History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Project Introduction

2025-09-10T15:22:44Z

M-westerby:

The digital resource ''History of Early American Landscape Design (HEALD)'' is an illustrated historical inquiry into landscape and garden design in America from the 17th to the mid-19th centuries that explores the relationships between textual and visual representations of landscape design. With an extensive corpus of original texts and images, it offers a discussion of select terms, places, and people from this period, modeling an approach to interpreting early American gardens and landscapes as they were both imagined and actually built. Drawing upon a wealth of newly compiled documentation, ''HEALD'' brings together interpretive essays, textual citations, and images in an effort to reveal landscape history as integral to the study of American cultural history.

This digital database results from a research project of the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts under the direction of Therese O’Malley, and is based on the book ''Keywords in American Landscape Design'' (Yale University Press, 2010). The ''Keywords'' title was inspired by Raymond Williams’s book ''Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'', because both works share a cultural rather than etymological approach to language.<ref>Raymond Williams, ''Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQM4WRPK/q/keywords, view on Zotero]. Two other books, both written by advisors to the project, served as models: Michel Conan, ''Dictionnaire Historique de l’Art des Jardins'' (Paris: Hazan Editions, 1997), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8BNKBWXF view on Zotero], and Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/q/An%20Illustrated%20Glossary%20of%20Early%20Southern%20Architecture%20and%20Landscape, view on Zotero].</ref> The ''HEALD'' database resource, like its predecessor, ''Keywords'', establishes an historically documented vocabulary for describing landscape and garden features that arises out of contemporaneous primary materials.

In its expanded digital edition, ''HEALD'' incorporates many more features than the original Keywords project, including, most importantly, pages devoted to one hundred significant Places and one hundred notable People; more than 1700 images, each with detailed object pages; enriched archival materials; and a bibliographic feature that links directly to thousands of digitized sources. For ease of navigation, the website uses an open-source MediaWiki format because of its familiarity for web users worldwide, and also because of its utilization of a popular, scripting language that is especially suited to web development.

The corpus of essays and archival materials—both textual and visual—can be examined comparatively, enabling users to see designed landscapes in dynamic contexts and through materials that are in many cases rare and difficult to access. Due to the flexible nature of the digital format, scholars will be able to consider gardens and landscape as part of a larger set of processes—aesthetic, social, economic, and political—rather than as static locations. The website’s flexibility and ease of navigation will permit the user to direct how the information is compiled, organized, and viewed.

A guide on how to use ''HEALD'' can be found in the [[Digital_Approach_and_Vision|Digital Approach]] page.

<hr>
<h2><span style="font-size: 22px;">Project Methodology</span></h2>

From its inception, the major effort of this project was gathering evidence of gardens as they were represented textually and visually in a variety of documents and objects. These two bodies of evidence are intimately related, and it is at their intersection that landscape history becomes most powerful as an avenue of inquiry into American cultural history. Each source demands an understanding of the particular conventions, contexts, and issues surrounding it.

The primary task was selecting terms found in primary historical sources. In developing the project, the focus was not on creating a comprehensive list encompassing every term referenced in writings on landscape design, but rather on identifying the significant elements as indicated by the frequency of use, the richness of the visual record associated with them, the contemporary importance of the concepts they conveyed, and their position in the history of landscape design. We began with a list of sources, rather than a list of terms, letting the voices in the works determine the words selected. The initial list of selected terms was quite long, but fairly quickly the repetition, detail, and significance of a smaller number of those terms became evident. The final one hundred terms are truly “keywords” in the history of American landscape design.<ref>In order to keep the scope of the project within reasonable limits, species names, botanical terms, and other words relating to plant material were not included. Verbs related to the maintenance, propagation, and construction were also not considered (ex., “pleach,” “prune,” “topiary”), except as examples such as espalier and walk where the verbs are synonymous with design features. Terms related more strictly to agriculture and husbandry were also excluded, although some, such as “barn,” “dairy,” “field,” and “springhouse,” were clearly integral to certain aspects of designed landscapes. A distinction was also made between descriptions of the natural scenery or the general countryside, albeit “improved,” and those of intentional designed landscapes. While the vocabulary of descriptions for the two types of landscape is often similar (see works listed in the bibliography by William Bartram and by William Wood), and while many of the same conventions and themes are evident in such writings, ''HEALD'' focuses on the particular context of the designed spaces. For an influential discussion of landscape types, see John Dixon Hunt, ''Gardens and the Picturesque: Studies in the History of Landscape Architecture'' (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JCMHQZIP view on Zotero].</ref> They represent a spectrum of landscape features along a number of interpretive axes. These include both “high art” and “vernacular” features, stylistic and architectural terms, the common and the rare, features valued for their iconographical associations and those whose importance lay in their essential functions in the landscape. The corpus comprises terms of archaeological interest (landscape features that tend to have below-ground impact and can be recovered archaeologically) and terms of art historical interest (those of relevance to the interpretation of visual representations of the American landscape).

The geographic boundaries of this project focus on sites in what is today the continental United States, with the vast majority of citations and images coming from the English colonies of the Eastern Seaboard and the states that they became in the new Republic. It does not include sites in Canada, the Caribbean, or Latin America.<ref>For Canadian sources, see Edwinna von Baeyer, ''A Selected Bibliography for Garden History in Canada'' (Ottawa: Environment Canada-Parks, National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TWIUQ83I/q/A%20Selected%20Bibliography%20for%20Garden%20History%20in%20Canada, view on Zotero].</ref> The temporal parameters range from the 17th century to the year 1852, which marks the death of landscape designer and theorist [[Andrew Jackson Downing]]. This date range encompasses the significant period of development of landscape-design vocabulary when books, such as [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]]’s ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', and periodicals, such as his ''Horticulturist'', ushered in a new era for the transmission of landscape theory and the standardization of design vocabulary.

Due in part to the geographic and temporal range of the project, textual evidence is limited to English-language sources. Terms from other languages are included when they appear to have been used commonly in American English sources and when no American-English equivalent appears to have been used (for example, [[parterre]] and [[veranda]]). If a foreign-language term is used interchangeably with an American-English equivalent or in anglicized spelling, it is included within the English term record (for example, ''allée'' under [[alley]] and ''jet d’eau'' under [[jet]]). Citations from English-language translations of treatises are included, provided they were made prior to 1852 and known in America. Translated accounts have been included under the date of the translation, rather than the date of the original account, assuming that they reflect the vocabulary of the translator, a significant factor in the understanding of the passage.

References were compiled from published and unpublished primary sources such as diaries, correspondence, travelers’ accounts, treatises, newspapers, periodicals, drawings, insurance documents, maps, and almanacs. The secondary literature on American landscape design also provided information on primary sources, as well as discussions of the issues and themes of landscape design history.<ref>In these cases, the bibliographic reference reflects the published secondary source from which the primary source was taken.</ref> Of particular value were publications and other materials produced at historic sites. These included not only annual reports, newsletters, archaeological site reports, research reports, and brochures, but also a growing body of cultural landscape reports and inventories, which were helpful in locating otherwise unpublished images and descriptions and for summarizing archaeological investigations. Research in archives yielded some citations, but the vast majority of those presented were compiled from published sources. They also include generous contributions by scholars of their original research.<ref>Scholars who contributed original research include Carl Lounsbury, Barbara Wells Sarudy, Helen Tangires, and Dell Upton.</ref>

The data gathered do not represent a statistically significant sample of designed landscapes, but rather they reflect the history of research on American landscapes. Coverage is broader for the Chesapeake and mid-Atlantic regions, because of the concentration of sites and the preservation of records in these areas, and, as a result of these fortuitous circumstances, the wealth of garden history research pertaining to these regions. As a result of the 1852 end date for inclusion, the coverage for sites west of the Appalachians is sparse because landscape design in that area was generally not well developed until the second half of the 19th century. Furthermore, the restriction to English-language sources limits the information on garden practices in Dutch, Spanish, German, and French settlements, not to mention the built environments of Native or African-American peoples.<ref>The richness of American landscape design is clearly indebted to the heterogeneous influences of diverse European gardening traditions and Native American practice. Further research is needed concerning Native American precedents and the Dutch, German, Spanish, Portuguese, and French landscape design vocabulary and influence in colonial and early America.</ref>

The records for keyword terms vary considerably in length, in part because of the ubiquity of certain features ([[walk]] and [[fence]], for instance) as opposed to those found only in a small number of designed landscapes (for example, [[grotto]] and [[deer park]]). In some cases, a record is brief because the term it covers became significant in landscape-design vocabulary late in the period covered by this study. In still other cases, the term was rarely used in the historical period under study but has become important in the writing of landscape history, albeit anachronistically (for example, [[ferme ornée]] and “folly”).

The range in quantity of material is also due to the nature of garden discourse. Most travelers’ accounts and descriptions in letters were more likely to comment on the particular features seen in a garden, such as the fish [[pond]] or garden [[mount]], than wax eloquent on the advantages of the beautiful over the sublime or detail the distinguishing characteristics of the [[English style]] versus the [[Dutch style|Dutch]]. On the other hand, privies, although often decorative and a significant feature in the landscape (as at Poplar Forest and in the Yale University campus design), usually go unmentioned, perhaps for reasons of decorum. Many records, particularly those in deeds or advertisements, merely mention the presence of a garden and occasionally its most prominent features, offering little detailed description and even less commentary. As a result, the entries for style terms tend to be informed more heavily by garden treatises, which were promoting the concept of particular garden styles, and by a few individuals, such as Thomas Jefferson, who were well versed in aesthetic debates and applied the principles to their own gardening endeavors.

The selection of Keywords embraces a spectrum of landscape design terms. Entries on topographic forms such as [[mound]] and [[slope]] and water features such as [[pond]] and [[basin]] explicate some of the basic building blocks of landscape design. Those on circulation routes such as [[walk]], [[avenue]], and [[drive]] elucidate how a visitor’s progression through the landscape was manipulated. Terms related to the organization of vision, such as [[prospect]], [[view]], and [[eminence]], reveal the visual logic of gardens and the importance of perception in the American landscape experience. Structures for keeping plants and animals, such as [[hothouse]], [[green-house]], and [[dovecote]], bring to the fore the intimate relationships of botanical knowledge, climate, technology, and husbandry to landscape design. By including terms such as [[orchard]], [[yard]], [[lawn]], and [[beehive]], the project addresses a variety of gardens from across the socioeconomic spectrum and includes a range of what are often counted as vernacular landscapes. Terms such as [[kitchen garden]] and [[icehouse]] speak to the intersection of domestic landscape design and changing market conditions in the early years of the nation.

