.

Image:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.

Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

Image:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0660.jpg|William S. Jewett, ''[[Mount]] Washington'', 1847.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. (c. 1849).

Image:1943.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of "The Old House" residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams Adams'', 1849.

Image:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

Image:0353.jpg|Anonymous, “Example of the beautiful in Landscape Gardening,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), opp. 273, fig. 15.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith, Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852—54.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image: 2287.jpg|Ernest Crehen, ''Blue Sulphur-Greenbrier, VA'', in John J. Moorman, ''The Virginia Springs of the South and West'', 1859: facing 217.

Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur (c. 1830), ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]

Veranda

2021-04-08T08:18:34Z

V-Federici: /* Inscribed */

(Verandah)

==History==
[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, “York-Island with a View of the Seats of Mr. A. Gracie, Mr. Church &c.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 75, pl. 17.]]

Veranda is one of several words (including [[piazza]], [[porch]], and [[portico]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by William Russell Birch (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the [[piazza]], a place from which one could see “innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose” [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, PA: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing's]] book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed [[piazza]], or veranda, as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Bracketed Veranda from the inside,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few less common words. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term “umbrage” to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref>William Pierson Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Downing_1850_1_cite"></span> Downing used the term “[[pavilion]]” synonymously with “veranda” ([[#Downing_1850_1|view text]]); and Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the [[piazza]] was also known as the gallery.<ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero].</ref> Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions.In his plan for a country house, Downing also used the term "porch" to identify the central area of the veranda leading to the entryway. The 19th-century architect William H. Ranlett <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between [[piazza]] and [[veranda]], using “[[piazza]]” for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and “veranda” for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

Appearing only in the mid-19th century in treatise literature with any frequency, the term “veranda” (also spelled verandah) was used in 1748 in Pehr Kalm's ''Travels in North America'', in which he described small balconies or [[porch]]es on houses.<ref>Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm's Travels in North America'', trans. and rev. Adolph B. Benson (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), 121, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4? view on Zotero]. In his study of the veranda, Anthony D. King wrote, “It is generally accepted that the term ‘verandah,’ as used in England and France, and later in the British colonial world, came into the English landscape from India, the origins being either Persian, or, more likely Spanish or Portuguese.“ See King, ''The Bungalow: The Production of a Global Culture'', 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 266, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB viwe on Zotero].</ref> Many visual and textual examples indicate that the veranda served as an intermediary space between a house and its garden. <span id="Downing2_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described it as an overhanging or low roof supported by an open colonnade or framework. He recommended that it have a gravel or wooden surface rising six to eight inches above the surrounding ground ([[#Downing2|view text]]). Climbing plants often covered verandas. Some writers refer to [[arbor]]-verandas and also mention the latticework that provided screening and support for climbing plants. Ornamental brackets and bargeboards also added to the decorations of the veranda.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “View in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
<span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) expounded at length on the meaning of the veranda, which he saw as a truly American feature not found in European architecture ([[#Downing1|view text]]).<ref>This, of course, was not true because the veranda was featured in both John Plaw, ''Sketches for Country Houses, Villas and Rural Dwellings'' (London: S. Gosnell for J. Taylor, 1800), and J. B. Papworth, ''Penny Cyclopaedia'' (London: J. Taylor, 1818), as pointed out by King, ''The Bungalow'', 266-67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB view on Zotero].</ref> Always concerned with identifying a national style, he believed that the veranda, in addition to providing shade and transitional zone from house to garden, was not simply ornamental but useful and “connected with the life of the owner of the cottage.” Its presence expressed the ownership of a family exhibiting rural taste and a love of [[picturesque]] character, a family “at home in the country.” Downing (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a [[piazza]] or veranda in any but the most utilitarian structure as “unphilosophical and false in taste!” He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States [Fig. 3].
[[File:0955.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N.W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.]]

Although the veranda was an architectural feature found in the colonial and early national periods, it became a key component of asymmetrical [[picturesque]] design for both landscape and architecture in the 1840s.<ref>Vincent J. Scully, ''The Shingle Style and the Stick Style: Architectural Theory and Design from Downing to the Origins of Wright'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), introduction, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/297U533X view on Zotero].</ref> Many illustrations for house pattern books by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his followers depicted plans and elevations in various romantic styles that feature the veranda as an element in a new spatial organization that experimented with the interweaving of interior and exterior space. In his ''Treatise'' (1849) [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, “architectural beauty must be considered conjointly with the beauty of the landscape or situation,” and “if properly designed and constructed. . . will even serve to impress a character on the surrounding landscape.”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 370, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> That the frontispiece to his ''Treatise'' illustrated the veranda at [[Blithewood]] underscores the importance of this theoretical stance. Another drawing of [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 4] by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] presented, from the house and through the semi-enclosed space of the veranda, the view of the landscape toward the river, exemplifying the interpenetration of space that became for [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] an important characteristic of their architecture. Architectural historians have written about the veranda as a major component in [[picturesque]] architecture and a mark of distinction between American and English houses of the Gothic revival.<ref> William H. Pierson Jr., ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 302-4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]. See also King, ''The Bungalow'', 267, where the author writes that “[a]n architectural note of the term, verandah,” emphasized that “it was common as a fashionable architectural feature in England during the early 19th century,” and does not recognize an American distinctiveness, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Therese O'Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

* Kalm, Pehr, October 29, 1748, describing New Brunswick, NJ (1937: 1:121)<ref>Kalm, Pehr. 1937. ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. New York: Wilson-Erickson. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
: “The houses are covered with shingles. Before each door is a '''veranda''' to which you ascend by steps from the street; it resembles a small balcony, and has benches on both sides on which the people sit in the evening to enjoy the fresh air and to watch the passers-by.”

[[File:0229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Charles Fraser]], ''The Seat of John Julius Pringle Esquire—on Ashley River'', 1800.]]
*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Charleston, SC (1816: 2:125)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Almost every house is furnished with balconies and '''verandas''', some of which occupy the whole side of the building from top to bottom, having a gallery for each floor.” [Fig. 5]

* Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the drawing-room, we could walk into a '''verandah''' or [[piazza]], from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]].”

* Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig [''sic''] a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy '''verandah''', we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . Many similar houses nearly as [[picturesque]] as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:80–81)

: “The house was quadrangular. . . [and] was built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed '''verandas''', supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . At each extremity of the [[piazza]] was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side.”

* Lyell, Sir Charles, December 23, 1845, describing Charleston, SC (1849: 1:229)<ref name="Lyell_1849">Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Almost all the best houses in Charleston are built with '''verandahs''', and surrounded with gardens.”

* Lyell, Sir Charles, December 28, 1845, describing Beaufort, SC (1849: 1:231)<ref name="Lyell_1849"></ref>

: “we approached Beaufort, a [[picturesque]] town composed of an assemblage of villas, the summer residences of numerous planters, who retire here during the hot season, when the interior of South Carolina is unhealthy for the whites. Each villa is shaded by a '''verandah''', surrounded by beautiful live oaks and orange trees laden with fruit.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 64)

: “The Physicians who object to [[yard]]s, or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open '''verandahs''' guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”
[[File:0961.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], Perspective view of a house in the village of Riceborough, 1850.]]

* [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Riceborough, GA (1850: 332)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., cor. and improved (London: Longman et al, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “854. . . The village of Riceborough. . . is very [[picturesque]]. Most of the houses have '''verandas'''. . . (''Hall's Sketches, &c.'', and ''Three Years in North America, &c.'')” [Fig. 6]

===Citations===

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''VERAN'DA''', n. An oriental word denoting a kind of open [[portico]], formed by extending a sloping roof beyond the main building. ''Todd''.”