By including terms often associated with the public sphere, such as [[common]], [[green]], and [[square]], the project also addresses the changing space of cities and towns and the issues surrounding their development. Landscape types such as [[botanic garden]], [[burying ground]], and [[park]] represent the diverse applications of landscape design and the variety of spaces that informed American landscape aesthetics. Planting arrangement terms such as [[shrubbery]], [[wilderness]], and [[grove]] reveal the complex and often misunderstood specific meanings of these important landscape design elements. Terms for ornaments such as [[urn]], [[vase]], [[statue]], and [[sundial]] highlight the importance of decorative objects that were often made of perishable material and have rarely survived. Stylistic terms help to penetrate the intricacies of aesthetic theory and changing fashion in landscape design taste.<ref>Within each of these term categories are many words that were not included. For instance, vase, urn, and pot are included but not “box.” Ice-house is included but not “dairy” or “spring-house.” English and French styles are included, but not “Italian.” Seat is included but not “bench.” In each case the selection of terms reflects the richness of the record of primary sources and the term’s relevance to the history of American landscape design while representing the broadest array of design vocabulary possible.</ref>

A premise of this project has been to be as inclusive as possible, with the aim of expanding not only the amount of information available on early American gardens, but also the range of garden types and the number of sites used as evidence for American garden history. The kinds of sources consulted, both verbal and visual, are as varied as possible. Images found on samplers and painted fire screens offer different perspectives on the representation of the American landscape as compared with the background of a commissioned portrait by a trained artist. So too, accounts in advertisements, deeds, and insurance records provide very different views from those found in [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s musings on his landscaping efforts at [[Monticello]] or in [[Timothy Dwight]]’s record of his travels through New England. The best-known sites, such as [[Mount Vernon]], [[Montgomery Place]], the [[National Mall|Mall]] in Washington, [[Monticello]], [[Belfield]], Crowfield, [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], the University of Virginia, the Vale, and [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|John Bartram’s garden]], still contribute an invaluable quantity of descriptions, documents, and images, but ''HEALD'' goes beyond these canonical landscapes to include sites of modest size and simple design.

This illustrated historical resource takes as one of its greatest tools, and yet one of its greatest challenges, the connection of word and image with the ultimate goal of elucidating the meaning of both. And yet, this recursive relationship of playing word against image and image against word highlights the subjectivity of both forms of representation. It calls to the fore the importance of the context of the image or the “speech act,” to borrow a phrase from linguistics, in the construction of the meaning of those visual and textual accounts. The variety of voices represented—the court officer concerned with a boundary dispute, the owner of a property for sale, the ambitious gardener, the clergyman promoting the security and prosperity of a young democracy—expands the scope of American landscape history.

But, by including anonymous articles, unknown artists, and otherwise obscure authors, the project opens itself up to the challenges of interpreting sources with little-known context. Thus, the entries are preceded by three introductory essays that relate the sites and the primary sources to broader currents of American landscape design history. The addition of Place and People pages to the database is made possible by the richness of the documentary evidence the project has amassed. While they are limited in number, they are wide ranging in the types of sites they examine and the various roles—proprietor, landscape designer, enslaved gardener—that they highlight. In this, the Places and People pages are exemplary in their breadth of consideration of the subject.
<hr>

==<span style="font-size: 22px;">Notes</span>==
<references>

</references>

Berkeley Springs

2023-12-07T18:44:24Z

M-westerby:

{{Place
|Alternate names=Warm Springs; Medicinal Springs; Frederick Springs; Bath
|Established Present=No
|Established Date=1740
|Established Circa=No
|Established Concurrence=Before
|Established Questionable=No
|Established HasEndDate=No
|Established Present End=No
|Established Circa End=No
|Established Questionable End=No
|Through Present=Yes
|Through Circa=No
|Through Concurrence=Exact
|Through Questionable=No
|Through HasEndDate=No
|Through Present End=No
|Through Circa End=No
|Through Questionable End=No
|Location=Morgan County, WV
|Coordinates=39.62692, -78.22904
|Geolocation link=coordinates
|Condition=Altered
|Keywords=Basin; Bath/Bathhouse; Green; Grove; Meadow; Pavilion; Piazza; Picturesque; Promenade; Seat; Shrubbery; Square; Walk; Wood/Woods
|Site owners={{Site owner
|Name=Sixth Lord Fairfax
|Owned Present=No
|Owned Date=1719
|Owned Circa=No
|Owned Concurrence=Exact
|Owned Questionable=No
|Owned HasEndDate=Yes
|Owned Present End=No
|Owned Date End=1776
|Owned Circa End=No
|Owned Concurrence End=Exact
|Owned Questionable End=No
}}{{Site owner
|Name=Trustees of Bath
|Owned Present=No
|Owned Date=1776
|Owned Circa=No
|Owned Concurrence=Exact
|Owned Questionable=No
|Owned HasEndDate=Yes
|Owned Present End=No
|Owned Date End=1925
|Owned Circa End=No
|Owned Concurrence End=Exact
|Owned Questionable End=No
}}{{Site owner
|Name=West Virginia Commissioner of Public Institutions
|Owned Present=No
|Owned Date=1925
|Owned Circa=No
|Owned Concurrence=Exact
|Owned Questionable=No
|Owned HasEndDate=Yes
|Owned Present End=No
|Owned Date End=1970
|Owned Circa End=No
|Owned Concurrence End=Exact
|Owned Questionable End=No
}}{{Site owner
|Name=West Virginia Department of Natural Resources
|Owned Present=No
|Owned Date=1970
|Owned Circa=No
|Owned Concurrence=Exact
|Owned Questionable=No
|Owned HasEndDate=Yes
|Owned Present End=Yes
|Owned Circa End=No
|Owned Concurrence End=Exact
|Owned Questionable End=No
}}
|Associated people={{Associated person
|Name=James Rumsey
|Role=Builder
|From Present=No
|From Circa=No
|From Concurrence=Exact
|From Questionable=No
|From HasEndDate=No
|From Present End=No
|From Circa End=No
|From Questionable End=No
|End Present=No
|End Circa=No
|End Concurrence=Exact
|End Questionable=No
|End HasEndDate=No
|End Present End=No
|End Circa End=No
|End Questionable End=No
}}{{Associated person
|Name=Charles Varlé
|Role=Landscape designer
|From Present=No
|From Circa=No
|From Concurrence=Exact
|From Questionable=No
|From HasEndDate=No
|From Present End=No
|From Circa End=No
|From Questionable End=No
|End Present=No
|End Circa=No
|End Concurrence=Exact
|End Questionable=No
|End HasEndDate=No
|End Present End=No
|End Circa End=No
|End Questionable End=No
}}
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://vocab.getty.edu/page/tgn/2117422
|External link text=Getty TGN
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80051018
|External link text=LOC
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://viaf.org/viaf/127374288
|External link text=VIAF
}}
}}
'''Berkeley Springs''', a resort area in present-day Morgan County, West Virginia, has been well known for its mineral springs since the precolonial period. The Virginia Assembly established the town of Bath (later renamed Berkeley Springs) in 1776, and the town’s trustees soon commissioned the construction of public [[bath|bathhouse]]s in the town [[square]]. It has remained a prominent public spa and leisure destination since the time of its founding.

<hr>

==History==
Berkeley Springs is located 1,710 feet above sea level in a valley on the eastern edge of Warm Springs Ridge less than a mile east of the Potomac River in present-day Morgan County, West Virginia.<ref>David L. Taylor, “Town of Bath Historic District,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2009), 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view on Zotero].</ref> The alleged medicinal properties of the area’s mineral springs drew people to both consume and bathe in the waters, and attracted various Native American peoples to visit the area long before European colonists began using the springs regularly around 1740.<ref>James E. Harding, “Berkeley Springs State Park,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory—Nomination Form (National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976), 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2229.jpg|thumb|450 px|left|Fig. 1, John Warner, ''A survey of the northern neck of Virginia. . .'' ca. 1747 [detail].]]
During the colonial period, the springs lay within the Northern Neck Proprietary, a territory of more than five million acres between the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers that belonged to Thomas, Baron Cameron, sixth Lord Fairfax (1693–1781).<ref>Lord Fairfax inherited one-sixth of the Northern Neck Proprietary upon the death of his maternal grandmother in the spring of 1710. He inherited the remaining five-sixths of the proprietary from his mother, Katherine Culpeper Fairfax, in May 1719. She had inherited the land from her father, Thomas Culpeper, second baron Culpeper of Thoresway, who had served as governor of Virginia from 1677–1683. See Warren R. Hofstra, “Thomas Fairfax, sixth baron Fairfax of Cameron (1693–1781)," ''Dictionary of Virginia Biography'', Library of Virginia, 2016, http://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/dvb/bio.asp?b=Fairfax_Thomas_baron_Fairfax_of_Cameron. </ref> Since this time, the springs have been known by many names, including Warm Springs, the appellation used in an early survey map of the Northern Neck [Fig. 1].<ref>This is not to be confused with the town Warm Springs located in Bath County, Virginia, which has also attracted visitors since the colonial period. For more on the history of Warm Springs, Virginia, see Carl Bridenbaugh, “Baths and Watering Places of Colonial America,” ''The William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, no. 2 (April 1946): 163, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FDI9CBAU view on Zotero].</ref> By the mid-1740s, white settlers had reportedly begun to erect makeshift accommodations in the area.<ref>Harding 1976, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Fairfax_cite"></span>As early as June 1747, Fairfax proposed a town and promised to “give all Encouragement to invite People to inhabit and Settle there" ([[#Fairfax|view text]]). <span id="Washington_1748_cite"></span>A young George Washington, serving as an assistant on a surveying trip for Lord Fairfax, recorded in his diary his first visit to the “Fam’d Warm Springs” in March 1748, suggesting the site’s familiarity to Virginia colonists by this early date ([[#Washington_1748|view text]]).

Although a town was not officially established at Berkeley Springs for another thirty years, the waters continued to attract visitors of different backgrounds and social classes who sought a cure for ailments such as rheumatism or who simply desired rest and relaxation.<ref>Bridenbaugh 1946, 161, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FDI9CBAU view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Thomas_cite"></span>Dr. Thomas Walker of Albemarle County recorded his encounter in 1750 with “Six Invalids” and found the springs to be “very clear and warmer than New milk” ([[#Thomas|view text]]). When Washington returned to Berkeley Springs in August 1761 to seek relief from rheumatic fever, he found more than two hundred people “of both sexes. . . full of all manner of diseases & Complaints.” This number is surprising given how difficult it was to reach the springs during this period; Washington found the terrain to be quite rugged and struggled to pass a road blocked by fallen trees. After completing the arduous trip, bathers often had to construct their own rudimentary shelters. <span id="Washington_1761_cite"></span>|Washington was grateful to have secured a tent to pitch, writing that otherwise he “would have been in a most miserable situation” ([[#Washington_1761|view text]]). <span id="Washington_1769_cite"></span> By August 1769, the amenities at the springs had apparently improved enough for Washington to bring his wife and stepdaughter with him in a desperate bid to treat the latter’s seizures ([[#Washington_1769|view text]]).<ref>According to Jeanne Mozier and Betty Lou Harmison, Washington was able to stay in houses during his visits to Warm Springs in the late 1760s, including a house that belonged to his friend James Mercer. ''Berkeley Springs'', Images of America (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2011), 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K327A3I3 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Fithian_cite"></span>Philip Vickers Fithian (1747–1776), a diarist and Presbyterian minister, stopped in 1775 to drink the waters while on a missionary tour of the Pennsylvania and Virginia frontier. He reported approximately four hundred people at Berkeley Springs—about half of whom he estimated to be ill. The other half were there presumably to enjoy what had evolved into a site of leisure with various evening entertainments, including a ball, card games, and, to his dismay, “promiscuous Company” engaged in “Amusements in all Shapes” ([[#Fithian|view text]]).