* [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 283)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery,” ''American Gardeners’ Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 2, no. 8 (August 1836): 281–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J5HZKZAG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There can scarcely be a more appropriate, agreeable and beautiful residence for a citizen who retires to the country for the summer, than a modern Italian villa, with its ornamented chimneys, its broad '''verandah''', forming a fine shady [[promenade]], and its cool breezy apartments.”

* <div id="Downing2"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 376)<ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In this country no architectural feature is more plainly expressive of purpose in our dwelling-houses than the '''veranda''', or [[piazza]]. The unclouded splendor and fierce heat of our summer sun, render this very general appendage a source of real comfort and enjoyment; and the long '''veranda''' round many of our country residences stands instead of the paved [[terrace]]s of the English mansions as the place for [[promenade]]; while during the warmer portions of the season, half of the days or evenings are there passed in the enjoyment of cool breezes, secure under low roofs supported by the open colonnade, from the solar rays, or the dews of night. . .
<p></p>
: “The various projections and irregularities, caused by '''verandas''', [[portico]]es, etc., serve to connect the otherwise square masses of building, by gradual transition with the ground about it.” [[#Downing2_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Ranlett"></div>Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:21)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''Verandas''', [[piazza]]s and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use.” [[#Ranlett_cite|back up to History]]

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'', (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front fence; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that '''verandah''' over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

[[File:0919.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 109, figs. 33 and 34.]]
[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.]]
* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 47, 109–10, 112–13, 118, 120, 122)<ref name="Downing_1850">Andrew Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A much higher character is conferred on a simple cottage by a '''veranda''' than by a highly ornamental gable, because one indicates the constant means of enjoyment for the inmates—something in their daily life besides ministering to the necessities—while a more ornamental vergeboard shows something, the beauty of which is not so directly connected with the life of the owner of the cottage, and which is therefore less expressive, as well as less useful. . .
<p></p>
: “[Referring to Design VII] The [[trellis]]-work '''veranda''' along the front of this cottage, and the bay-window in the best apartment, convey at once an expression of beauty arising from a sense of a superior comfort or refinement in the mode of living; and the whole exterior effect, without having any decided architectural merit, is one which we should be very glad to see followed in suburban houses of this class. . . [Fig. 7]
<p></p>
: “In the Design [VIII] before us. . . there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or '''veranda'''-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of [[picturesque|picturesqueness]], by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the walls.
<p></p>
: “To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-'''veranda''' and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for [[picturesque]] character in a house. . . [Fig. 8]
<p></p>
: “The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the '''veranda''', or [[piazza]]. In a cool climate, like that of England, the '''veranda''' is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a '''veranda''' is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without '''verandas'''. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the '''veranda''' should find its place; or, if not an architectural '''veranda''', then, at least, the [[arbor]]-'''veranda''', covered with foliage. . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no '''veranda'''-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling. . .” [[#Downing1_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 304–5, 308)<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref>
: “[Referring to Design XXV] Every feature is suggested by the country life of those who live in residences of this size in the Middle United States. The broad and massive [[veranda]]—the full second story, overshadowed by the overhanging eaves—. . . [is] expressive of the comparatively modest but cultivated tastes and life of substantial country residents in the older parts of the Northern states."<p></p>
: “In a cottage or villa of this style in England, the [[veranda]] would be useless, for the damp climate, so unlike ours, demands sun and air rather than shelter and shade. . . .<p></p>
: “The [[porch]] of this house, which projects 12 feet, breaks up…the otherwise too long horizontal line of the veranda roof. . .<p></p>
: “This [[porch]], being pierced with [[arch]]es on each side, opens on a continuous [[veranda]], 10 feet wide and 80 feet long, which affords a fine [[promenade]] at all seasons— terminating on one side with the [[green house|green-house]]— and there are few greater luxuries in a country-house in an American summer, such as it is in this latitude, than such a cool and airy [[veranda]]— especially if it looks out upon our fine river or lake scenery. . .” [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0911.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Southern Villa--Romanesque Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.]]
* <div id="Downing_1850_1"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 357)<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref>
: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the ''[[pavilion]]''. . . In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. ''a room in the open air'', the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 9] [[#Downing_1850_1_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], July 1850, “A Few Words on Rural Architecture” (''Horticulturist'' 5: 10)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Few Words on Rural Architecture,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 5, no. 1 (July 1850): 9–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZPF5KGPR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are, indeed, few things so beautiful as a cottage of this kind, well designed and tastefully placed. There is nothing, all the world over, so truly rural and so unmistakably country-like as this very cottage, which has been developed in so much perfection in the rural lanes and amidst the [[picturesque]] lights and shadows of an English landscape. And for this reason, because it is essentially rural and country-like, we gladly welcome its general naturalization, (with the needful variation of the '''veranda''', &c., demanded by our climate,) as the type of most of our country dwellings.”

* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2: 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>

: “The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a [[piazza]]; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a '''veranda'''. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking [[piazza]]s on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow.” [[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1755.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Nutt's hive is placed in the front of a '''veranda'''", in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 714, fig. 307.

Image:1151.jpg|Joseph Collins Wells, ''Design for a cottage for Henry C. Bowen, Esq. J. C. Wells Arch<sup>ct</sup>'', ca. 1846.

Image:1488.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Simple Country House" and "Plan of Principal Floor," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 4 (October 1846), pl. opp. 153, figs. 42 and 43.

Image:1505.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Rural Cottage" and "Plan of the Principal Floor," Horticulturist, vol. 2, no. 1 (July 1847). pl. opp. 8.

Image:1540.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Small Villa" and "First Floor," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 3, No. 7 (January 1849), pl. opp. 305.

Image:1548.jpg|Anonymous, "A Suburban Cottage," "First Floor," and "Chamber Floor," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 3, No. 11 (May 1849), pl. opp. 497.

Image:0951.jpg|(?) Forbes, “Cottage Villa of Wm. J. Rotch, Esq. New Beford, Mass.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): pl. opp. 201. "'''Veranda'''" is inscribed on either side of the front [[porch]].

Image:0950.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): pl. opp. 249.

Image:1561.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Southern Cottage Villa'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 8 (February 1850): pl. opp. 345. "'''Veranda'''" is inscribed on plan of principal floor of the villa.

Image:0919.jpg|Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 109, figs. 33 and 34.

Image:0917.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed Cottage, with '''Veranda''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 119.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed '''Veranda''' from the inside,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), 122, fig. 45.

Image:1978.jpg|Anonymous, “Principal Floor” of a small bracketed Country House, in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 276, fig. 111.

Image:1837.jpg|Anonymous, “A Country House in the Pointed Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 304, figs. 133 and 134.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. 297.

</gallery>

=== Associated ===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0320.jpg|William Russell Birch, “York-Island, with a [[View]] of the [[Seat]]s of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:2290.jpg|Anonymous, "[[View]] of a Common Country House" and "[[View]] of the Same, Improved," in ''Horticulturist'', vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1846), pl. opp. 13, fig. 2 and 3.

Image:0945.jpg|Anonymous, “A Villa in the Tuscan Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 1 (July 1849): pl. opp. 1.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), frontispiece.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:0915.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 276, fig. 110.

Image:1836.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa in the Norman Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 280, fig. 114.

Image:0913.jpg|Anonymous, “Small Southern Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), 312, fig. 139.

Image:0911.jpg|Anonymous, “Southern Villa--Romanesque Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 353, fig. 168.

Image:0961.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Perspective [[view]] of a house in the village of Riceborough, Georgia, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1850), 332, fig. 231.

Image:0782.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Villa in the Persian Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 14.

Image:0786.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Italian Villa,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 22, design 33.

Image:0789.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Wynne Tún,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, 53.

Image:0795.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Cottage Villa in the earliest [[English_style|English Style]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 60, design 53.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0229.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle Esquire—on Ashley River'', 1800.

Image:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''[[Mount]] Deposit from the North'', 1805.

Image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends’ Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. 70.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N.W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]