The influx of summer visitors prompted the Virginia General Assembly to improve the site and formally establish a town at the springs. A 1776 act called for “the laying off of fifty acres of land in lots and streets” in the hopes of “encouraging the purchasers thereof to build convenient houses for accommodating numbers of infirm person, who frequent those springs yearly for the recovery of their health.”<ref>Harding 1976, 5–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref> The town, which the Assembly named Bath after the spa in Somerset, England, was to be comprised of one-quarter acre lots laid out by appointed trustees. Proceeds from the sale of the lots at public auction were to be paid by the trustees to Lord Fairfax, and purchasers were required to build houses “twelve feet square at least” on their new parcels within a year. <span id="Assembly_cite"></span>The springs—save for one, which remained under the private ownership of Lord Fairfax—were to “be vested in the said trustees in trust, to and for the public use and benefit” ([[#Assembly|view text]]).<ref>Taylor 2009, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view on Zotero]; and Mozier and Harmison 2011, 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K327A3I3 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Washington_1777_cite"></span>The August 1777 sale attracted several prominent individuals from Maryland and Virginia, including Washington, to purchase lots in Bath ([[#Washington_1777|view text]]).<ref>Washington purchased two lots located on the southeast corner of Fairfax and Mercer streets, two blocks from the springs, for the cost of 100 pounds and 15 shillings. Other early Bath landholders included Horatio Gates, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Charles Mynn Thruston, and Fielding Lewis, among others. Taylor 2009, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view on Zotero]; and Harding 1976, 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0462.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Samuel Vaughan, ''Warm or Berkley Springs, in Virginia'', from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.]]
<span id="Vaughan_cite"></span>Bath’s streets took the form of a gridded plan arranged just below a large [[square]], as recorded by [[Samuel Vaughan]] in his diary in 1787 [Fig. 2] ([[#Vaughan|view text]]). In another sketch of Berkeley Springs, [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]] observed the formation of islands surrounded by the warm spring’s flows, as well as the arrangement of the public [[bath]]s, noting a separate “[[Bath]] for Poor People [g]” [Fig. 3]. Separate [[bath]]s for men and women constructed in the [[square]] in 1786 were likely the work of James Rumsey (c. 1743–1792), an inventor, builder, and “jack-of-all-trades” who had opened a general store and boarding house in town in 1782.<ref>Harding 1976, 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view in Zotero]; and Mabel Henshaw Gardiner and Ann Henshaw Gardiner, ''Chronicles of Old Berkeley: A Narrative History of a Virginia County from Its Beginnings to 1926'' (Durham, NC: The Seeman Press, 1938), 222, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DK298NQE view in Zotero]. The early bathhouses at Berkeley Springs were likely constructed by Rumsey, but this is not certain. See Taylor 2009, 57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view in Zotero].</ref> The so-called Roman Baths, which are still extant, are in a two-story brick building with a hipped roof that contains ten individual [[bath]] stalls built initially for use by men. Each stall is accessible by a private entrance from the long hallway that runs along the length of the first floor. On the building’s east elevation, a row of ten openings provides ventilation to each stall. The other extant eighteenth-century building, the old [[bathhouse]] or shower [[bath]], was initially constructed for women. The building, a one-story brick building with a hipped roof, is smaller.<ref> Taylor 2009, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view on Zotero]; and Harding 1976, 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Vaughan_cite"></span>[[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]'s textual description of Bath notes a flurry of building activity in the town’s early years, including 164 houses constructed over a four-year period, a playhouse, a Methodist church, and several taverns with [[piazza]]s that were among “the best calculated for America of any [he had] seen”([[#Vaughan|view text]]).
[[File:0461.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Samuel Vaughan, Plan of Bath [Berkeley Springs], VA [detail], 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.]]

Berkeley Springs continued to prosper as a resort until about 1805 when a fever plagued the summer guest population, reducing the number of seasonal visitors by more than half for the next several years. The relative inaccessibility of Berkeley Springs compared to other springs in the region also contributed to its decline. In 1809 Charles Varlé proposed a redesign to improve Bath’s [[public garden]]. His drawing indicated, among other features, a [[canal]] with a foot [[bridge]] [A], a [[basin]] with a [[jet d’eau]] in the center [B & C], a reservoir or [[fountain]] “covered with a vine treliage in a form of a dome or copula” [E], an additional [[bath]] [F], a sunken [[bowling green]] [H] within a [[parterre]], a two-sided [[sundial]] [I] located near the [[basin]] and [[bowling green]], and two [[labyrinth]]s “contrived so as to be different in their issues and windings” [K] [Fig. 4]. Colonel Robert Bailey (1773–1827), an infamous gambler and entrepreneur, also made a concerted effort to revitalize the resort’s reputation. <span id="Bailey_cite"></span>In an 1813 advertisement he promoted the quality of the springs’ waters, [[bath]]s, [[walk]]s, and lodging, and personally guaranteed that visitors who stayed in his guesthouse would be well satisfied ([[#Bailey|view text]]).
[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], c. 1809.]]

[[File:1781.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Sophie Madeleine du Pont, Octagonal Bath at Warm Springs (Berkeley Springs), 1837.]]
Visitors to Berkeley Springs during the first half of the nineteenth century celebrated the quality of the springs but sometimes found the town’s infrastructure and amenities wanting. <span id="Paulding_cite"></span>In 1816 James Kirke Paulding (1778–1860) declared “the spring which supplies the ladies’ [[bath]] is one of the finest I have ever seen” ([[#Paulding|view text]]). <span id="Hayden_cite"></span> By 1831, Dr. H. H. Hayden wrote of his disappointment in the “appearance of dilapidation and ruins” that characterized most of Bath’s buildings, although he praised the springs and “the fine and spacious [[bath]]s attached to them” ([[#Hayden|view text]]). <span id="Kercheval_cite"></span>The author and Virginia historian Samuel Kercheval (1767–1845) took a more favorable view in 1833, celebrating the well-known seasonal appeal of Berkeley Springs as a destination for “recreation and pleasure” ([[#Kercheval|view text]]). Sophie du Pont, who visited the springs in 1837, on the other hand, found “nothing very pretty about [Bath], except its situation, in an undulating valley,” but commended the large octagonal [[bathhouse]] [Fig. 5], as “one of the most curious & beautiful objects I have seen, the water is pure & translucent to an almost dazzling degree.” <span id="duPont_cite"></span>She bathed in a smaller [[bathhouse]] comprising four small stalls, including one with a spout [Fig. 6], which she tried at her doctor’s behest ([[#duPont|view text]]).
[[File:1782.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Sophie Madeleine du Pont, ''Spout bath at Warm Springs'' (Berkeley Springs), 1837.]]

[[File:2219.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 7, David H. Strother (artist) and Erneste Szemelňyi (composer), ''A Day at Berkeley Springs. A Descriptive Piece, op. 27'', sheet music cover, 1851.]] [[File:2220.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 7, David H. Strother (artist) and Erneste Szemelňyi (composer), ''A Day at Berkeley Springs. A Descriptive Piece, op. 27'', notated music, 1851.]]
The town’s fortunes improved with the extension in 1842 of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad into Sir John’s Run, located just to the west of Bath, making Berkeley Springs the only major resort in the state accessible by rail at that time. But, in a devastating blow to the recent revitalization efforts, an 1844 fire destroyed most of the eighteenth-century buildings. Colonel John Strother (1792–1862), who had operated boardinghouses in town before the fire, built the Berkeley Springs Hotel (also known by the names Pavilion Hotel and Strother’s Hotel), which was completed in 1848 at the southern end of the [[park]]. It was the largest building at the resort and could accommodate four hundred guests.<ref> Harding 1976, 6–7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero]; Taylor 2009, 58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WVDKWV33 view on Zotero]; and Mozier and Harmison 2011, 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K327A3I3 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Moorman_cite"></span>Dr. John J. Moorman wrote in 1854 that the u-shaped hotel was situated next to a [[grove]] and that the courtyard was “tastefully ornamented with trees, flowers, and [[shrubbery]]” ([[#Moorman|view text]]). Strother’s son David H. Strother (1816–1888), an artist, included in his 1851 sheet music cover for “A Day at Berkeley Springs” (an instrumental “descriptive piece” composed by Erneste Szemelňyi) a depiction of the hotel at the left as well as the public [[pavilion]] and [[fountain]] at the center [Fig. 7]. The hotel remained a popular accommodation and entertainment venue—known for hosting lively balls and concerts—until it was destroyed by fire in March 1898.<ref>Harding 1976, 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AZZ6ZIDM view on Zotero].</ref>

Although Berkeley Spring’s popularity ebbed and flowed over time—as transportation developments made the town more accessible to tourists at the same time that fires and other challenges (not least the U.S. Civil War) caused significant setbacks—it has remained open to the public since its founding in 1776. West Virginia’s Department of Natural Resources has overseen the public [[square]] and [[bathhouse]]s, which operate as Berkeley Springs State Park, since 1970.

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Fairfax"></div>Lord Fairfax, June 1, 1747, in a letter to an unknown recipient (possibly Warner Washington) describing his plans for land near Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (quoted in Conway 1892: 246–47)<ref> Moncure Daniel Conway, ''Barons of the Potomack and the Rappahannock'' (New York: The Grolier Club, 1892), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TAG2KD5N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Having been informed that several Persons who go to drink and bath in the Medicinal Springs near the Mountains of Cape Capon and River Potomack, within my Proprietary, do not unnecessarily bark and cut down Timber Trees on the waste and ungranted Lands near the said Springs and the Mountain adjacent, more than useful for the erecting and building the Houses and Cottages required to shelter them, I desire You will in my Name use your best Endeavors to prevent such waste of Timber. . . .

:You may assure the Gentlemen and Others that if the Waters continue to be useful in relieving the Sick I shall cause the Lands around the Springs to be surveyd, and Number of convenient Lots laid off for a Town, also give all Encouragement to invite People to inhabit and Settle there.” [[#Fairfax_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Washington_1748"></div>Washington, George, March 18, 1748, in a diary entry describing a visit to Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV)<ref> Washington Papers, [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0001-0002-0008 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>

:“We Travell’d up about 35 Miles to Thomas Barwicks on Potomack where we found the River so excessively high by Reason of the Great Rains that had fallen up about the Allegany Mountains as they told us which was then bringing down the melted Snow & that it would not be fordable for severall Days it was then above Six foot Higher than usual & was Rising. We agreed to stay till Monday. We this day call’d to see the Fam’d Warm Springs. We camped out in the field this Night.” [[#Washington_1748_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Thomas"></div>Walker, Thomas, July 9, 1750, in a diary entry describing a visit to Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (quoted in McAllister 1911: 172)<ref> J. T. McAllister, “Early Settlers in Greenbrier County. Extracts from the Journal of Dr. Thomas Walker,” ''The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 19, no. 2 (April 1911), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DZVZ67R4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“July 9th, we went to the Hot Springs and found Six Invalids there. The Spring Water is very clear and warmer than New milk and there is a Spring of cold Water within 20 feet of the Warm one.” [[#Thomas_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Washington_1761"></div>Washington, George, August 26–30, 1761, in a letter to Charles Green describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV)<ref>Washington Papers, [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-07-02-0039 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>

:“To begin then—We arrivd here yesterday, and our Journey (as you may imagine) was not of the most agreable sort, through such Weather & such Roads as we had to encounter; these last for 20 or 25 Miles from hence are almost impassable for Carriages; not so much from the Mountainous Country (but this in fact is very rugged) as from Trees that have fallen across the Road, and renderd the ways intolerable.

:We found of both sexes about 2⟨5⟩0 People at this place, full of all manner of diseases & Complaints; some of which are much benefitted, while others find no relief from the Water’s—two or three Doctors are here, but whether attending as Physicians or to Drink of the Waters I know not—It is thought the Springs will soon begin to loose there Virtues, and the Weather get too cold for People, not well provided, to remain here—They are situated very badly on the East side of a steep Mountain, and Inclosed by Hills on all Sides, so that the Afternoon’s Sun is hid by 4 Oclock and the Fogs hang over us till 9 or 10 wch occasion’s great Damps and the Mornings and Evenings to be cool.

:The Place I am told, and indeed have found it so already, is supplyed with Provisions of all kinds—good Beef & venison, fine Veal, Lamb, Fowls &ca may be bought at almost any time; but Lodgings can be had on no Terms but building for them, and I am of opinion that numbers get more hurt by there manner of lying, than the Waters can do them good—had we not succeeded in getting a Tent & marquee from Winchester we shoud have been in a most miserable situation here.

:In regard to myself I must beg leave to say, that I was much overcome with the fatigue of the Ride & Weather together—however I think my Fevers are a good deal abated, altho my Pains grow rather worse, & my sleep equally disturbd; what effect the Waters may have upon me I cant say at present, but I expect Nothing from the Air—this certainly must be unwholesome—I purpose to stay here a fortnight & longer if benefitted.” [[#Washington_1761_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Washington_1769"></div>Washington, George, August 18, 1769, in a letter to John Armstrong describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV)<ref>Washington Papers, [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-08-02-0164 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>

:“About a fortnight ago I came to this place with Mrs Washington and her daughter, the latter of whom being troubled with a complaint, which the efficacy of these Waters it is thought might remove, we resolvd to try them, but have found little benefit as yet from the experiment; what a Week or two more may do, we know not, & therefore are inclind to put them to the Test. it was with much pleasure however I hear by Mr Clingan that you stand in no need of assistance from these Springs which I find are applied to in all cases, altho. there be a moral certainty of their hurting in some—Many poor, miserable objects are now attending here, which I hope will receive the desired benefit, as I dare say they are deprivd of the means of obtaining any other relief, from their Indigent Circumstances.” [[#Washington_1769_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Fithian"></div>Fithian, Philip Vickers, August 31–September 1, 1775, in diary entries describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (Fithian 1934: 123–26)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Philip Vickers Fithian: Journal, 1775–1776. Written on the Virginia-Pennsylvania Frontier and in the Army Around New York'', eds. Robert Greenhalgh Albion and Leonidas Dodson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1934), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/47NU5BKR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“August 31

:Warm Spring by 4 Evening. . . . Cloudy sloppy Day. . . .

:Huge Stone tumbled from the Mountain directly to the Drinking-Spring. . . .

:I took Lodging at Mrs. Baker’s. Mr. Miller, an aged Rheumatic Invalid taken ill in the [[Bath]].

:Fryday Sept: 1

:Drank early & freely of the Waters. About four Hundred now present. Near one Half of these visibly indisposed. Many in sore Distress. . . . Tickets going about for a Ball this Evening. . . .

:Evening

:In one Part of the little bush Village a splendid Ball—At some Distance, & within hearing, a Methodist Preacher was haranguing the People. Frequent Writings on the Plates, &c—In our dining Room Companies at Cards. . . . I walked out among the Bushes here also was—Amusements in all Shapes, & in high Degrees, are constantly taking Place among so promiscuous Company. The Observation, when on the Spot, to see it in real Life. I can picture it out but sadly, is curious & improving.” [[#Fithian_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Assembly"></div>General Assembly of Virginia, October 1776, in an Act establishing the town of Bath at Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (quoted in Gardiner and Gardiner 1938: 50–51)<ref> Gardiner and Gardiner 1938, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DK298NQE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Whereas it hath been represented to this General Assembly, that the laying off of fifty acres of land in lots and streets for a town at the Warm Springs in the county of Berkeley, will be of great utility by encouraging the purchasers thereof to build convenient houses for accommodating numbers of infirm persons, who frequent those springs yearly for the recovery of their health: Be it enacted,. . . That fifty acres of land adjoining the said springs, being a part of a larger tract of land, the property of the Right Thomas Lord Fairfax, or other person or persons holding the same by a grant or conveyance of him, be and is hereby vested in Bryan Fairfax, Thomas Bryan Martin, Warner Washington, the Reverend Charles Mynn Thurston, Robert Rutherford, Alexander White, Philip Pendleton, Samuel Washington, William Ellzey, Van Searingen, Thomas Hite, James N. Edmundson, James Nourse, Gentlemen, trustees, to be by them, or any seven of them, laid out into lots of one quarter of an acre each with convenient streets, which shall be and the same is hereby established a town, by the name of Bath. . . . The said lots to be sold at public auction. . . . The purchasers building a dwelling house twelve feet square at least…trustees to pay the money from the sale to Thomas Lord Fairfax.

:''And be it further enacted'', That all the said Warm Springs except one large and convenient spring suitable for a bath, shall be vested in the said trustees in trust, to and for the public use and benefit and for no other purpose whatsoever.” [[#Assembly_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Washington_1777"></div>Washington, George, October 27, 1777, in a letter to Samuel Washington describing his purchase of land at Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV)<ref>Washington Papers, [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0030 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>

:“I am very glad Colo. Lewis purchased a Lott or two for me at the Warm Springs, as it was always my Intention to become a Proprietor there if a Town should be laid off at that place. Two Lotts is not more than I wish’d to possess, but if he is altogether disappointed, and cannot be otherwise supplied, I will, under those circumstances, part with one of mine—of this you will inform him; and I shall not only depend upon, but thank, & pay you chearfully, for the Improvements which are necessarily erected for the saving of the Lotts. As I do not know what Sort of Buildings the Act of Assembly requires to save the Lotts, I can give no directions about them; but, if I hold both Lotts which I had rather do I would reserve the best spott for a tolerable convenient dwelling House to be built hereafter. and, if a House which may (hereafter) serve for a Kitchen, together with a Stable, would be sufficient to save the Lotts, they might be so placed as to appear uniform & clever, when the whole are finished, and in that case, content myself with building for the present no more than the Kitchen and Stable.” [[#Washington_1777_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, June 19, 1784, notice in a Richmond, VA, newspaper describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (quoted in Gardiner and Gardiner 1938: 53)<ref> Gardiner and Gardiner 1938, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DK298NQE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In Berkeley County five [[bathhouse|bathing houses]], with adjacent dressing rooms, are already completed; an assembly room and theatre are also constructed for the innocent and rational amusement of the polite who may assemble there.

:The American Company of Comedians, it is expected, will open there, under the direction of Mr. Ryan, on the 15th of July, and to continue till the 1st of September. It is supposed they will prove so acceptable to the Bathers as to encourage the proprietor to renew his visits yearly.”

*Washington, George, September 6, 1784, in a diary entry describing his plans for his property at Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV)<ref> Washington Papers, [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-04-02-0001-0001-0006 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>

:“Having obtained a Plan of this Town (Bath) and ascertained the situation of my lots therein, which I examined; it appears that the disposition of a dwelling House; Kitchen & Stable cannot be more advantageously placed than they are marked in the copy I have taken from the plan of the Town; to which I refer for recollection, of my design; & Mr. Rumsey being willing to undertake those Buildings, I have agreed with him to have them finished by the 10th. of next July. The dwelling House is to be 36 feet by 24, with a gallery of 7 feet on each side of the House, the whole fronts. Under the House is to be a Cellar half the size of it, walled with Stone, and the whole underpined. On the first floor are to be 3 rooms; one of them 24 by 20 feet, with a chimney at the end (middle thereof)—the other two to be 12 by 16 feet with corner chimneys. On the upper Floor there are to be two rooms of equal sizes, with fire places; the Stair case to go up in the Gallery—galleries above also. The Kitchen and Stable are to be of the same size—18 by 22; the first with a stone Chimney and good floor above. The Stable is to be sunk in the ground, so as that the floor above it on the North, or side next the dwelling House, shall be level with the Yard—to have a partition therein—the West part of which to be for a Carriage, Harness, and Saddles—the East for Hay or Grain—all three of the Houses to be shingled with [ ]”

*<div id="Vaughan"></div> [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan, Samuel]], July 14, 1787, in a diary entry describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (Vaughan: 32, 34–35)<ref>Samuel Vaughan, Samuel Vaughan Diary, 1787–1796, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NIGWMHCK view in Zotero].</ref>

:“The warm [[Bath]]s, as on the otherside [sic], are situated on the lower side of a [[square]] on the East Mountain, & opposite to the principal Street. The Town consists of three long parallel streets & eight at right Angles. There is at present 172 houses, of which 164 have been built within the last four years, a play house well constructed, an Assembly & tea room, a house for the poor[,] a Methodist Church building & Mr. Wolley of Liverpool having bought a Double large framed house, hath this spring built adjoining these to a dining room 54 by 24, five bard rooms adjoining & a drawing room 18 by 24 over which an Assembly room 72 feet by 24 & 14 feet high, & a tea room 33 feet by 25, with [[piazza]]s on both side [of] the houses all completely framed & well filled, which is to be called the Bell Inn. There are several other taverns three of them good framed houses of 2 stories, with [[piazza]]s & [[seat]]s round to both stories & on both sides & the best calculated for America of any I have seen. The town is situated in a vale & partly on the side of the East & west Mountain, the Lots differing in Elevation. At the South end of the town on the west hill there is a range of Rocks & a mile above there is a remarkable cold [?] spring. The warm springs flow in great abundance from the base of the western mountain, forming three romantick Islands, & when all accumilated [sic] forms a large body of water which runs diagonally through the town. The hills on each side with beautiful hanging [[wood|woods]], renders the whole truly [[picturesque]], romantick and original; the climate is temperate, provisions cheap & plenty, except [[green]]s which are scarce. A charming retreat in hot or unhealthy weather, tho too much used for disipation [sic] & gambling, The water is pure & light, without any apparent medical quality, tho found in many cases beneficial. To try their effect & for 3 days drink 3 quarts each day & that only, it causes a swimming [sic] in my head, want quickly of an opening quality by urine & I thought it created an appetite; it is scarcely so warm as milk from the Cow & said to be 57 degrees Fahrenheit thermal. There were 4 Methodist preachers (two for health,) services 3 times on Sunday & once or twice on week days, which are well attended by the lower sort to the neglect on week days of their businesses & families. There was 14 or 15 stores & like many well furnished with goods, for which I should think there was little encouragement; when I left it there was not above 30 persons of note arrived, but it was early in the Season.” [[#Vaughan_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 1796, in a journal entry about discussing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV), with George Washington at [[Mount Vernon]] (Latrobe 1905: 54–55)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Journal of Latrobe: The Notes and Sketches of an Architect, Naturalist and Traveler in the United States from 1796 to 1820'' (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1905), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/N49VTQS8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Having inquired after the family I had left, the conversation turned upon Bath, to which they were going. He said he had known the place when there was scarce a house upon it fit to step in, that the accommodations were, he believed, very good at present. He thought the best thing a family, regularly and constantly visiting Bath, could do would be to build a house for their separate accommodation, the expense of which might be two hundred pounds. He has himself a house there which he supposed must be going to ruin. Independent of his public situation, the increased dissipation and frequency of visitors would be an objection to his visiting it again, unless the health of himself or family should render it necessary. At first that was the motive, he said, that induced people to encounter the badness of the roads and the inconvenience of the lodgings, but at present few, he believed, in comparison of the whole number, had health in view. Even those whose object it was, were interrupted in their quiet by the dissipation of the rest. This, he observed, must naturally be the case in every large collection of men whose minds were not occupied by pressing business or personal interest. In these and many more observations of the same kind there was no moroseness nor anything that appeared as if the rapidly increasing immorality of the citizens particularly impressed him at the time he made them. They seemed the well-expressed remarks of a man who has seen and knows the world.”

*<div id="Bailey"></div>Bailey, Robert, June 26, 1813, in a promotion in the Winchester Gazette for Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (Bailey 1813: 3)<ref>Robert Bailey, “Bath Berkeley Springs,” ''Winchester Gazette'' (June 26, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZKR7U28H view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“Those Ladies and Gentlemen, of Winchester in particular, and the state in general, wishing to visit Bath Berkeley Springs in Virginia, (near Martinsburg,) being the Theatre of America for three months of the year (June, July, August, and even September,) are respectfully informed that the Waters are in their strongest state and in the greatest purity; the [[Bath]]s and [[Walk]]s in the best order, and every attention paid by the subscriber, to render full satisfaction. . . . [T]he public may depend on having the best accommodation—clean beds and bedding, with comfortable rooms; choice liquors, wines, &c. which have been carefully collected; and the tables will be decorated in the first style.

:The subscriber having several houses at Berkeley Springs, he will make the table to suit parties, or have a general table as the Guests may think proper.

:The subscriber has a Drawing Room furnished for the Ladies, a Piano Forte, Maps of different kinds, reading room, &c—a grand Band of Music for balls, once or twice a week as the company may thing [sic] proper. The very best servants are selected for attendance, and every attention paid. . . ." [[#Bailey_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Paulding"></div>Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (1817: 2:227, 235–36)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols. (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As it is prevailing opinion among your fellow-citizens, that there is nothing refined to the south of Schuylkill, and no watering-place worth visiting except Long-Branch, I will try and set you right in this matter. The truth is, these springs are as gay, as fashionable, and far more delightfully situated than any I have ever visited. In all the constituents of a fashionable watering-place, Berkeley maintains a most respectable rank, inasmuch as it affords as great a variety of character, as many gay equipages, and gay people, and almost as great a lack of variety of amusement, as Ballston or Long-Branch. . . .

:. . . we staid nearly a week at Berkeley. There is a fine drawing-room here, in which the ladies meet to chat, or work, and play at chess, or devise some pleasant excursion. Every night or two there is a ball, in a very splendid room appropriated to that purpose; and in afternoons it is pleasant to stroll backwards and forwards along the brook that skirts the [[green]] in front of the springs, that gush out from the foot of the mountain. There is a [[pavilion]] built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two [[bathhouse|bath-houses]] —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ [[bath]] is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide. This place was formerly the property of the family of Fairfax, once lords of a great portion of the tract of country called the Great Northern Neck of Virginia, situated between the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers. One of these potent chieftains vested the springs and a little tract around in trustees, to be chosen from time to time, for the use of all comers for ever. People using the [[bath]]s pay a small sum, which is appropriated by the trustees to keeping up the repairs of the place, and other objects of utility and ornament.” [[#Paulding_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Hayden"></div>Hayden, Dr. H. H., 1829, describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (1831: 102–03)<ref>H. H. Hayden, “Notices of the Geology of the Country near Bedford Springs in Pennsylvania, and the Bath or Berkeley spring in Virginia, with remarks upon those waters,” ''The American Journal of Science and Arts'' 19, no. 1 (January 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7T5WQA6A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On my return from Bedford springs, I passed by the way of Pigeon-cove Valley, across the narrow part of Maryland into Virginia, to Bath or Berkeley springs, so called, being in what was but recently Berkeley county. These springs issues from the food and on the east side of an abrupt and elevated ridge, running in a north east direction, about five miles, to the Potomac River, where it terminates, opposite the town of Hancock, Maryland. Little can be said in favor of the village of Bath, since, with the exception of a few buildings, it presents the appearance of dilapidation and ruins. The accommodations for visitors are, however, tolerable, at least for such as are not fastidious. The springs, which are principally magnesian and justly celebrated, especially for the chronic affections, and also the fine and spacious [[bath]]s attached to them, constitute the principal inducement that attracts persons to this place. Indeed, such is their celebrity, that they are, annually, during the months of July and August, frequented, (and that too in no inconsiderable numbers,) by persons of the highest respectability.” [[#Paulding_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Kercheval"></div>Kercheval, Samuel, 1833, describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (1833: 473)<ref>Samuel Kercheval, ''The History of the Valley of Virginia'' (Winchester, VA: Samuel H. Davis, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IRHEDX6N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This is doubtless the most ancient watering place in the valley. Tradition relates that those springs were known to the Indians as possessing valuable medicinal properties, and were much frequented by them. They were anciently called the ‘Berkeley Warm Springs,’ and have always kept their character for their medical virtues. They are much resorted to not only for their value as medicinal waters, but as a place (in the season) of recreation and pleasure. Bath has become a considerable village, is the seat of justice in Morgan county, and has several stores and fine boarding houses. It is too publicly known to require further notice in this work.” [[#Kercheval_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="duPont"></div>Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, July 21, 1837, in a letter to Clementina Smith describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 173, 176, 177, 179)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823–1833'' (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Warm Springs. . . . The most abundant of these gushes from the earth in the middle of a large octagonal [[basin]] of mason work covered with a wooden building having an opening at the top, & four neat & comfortable rooms on as many sides for the accommodation of bathing. This [[bath]] is thirty eight feet in diameter; & the temperature of water 96 degrees—It is one of the most curious & beautiful objects I have seen, the water is pure & translucent to an almost dazzling degree, & rises in ceaseless flow, accompanied by showers of bright gleaming air bubbles. . . .

:The settlement of the springs, consisting of two large brick hotels with long [[piazza]]s in front, & several rows of brick or log cabins, has nothing very pretty about it, except its situation, in an undulating valley completely embosomed in the mountains. Altho’ there is so little company here that we had our choice of rooms anywhere, we preferred a cabin, to be nearer the spring; & we could not have made a better choice….

:Our domicile consists of two rooms communicating, in which we have every thing we want to make us comfortable, & a very attentive & obliging maid to bring us our meals & all we wish for – The front door (from my room) opens towards the roads, & on a path which leads up to the hotel! The door of Elizas room leads out into a green sloping [[meadow]], planted with trees, in the centre of which are the warm springs….

:There are several other springs of the same kind in the [[meadow]]—round one a platform is built with benches, under shady trees, for those who drink the water, which notwithstanding its odour of half spoiled eggs & its warmth, is not very nauseous to the taste—Another [[bathhouse|bath house]] contains four small [[bath]]s, into one of which a spout is arranged for the benefit of those who are recommended to take douches. I have tried this at Dr Horner’s request & think it of service to me, as well as the bathing." [[#duPont_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Moorman"></div>Moorman, Dr. John J., 1854, describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (1854: 264–65)<ref>John J. Moorman, ''The Virginia Springs: Comprising an Account of All the Principal Mineral Springs of Virginia, with Remarks on the Nature and Medical Applicability of Each'', 2nd ed. (Richmond: J. W. Randolph, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PSBVGF3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''gentlemen’s'' [[bathhouse|bath house]], a substantial brick building, contains ten large bathing rooms. The [[bath]]s are of cement, 12 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 ½ deep, filled from a reservoir by a four inch pipe, and containing about 1600 gallons each. In addition to this, and for the use of the gentlemen, there is a swimming [[bath]], 60 feet long by 20 wide, and 5 feet deep, containing 50,000 gallons. The superstructure is handsome and tasteful, 82 feet long, and contains 14 dressing rooms. The luxury of disporting in this ample and exhilarating pool can only by appreciated by those who have indulged in it.

:The ''ladies’'' bath house is an elegant structure on the opposite side of the [[grove]], 90 feet long, which contains in addition to 9 private [[bath]]s, a plunge [[bath]] 30 feet long by 16 feet wide, 4 ½ feet deep, and floored with white marble. There is also an establishment for shower spout and artificial warm [[bath]]s. The bathing area is surrounded by a beautiful [[grove]] several acres in extent and handsomely improved.

:The Hotel accommodations are extensive and well gotten up.

:Strother’s, the principal hotel at the place, is a large, elegant and well conducted establishment, adjoining the [[grove]], and will comfortably accommodate about 400 persons. It is built upon three sides of a quadrangle 168 feet front by 198, the front building being four stories high, the wings respectively being two and three stories. The court-yard is tastefully ornamented with trees, flowers, and [[shrubbery]]. Altogether it constitutes one of the most extensive and comfortable establishments to be found at any of our places of fashionable resort.” [[#Moorman_cite|back up to History]]

*R.J., 1854, describing Berkeley Springs, VA (later WV) (1854: 264–65)<ref>R. J. “Rambling Sketches: Berkeley Springs: Historical and Social,” ''The Southern Literary Messenger'' (December 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/89ZRZSN5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The swimming [[bath]] is for pure recreation and cleanliness, a delightful place. It is fifty or sixty feet long, about forty feet broad, and as clear as crystal. The depth is about five feet—the bottom smooth cement. It is the finest bath I have ever seen, though doubtless there are many larger. You reach the [[bath]]s through the [[grove]], which is a pleasant [[promenade]]. It extends nearly to the top of the mountain. . . . For simple recreation, no place could be more agreeable; and the man who visits Berkeley and the White Sulphur and Saratoga, and returns in preference to either of the latter, is a hopeless case.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">

Image:2218.jpg|John Warner, ''A survey of the northern neck of Virginia, being the lands belonging to the Rt. Honourable Thomas Lord Fairfax Baron Cameron. . . as surveyed according to order in the years 1736 & 1737,'' ca. 1747.

Image:0462.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, ''Warm or Berkley Springs, in Virginia'', from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.

Image:0461.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of Bath [Berkeley Springs], VA [detail], 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.

Image:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the [[Square]] and the Town of Bath'' [detail], c. 1809.

Image:1781.jpg|Sophie Madeleine du Pont, Octagonal [[Bath]] at Warm Springs (Berkeley Springs), 1837.

Image:1782.jpg|Sophie Madeleine du Pont, ''Spout [[bath]] at Warm Springs'' (Berkeley Springs), 1837.

Image:2219.jpg|David H. Strother (artist) and Erneste Szemelňyi (composer), ''A Day at Berkeley Springs. A Descriptive Piece, op. 27'', sheet music cover, 1851.

Image:2220.jpg|David H. Strother (artist) and Erneste Szemelňyi (composer), ''A Day at Berkeley Springs. A Descriptive Piece, op. 27'', notated music, 1851.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:Places]]

Current Staff

2023-08-30T15:57:37Z

M-westerby:

* Therese O'Malley, Project Director
<hr>
* Matthew J. Westerby, Digital Research Officer
<hr>

File:0333.jpg

2022-02-03T20:28:36Z

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G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye view of Mt. Vernon the home of Washington'', c. 1859, hand-colored lithograph, 13 1/2 x 15 3/4 in. (34.3 x 40 cm). Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

File:0333.jpg

2022-02-03T20:27:33Z

M-westerby:

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G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye view of Mt. Vernon the home of Washington'', c. 1859, hand-colored lithograph, 13 1/2 x 15 3/4 in. (34.3 x 40 cm). Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

File:2151.jpg

2022-02-03T20:25:30Z

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{{Image
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William Bartram, ''Dionaea muscipula'', n.d., engraving. American Philosophical Society, Violetta Delafield–Benjamin Smith Barton Collection.

File:1798.jpg

2022-02-03T20:23:54Z

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J. C. Loudon, A clump, in ''An encyclopædia of gardening; comprising the theory and practice of horticulture, floriculture, arboriculture, and landscape-gardening, including all the latest improvements; a general history of gardening in all countries; and a statistical view of its present state with suggestions for its future progress, in the British Isles. By J.C. Loudon ... Illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood by Branston'' (1834), p. 1118, fig. 874a. Private collection.

File:1002.jpg

2022-02-03T20:21:45Z

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Anonymous, ''Design for a Rustic Gate,'' in Rusticus, "Design for a Rustic Gate," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 2 (August 1846), p. 73. Private Collection.

File:0525.jpg

2022-02-03T20:18:28Z

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{{Image
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|Title=''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia''
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William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840, oil on canvas, 17 5/8 x 22 1/2 in. (44.8 x 57.2 cm). Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, Conn.

File:0788.jpg

2022-02-03T20:16:35Z

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Frances Palmer, Elevations and profiles of wood fences, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 30. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

File:0098.jpg

2022-02-03T20:13:08Z

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|Title=Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey : of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain
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Miller & Co., Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey : of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

File:2012.jpg

2022-02-03T20:10:25Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
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|Title=''A Map of Pensilvania, New-Jersey, New-York, and the Three Delaware Counties''
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Lewis Evans, ''A Map of Pensilvania, New-Jersey, New-York, and the Three Delaware Counties'', 1749, hand colored engraving, 25 1/2 x 19 1/3 in. (65 x 49 cm). Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

File:1954.jpg

2022-02-03T20:08:34Z

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Andrew Craigie, Proposed Outbuildings for the Craigie Estate, December 11, 1791. Andrew Craigie Papers. American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.

File:1433.jpg

2022-02-03T20:06:55Z

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|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="La Grange Terrace, La Fayette Place, City of New York"
|Image Title=James H. Dakin, "La Grange Terrace, La Fayette Place, City of New York," 1831-34
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
James H. Dakin, "La Grange Terrace, La Fayette Place, City of New York," 1831-34. The New York Public Library.

File:1701.jpg

2022-02-03T20:04:15Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Fence
}}
|Creator=J. C. Loudon
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1834
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=Diagram of worm fence
|Image Title=J. C. Loudon, Diagram of worm fence, 1834
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=1834
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''An encyclopædia of gardening; comprising the theory and practice of horticulture, floriculture, arboriculture, and landscape-gardening, including all the latest improvements; a general history of gardening in all countries; and a statistical view of its present state with suggestions for its future progress, in the British Isles. By J.C. Loudon ... Illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood by Branston''
|Page number=412
|Figure=276
|Repository=Private collection
|Reference ID=TGQ5WTNR
}}
J. C. Loudon, Diagram of worm fence, in ''An encyclopædia of gardening; comprising the theory and practice of horticulture, floriculture, arboriculture, and landscape-gardening, including all the latest improvements; a general history of gardening in all countries; and a statistical view of its present state with suggestions for its future progress, in the British Isles. By J.C. Loudon ... Illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood by Branston'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276. Private collection.

File:1009.jpg

2022-02-03T20:01:13Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Gate/Gateway
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Hedge
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Walk
}}
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1860
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=Yes
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Date End=1865
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Concurrence End=Exact
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Image Title=Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65. New Bedford Whaling Museum, New Bedford, Mass.

File:1037.jpg

2022-02-03T19:55:52Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Bed
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Border
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Plot/Plat
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Quarter
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Square
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Walk
}}
|Creator=William Cobbett
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1819
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="Plan for a Garden"
|Image Title=William Cobbett, "Plan for a Garden," 1819
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=1819
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''The American Gardener''
|Volume=33
|Figure=pl. 1
|Repository=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
|Reference ID=9CBPIU6H
}}
William Cobbett, "Plan for a Garden," in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), 33, pl. 1. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

File:0845.jpg

2022-02-03T19:49:24Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|People=Alexander Jackson Davis
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Modern style/Natural style
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=View/Vista
}}
|Creator=Alexander Jackson Davis
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1830
|Creation Circa=Yes
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=Yes
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Date End=1850
|Creation Circa End=Yes
|Creation Concurrence End=Exact
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=View of water with islands (Hyde Park)
|Medium=pen and wash
|Image Title=Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook
|Repository=Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Hyde Park, New York
}}
Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d., pen and wash. Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–1850. Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Hyde Park, New York.

File:0367.jpg

2022-02-03T19:40:13Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
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|Keyword=Bower
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Lawn
}}{{Keyword relationship
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|Keyword=Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Seat
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Shrubbery
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Walk
}}
|Creator=Anonymous
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1849
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq."
|Image Title=Anonymous, "View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.," 1849
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=1849
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America: With a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc., with Remarks on Rural Architecture''
|Page number=pl. opp. p. 57
|Repository=National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
|Reference ID=5M4S2D64
}}
Anonymous, "View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America: With a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc., with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 57. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

File:0367.jpg

2022-02-03T19:39:28Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
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|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Bower
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Lawn
}}{{Keyword relationship
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|Keyword=Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden
}}{{Keyword relationship
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|Keyword=Seat
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Shrubbery
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Walk
}}
|Creator=Anonymous
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1849
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp."
|Image Title=Anonymous, "View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.," 1849
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=1849
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America: With a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc., with Remarks on Rural Architecture''
|Page number=pl. opp. p. 57
|Repository=National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
|Reference ID=5M4S2D64
}}
Anonymous, "View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America: With a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc., with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 57. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

File:0842.jpg

2021-12-02T21:00:37Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Place=Montgomery Place
|People=Alexander Jackson Davis
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Pavilion
}}
|Creator=Alexander Jackson Davis
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=October 1847
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=''View from Montgomery Place''
|Medium=watercolor, ink and graphite on paper
|Dimensions=8 1/4 x 7 1/8 in. (20.9 x 18 cm)
|Image Title=Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847, watercolor, ink and graphite on paper, 8 1/4 x 7 1/8 in. (20.9 x 18 cm). Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.

File:2091.jpg

2021-12-02T20:53:27Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Place=Gray's Garden
|Creator=Cephas G. Childs
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1830
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Inscription=Lehman Fecit/Childs Lithr./GRAYS FERRY./Pubd. by C.G. Childs. Philadelphia
|Medium=lithograph
|Image Title=Cephas G. Childs after George Lehman, ''Grays Ferry'', 1830
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Cephas G. Childs after George Lehman, ''Grays Ferry'', 1830, lithograph. [http://digitallibrary.hsp.org/index.php/Detail/Object/Show/object_id/321 Historical Society of Pennsylvania].

Inscription: Lehman Fecit/Childs Lithr./GRAYS FERRY./Pubd. by C.G. Childs. Philadelphia

File:1064.jpg

2021-12-02T20:28:01Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Place=Mount Auburn Cemetery
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground
}}
|Creator=James Smillie (artist), Rice & Buttre (engravers)
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1847
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Image Title=James Smillie (artist), Rice & Buttre (engravers), “View of Oxnard's Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery," 1847
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=1850
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''Mount Auburn Illustrated. In highly finished line engraving, from drawings taken on the spot, by James Smillie. With descriptive notices by Cornelia W. Walter''
|Page number=opp. p. 116
|Repository=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC
|Reference ID=CN79BMN8
}}
James Smillie (artist), Rice & Buttre (engravers), “View of Oxnard's Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated. In highly finished line engraving, from drawings taken on the spot, by James Smillie. With descriptive notices by Cornelia W. Walter'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. p. 116. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.

File:0285.jpg

2021-12-02T20:24:55Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=View/Vista
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Walk
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Bed
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Meadow
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Orchard
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Parterre
}}
|Creator=Nicholas Garrison
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1757
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America''
|Inscription=[left] A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethern's Principal Settlements, in Pensylvania, North America. / [right] Vue de Betlehem, l'un des principaux établissement des Frères Moraves en Pensilvanie, Amérique septentrionale.
|Medium=colored engraving
|Dimensions=13 x 18 in. (33.2 x 47.8 cm)
|Image Title=Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757, colored engraving, 13 x 18 in. (33.2 x 47.8 cm). Print Collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs, The New York Public Library.

Inscription: [left] A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethern's Principal Settlements, in Pensylvania, North America. / [right] Vue de Betlehem, l'un des principaux établissement des Frères Moraves en Pensilvanie, Amérique septentrionale.

File:0408.jpg

2021-12-02T20:20:51Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Espalier
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Fence
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Gate/Gateway
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Lawn
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Wall
}}
|Creator=David Leonard
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1795
|Creation Circa=Yes
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=''A S. W. view of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens''
|Medium=engraving
|Dimensions=6 3/4 x 10 5/8 in. (18 x 27.5 cm)
|Image Title=David Leonard, ''A S. W. view of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens'', c. 1795
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
David Leonard, ''A S. W. view of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens'', c. 1795, engraving, 6 3/4 x 10 5/8 in. (18 x 27.5 cm). Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University.

File:2159.jpg

2021-12-02T20:15:29Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Alley
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Yard
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Flower garden
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Geometric style
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Attributed
|Keyword=Kitchen garden
}}
|Creator=Unknown
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=August 1789
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title=''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston''
|Image Title=Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789 (plan)
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789, plan. Charleston County Register of Mesne and Conveyance.

File:1792.jpg

2021-12-02T20:12:32Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Seat
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=View/Vista
}}
|Creator=Thomas Cole
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1828
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="View of Monte Video, the Seat of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.'
|Medium=oil on wood
|Dimensions=19 3/4 x 26 1/16 in. (50.2 x 66.2 cm)
|Image Title=Thomas Cole, ''View of Monte Video, the Seat of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.'', 1828
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
}}
Thomas Cole, ''View of Monte Video, the Seat of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.'', 1828, oil on wood, 19 3/4 x 26 1/16 in. (50.2 x 66.2 cm). Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, Conn.

File:1292.jpg

2021-12-02T20:04:58Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Orchard
}}
|Creator=Anonymous
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1835
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="Orchards in Alternate Rows, or Quincunx Order"
|Image Title=Anonymous, "Orchards in Alternate Rows, or Quincunx Order," 1835
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=January 1, 1835
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''The Horticultural Register"
|Volume=1
|Page number=37
|Repository=Library of Congress, Washington, DC
}}
Anonymous, "Orchards in Alternate Rows, or Quincunx Order," ''The Horticultural Register,'' vol. 1 (Jan. 1, 1835), p. 37. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

File:0997.jpg

2021-12-02T20:01:43Z

M-westerby:

{{Image
|Keyword relationships={{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Flower garden
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Inscribed
|Keyword=Geometric style
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Bed
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Edging
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=French style
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Parterre
}}{{Keyword relationship
|Keyword relationship=Associated
|Keyword=Parterre
}}
|Creator=Anonymous
|Creation Present=No
|Creation Date=1848
|Creation Circa=No
|Creation Concurrence=Exact
|Creation Questionable=No
|Creation HasEndDate=No
|Creation Present End=No
|Creation Circa End=No
|Creation Questionable End=No
|Title="Design for a Geometric Flower Garden"
|Image Title=Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," 1848
|Showcase main=No
|Showcase essay=No
|Publication Present=No
|Publication Date=June 1848
|Publication Circa=No
|Publication Concurrence=Exact
|Publication Questionable=No
|Publication HasEndDate=No
|Publication Present End=No
|Publication Circa End=No
|Publication Questionable End=No
|Reference Title=''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste Devoted to Horticulture, Landscape, Gardening, Rural Architecture, Botany, Pomology, Entomology, Rural Economy, &c. ''
|Volume=2, no. 12
|Page number=558
|Figure=67
|Repository=Private collection
}}
Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste Devoted to Horticulture, Landscape, Gardening, Rural Architecture, Botany, Pomology, Entomology, Rural Economy, &c. '' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67. Private collection.

Noah Webster

2021-10-05T21:48:25Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=October 16, 1758
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=May 28, 1843
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Keywords=Alcove; Alley; Arbor; Arboretum; Arcade; Arch; Avenue; Aviary/Bird cage/Birdhouse; Basin; Bath/Bathhouse; Bed; Beehive; Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory; Border; Botanic garden; Bower; Bowling green; Bridge; Canal; Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall; Clump; Column/Pillar; Conservatory; Copse; Deer park; Dovecote/Pigeon house; Edging; Eminence; Espalier; Fence; Fountain; Gate/Gateway; Green; Greenhouse; Grove; Hedge; Hermitage; Icehouse; Jet; Labyrinth; Lake; Mall; Meadow; Mound; Mount; Nursery; Obelisk; Orangery; Orchard; Park; Parterre; Pavilion; Piazza; Picturesque; Plantation; Plot/Plat; Pond; Porch; Portico; Pot; Promenade; Prospect; Quarter; Rockwork/Rockery; Rustic style; Seat; Shrubbery; Square; Statue; Summerhouse; Sundial; Temple; Terrace/Slope; Thicket; Trellis; Vase/Urn; Veranda; View/Vista; Walk; Wall; Wilderness; Wood/Woods; Yard
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n78094002.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Name Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/68670
|External link text=Dictionary of National Biography
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00943.html?a=1&n=noah%20webster&d=10&ss=0&q=1
|External link text=American National Biography
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}}
'''Noah Webster''' (October 16, 1758–May 28, 1843), a lexicographer, editor, political writer, and author, made important contributions to the articulation of a distinctive national culture in post-Revolutionary America. He is best known as the creator of the first comprehensive American dictionary, which documented many of the differences between American and British usage of the English language.

==History==
[[File:2285.jpg|thumb|350px|Fig. 1, James Herring, Noah Webster, 1833.]]
Following an unsatisfactory early education, Noah Webster studied Latin and Greek privately and, at the age of fifteen, entered Yale College, where he came under the influence of Ezra Stiles and [[Timothy Dwight]]. He went on to study law and teach school before turning his attention to writing a series of newspaper articles promoting the American Revolution and urging a permanent separation from Britain. After founding a private school in Goshen, New York, he produced a three-volume compendium, ''A Grammatical Institute of the English Language'', consisting of a speller (1783), a grammar (1784), and a reader (1785).<ref>David Micklethwait, ''Noah Webster and the American Dictionary'' (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2005), 21–22, 54–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T756K4GR view on Zotero].</ref> These works provided alternatives to imported English textbooks and established a uniquely American approach to teaching children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. Webster’s speller was the most popular American book of its time, with 15 million copies sold by 1837.<ref>Catherine Reef, ''Education and Learning in America'' (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009), 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B3D537IS view on Zotero].</ref> In 1787 Webster founded the ''American Magazine'' with the intention of promoting an American cultural identity distinct from that of Britain.<ref>Edward E. Chielens, “Periodicals and the Development of an American Literature,” in ''Making America, Making American Literature'', ed. A. Robert Lee and W. M. Verhoeven (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996), 95–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G25NKMA3 view on Zotero].</ref>

Proceeds from the speller funded Webster’s work on a dictionary through which he intended to promote an American language with its own idioms, pronunciation, and style. In 1806 Webster published ''A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language'', the first truly American dictionary. He immediately began work on a more ambitious work, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828). His research on word origins necessitated learning twenty-eight languages, including Anglo-Saxon, Aramaic, Russian, and Sanskrit.<ref>Joshua Kendall, ''The Forgotten Founding Father: Noah Webster’s Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture'' (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q9UNXXKS view on Zotero].</ref> Webster also documented unique American words that had not yet appeared in British dictionaries. Comprising 70,000 words—12,000 of which had never been published before—the ''American Dictionary'' surpassed the scope and authority of Samuel Johnson’s magisterial ''Dictionary of the English Language'', published in London in 1755.<ref>Joshua Lawrence Eason, “Dictionary-Making in the English Language,” ''Peabody Journal of Education'' 5 (May 1928): 349, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JX6ARZAD view on Zotero]; Joseph W. Reed Jr., “Noah Webster’s Debt to Samuel Johnson,” ''American Speech'' 37 (1962): 95–105, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DI5ACAS9 view on Zotero].</ref> Although British examples predominate, <span id="WebsterAvenue_cite"></span>Webster also referred to the American context for words such as [[avenue]] (“A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia”) ([[#WebsterAvenue|view text]]); differentiated American usage from British in the case of words such as [[meadow]], [[orchard]], [[plantation]], and [[wood]]; <span id="WebsterCataract_cite"></span>and included quotations from American authors who imbued the English language with New World associations, as in the phrase attributed to Washington Irving, “The tremendous [[cataract]]s of America thundering in their solitudes [''sic'']” ([[#WebsterCataract|view text]]). Despite his monumental achievement, Webster made little money from his dictionary and he went deeply into debt in order to finance a revised and expanded second edition, which was published in 1841, two years before his death.

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>'''

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[alley|AL'LEY]], ''n. al'ly'' [Fr. ''allée'', a passage, from ''aller'' to go; Ir. ''alladh''. Literally, a passing or going.]

:“1. A [[walk]] in a garden; a narrow passage.

:“2. A narrow passage or way in a city, as distinct from a public street.

:“3. A place in London where stocks are bought and sold. ''Ash''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arbor|ARBOR]], ''n''. [The French express the sense by ''berceau'', a cradle, an ''[[arbor]]'', or [[bower]]; Sp. ''emparrade'', from ''parra'', a vine raised on stakes, and nailed to a [[wall]]. Qu. L. ''[[arbor]]'', a tree, and the primary sense.]

:“1. A frame of lattice work, covered with vines, branches of trees or other plants, for shade; a [[bower]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arcade|ARCA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''arcus''; Sp. ''arcada''.] A long or continued [[arch]]; a [[walk]] arched above. ''Johnson''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[arch|ARCH]], ''n''. [See ''Arc''.] A segment or part of a circle. A concave or hollow structure of stone or brick, supported by its own curve. It may be constructed of wood, and supported by the mechanism of the work. This species of structure is much used in [[bridge]]s.

:“A vault is properly a broad [[arch]]. ''Encyc''.

:“2. The space between two piers of a [[bridge]], when arched; or any place covered with an [[arch]].

:“3. Any curvature, in form of an [[arch]].

:“4. The vault of heaven, or sky. ''Shak''.

:“''Triumphal [[arch|arches]]'' are magnificent structures at the entrance of cities, erected to adorn a triumph and perpetuate the memory of the event.”

*<div id="WebsterAvenue"></div>1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[avenue|AV'ENUE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]

:“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.

:“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc''.

:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.”
: [[#WebsterAvenue_cite|back up to History]]

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[aviary|A'VIARY]], ''n''. [L. ''aviarium'', from ''avis'', a fowl.]

:“A [[bird cage]]; an inclosure for keeping birds confined. ''Wotton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[basin|BAS'IN]], ''n''. ''básn''. [Fr. ''bassin''; Ir. ''baisin''; Arm. ''baçzin''; It. ''bacino'', or ''bacile''; Port. ''bacia''. . .]

:“1. A hollow vessel or dish, to hold water for washing, and for various other uses.

:“2. In ''hydraulics'', any reservoir of water.

:“3. That which resembles a [[basin]] in containing water, as a [[pond]], a dock for ships, a hollow place for liquids, or an inclosed part of water, forming a broad space within a strait or narrow entrance; a little bay.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bath|B`ATH]], ''n''. [Sax. ''baeth'', ''batho'', a [[bath]]; ''bathian'', to bathe; W. ''badh'', or ''baz''; D. G. Sw. Dan. ''bad'', a ''[[bath]]''; Ir. ''[[bath]]'', the sea; Old Phrygian ''bedu'', water. Qu. W. ''bozi'', to immerse.]

:“1. A place for bathing; a convenient vat or receptacle of water for persons to plunge or wash their bodies in. [[Bath]]s are warm or tepid, hot or cold, more generally called ''warm'' and ''cold''. They are also ''natural'' or ''artificial''. ''Natural'' [[bath]]s are those which consist of spring water, either hot or cold, which is often impregnated with iron, and called chalybeate, or with sulphur, carbonic acid, and other mineral qualities. These waters are often very efficacious in scorbutic, bilious, dyspeptic and other complaints.

:“2. A place in which heat is applied to a body immersed in some substance. Thus,

:“A ''dry'' [[bath]] is made of hot sand, ashes, salt, or other matter, for the purpose of applying heat to a body immersed in them.

:“A ''vapor'' [[bath]] is formed by filling an apartment with hot steam or vapor, in which the body sweats copiously, as in Russia; or the term is used, for the application of hot steam to a diseased part of the body. ''Encyc. Tooke''.

:“A ''metalline'' [[bath]] is water impregnated with iron or other metallic substance, and applied to a diseased part. ''Encyc''. . .

:“3. A house for bathing. In some eastern countries, [[bath]]s are very magnificent edifices.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bed|BED]], ''n''. [Sax. ''[[bed]]''; D. ''[[bed]]''; G. ''bett'' or ''beet''; Goth. ''badi''. The sense is a lay or spread, from laying or setting.] . . .

:“4. A ''[[plat]]'' or level piece of ground in a garden, usually a little raised above the adjoining ground. ''Bacon''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“BEE'-GARDEN, ''n''. [''bee'' and ''garden''.] A garden, or inclosure to set [[beehive|bee-hives]] in. ''Johnson''. . .”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[belvedere|BEL'VIDERE]], ''n''. [L. ''bellus'', fine, and ''video'', to see.] . . .

:“2. In ''Italian architecture'', a [[pavilion]] on the top of an edifice; an artificial [[eminence]] in a garden. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[border|BORD'ER]], ''n''. [Fr. ''bord''; Arm. ''id''; Sp. ''bordo''; Port. ''borda''; It. ''bordo''. See ''Board''.]

:“The exterior part of a garden, and hence a bank raised at the side of a garden, for the cultivation of flowers, and a row of plants.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“BOTAN'IC, BOTAN'ICAL, ''a''. [See ''Botany''.] Pertaining to botany; relating to plants in general; also, containing plants, as a [[botanic garden|''botanic'' garden]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bower|BOW'ER]], ''n''. [Sax. ''bur'', a chamber or private apartment, a hut, a cottage; W. ''bwr'', an inclosure.]

:“1. A shelter or covered place in a garden, made with boughs of trees bent and twined together. It differs from ''[[arbor]]'' in that it may be round or square, whereas an [[arbor]] is long and arched. ''Milton. Encyc.''

:“2. A bed-chamber; any room in a house except the hall. ''Spencer. Mason.''

:“3. A country [[seat]]; a cottage. ''Shenston., B. Johnson.''

:“4. A shady recess; a [[plantation]] for shade. ''W. Brown''. . .

:“[[bower|BOW'ERY]], ''a''. Covering; shading as a [[bower]]; also, containing [[bower]]s. ''Thomson''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bowling green|BOWLING-GREEN]], ''n''. [''bowl'' and ''green''.]

:“A level piece of ground kept smooth for bowling.

:“2. In ''gardening'', a [[parterre]] in a [[grove]], laid with fine turf, with compartments of divers figures, with dwarf trees and other decorations. It may be used for bowling; but the French and Italians have such greens for ornament. ''Encyc.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[bridge|BRIDGE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''bric, brieg, brigg'', or ''brye, bryeg''; Dan. ''broe''; Sw. ''bryggia, bro''; D. ''brug''; Ger. ''brücke''; Prus. ''brigge''.]

:“1. Any structure of wood, stone, brick, or iron, raised over a river, [[pond]], or [[lake]], for the passage of men and other animals. Among rude nations, [[bridge]]s are sometimes formed of other materials; and sometimes they are formed of boats, or logs of wood lying on the water, fastened together, covered with planks, and called floating [[bridge]]s. A [[bridge]] over a marsh is made of logs or other materials laid upon the surface of the earth. . . ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[canal|CANAL']], ''n''. [L. ''canalis'', a channel or kennel; these being the same word differently written; Fr. ''canal''; Arm. ''can'', or ''canol''; Sp. Port. ''canal''; It. ''canale''. See. ''Cane''. It denotes a passage, from shooting, or passing.]

:“1. A passage for water; a water course; properly, a long trench or excavation in the earth for conducting water, and confining it to narrow limits; but the term may be applied to other water courses. It is chiefly applied to artificial cuts or passages for water, used for transportation; whereas channel is applicable to a natural water course.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[cascade|CASCA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. ''cascade''; Sp. ''cascada''; It. ''cascata'', from ''cascare'', to fall.]

:“A [[waterfall]]; a steep fall or flowing of water over a precipice, in a river or natural stream; or an artificial fall in a garden. The word is applied to falls that are less than a [[cataract]]. . . .”

*<div id="WebsterCataract"></div>1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[cataract|CAT'ARACT]], ''n''. [L. ''cataracta''; . . . ]

:“1. A great fall of water over a precipice; as that of Niagara, of the Rhine, Danube and Nile. It is a [[cascade]] up on a great scale.

:“The tremendous cataracts of America thundering in their solitudes. ''Irving''. . .”
:[[#WebsterCataract_cite|back up to History]]

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[clump|CLUMP]], ''n''. [Ger. ''klump''; D. ''klomp''; Sw. ''klimp''; Dan. ''klump'', a ''lump''; W. ''clamp''. It is ''lump'' with a prefix. It coincides with ''plump'', and L. ''plumbum'', lead; as the D. ''lood'', G. ''loth'', Dan. ''lod''., Eng. ''lead'', coincide with ''clod''. It signifies a mass or collection. . .]

:“1. A thick, short piece of wood, or other solid substance; a shapeless mass. Hence ''clumper'', a clot or clod.

:“2. A cluster of trees or shrubs; formerly written ''plump''. In some parts of England, it is an adjective signifying lazy, unhandy. ''Bailey.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[column|COL'UMN]], ''n. col'um.'' [L. ''columna, columen''; W. ''colov'', a stalk or stem, a prop; ''colovyn'', Arm. ''coulouenn''; Fr. ''colonne''; It. ''colonna''; Sp. ''columna''; Port. ''columna'' or ''coluna''. This word is from the Celtic, signifying the stem of a tree, such stems being the first [[column]]s used. The primary sense is a shoot, or that which is set.]

:“1. In ''architecture'', a long round body of wood or stone, used to support or adorn a building, composed of a base, a shaft and a capital. The shaft tapers from the base, in imitation of the stem of a tree. There are five kinds or orders of [[column]]s. 1. The Tuscan, rude, simple and massy; the highth [''sic''] of which is fourteen semidiameters or modules, and the diminution at the top from one sixth to one eighth of inferior diameter. 2. The Doric, which is next in strength to the Tuscan, has a robust, masculine aspect; its highth [''sic''] is sixteen modules. 3. The Ionic is more slender than the Tuscan and Doric; its highth [''sic''] is eighteen modules. 4. The Corinthian is more delicate in its form and proportions, and enriched with ornaments; its highth [''sic''] should be twenty modules. 5. The Composite is a species of the Corinthian, and of the same highth [''sic'']. ''Encyc.''

:“In strictness, the shaft of a [[column]] consists of one entire piece; but it is often composed of different pieces, so united, as to have the appearance of one entire piece. It differs in this respect from a ''[[pillar]]'', which primarily signifies a ''pile'', composed of small pieces. But the two things are unfortunately confounded; and a [[column]] consisting of a single piece of timber is absurdly called a ''[[pillar]]'' or pile.

:“2. An erect or elevated structure resembling a [[column]] in architecture; as the ''astronomical [[column]]'' at Paris, a kind of hollow tower with a spiral ascent to the top; ''gnomonic [[column]]'', a cylinder on which the hour of the day is indicated by the shadow of a style; ''military [[column]]'', among the Romans; ''triumphal [[column]]''; &c.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“COP'PICE, [[copse|COPSE]], ''n''. [Norm. ''coupiz'', from ''couper'', to cut, Gr. . . .]

:“A [[wood]] of small growth, or consisting of underwood or brushwood; a [[wood]] cut at certain times for fuel.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[Dovecote|DOVE-COT]], ''n''. A small building or box in which domestic pigeons breed. . .

:“[[Dovecote|DOVE-HOUSE]], ''n''. A house or shelter for doves. . .

:“PIG'EON, ''n''. . .

:“The domestic pigeon breeds in a box, often attached to a building, called a ''[[dovecote|dovecot]]'' or ''[[pigeon house|pigeon-house]]''. The wild pigeon builds a nest on a tree in the forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[edging|EDG'ING]], ''n''. That which is added on the [[border]], or which forms the edge; as lace, fringe, trimming, added to a garment for ornament. . .

:“2. A narrow lace.

:“3. In ''gardening'', a row of small plants set along, the border of a flower-bed; as an ''[[edging]]'' of box. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[eminence|EM'INENCE]], EM'INENCY, ''n''. [L. ''eminentia'', from ''eminens, emineo'', to stand or show itself above; ''e'' and ''minor'', to threaten, that is, to stand or push forward. . . .]

:“1. Elevation, highth [''sic''], in a literal sense; but usually, a rising ground; a hill of moderate elevation above the adjacent ground.

:“The [[temple]] of honor ought to be seated on an ''[[eminence]]''. ''Burke''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“FISH-[[pond|POND]], ''n''. A [[pond]] in which fishes are bred and kept.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“FOUNT', [[fountain|FOUNT'AIN]], ''n''. [L. ''fons''; Fr. ''fontaine''; Sp. ''fuente'', It. ''fonte, fontana''; W. ''fynnon'', a [[fountain]] or source; ''fyniaw, fynu'', to produce, to generate, to abound; ''fwn'', a source, breath, puff; ''fwnt'', produce.]

:“1. A spring, or source of water; properly, a spring or issuing of water from the earth. This word accords in sense with ''well'', in our mother tongue; but we now distinguish them, applying ''[[fountain]]'' to a natural spring of water, and ''well'' to an artificial pit of water, issuing from the interior of the earth.

:“2. A small [[basin]] of springing water. ''Taylor''.

:“3. A [[jet]]; a spouting of water; an artificial spring. ''Bacon''.

:“4. The head or source of a river. ''Dryden''.

:“5. Original; first principle or cause; the source of any thing.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[gate|GATE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''gate, geat''; Ir. ''greata''; Scot. ''gait''; The Goth. ''gatwo'', Dan. ''gade'', Sw. ''gat''a, G. ''gasse'', Sans. ''gaut'', is a way or street. In D. ''gat'' is a gap or channel. . .]

:“1. A large door which gives entrance into a walled city, a castle, a [[temple]], palace or other large edifice. It differs from ''door'' chiefly in being larger. ''[[Gate]]'' signifies both the opening or passage, and the frame of boards, planks or timber which closes the passage.

:“2. A frame of timber which opens or closes a passage into any court, garden or other inclosed ground; also, the passage.

:“3. The frame which shuts or stops the passage of water through a dam into a flume.

:“4. An [[avenue]]; an opening; a way. ''Knolles''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[green|GREEN]], ''n''. The color of growing plants. . . .

:“2. A grassy plain or [[plat]]; a piece of ground covered with verdant herbage.

:“O'er the smooth enameled ''[[green]]''. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“GROT, [[grotto|GROT'TO]], ''n''. [Fr. ''grotte'', It. ''grotta'', Sp. and Port. ''gruta''; G. and Dan. ''grotte''; D. ''grot''; Sax. ''grut''. ''Grotta'' is not used.]

:“1. A large cave or den; a subterraneous cavern, and primarily, a natural cave or rent in the earth, or such as is formed by a current of water, or an earthquake. ''Pope. Prior. Dryden.''

:“2. A cave for coolness and refreshment.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[grove|GROVE]], ''n''. [Sax. ''groef, graf'', a ''grave'', a cave, a ''[[grove]]''; Goth. ''groba''; from cutting an [[avenue]], or from the resemblance of an [[avenue]] to a channel.]

:“1. In ''gardening'', a small [[wood]] or cluster of trees with a shaded [[avenue]], or a [[wood]] impervious to the rays of the sun. A [[grove]] is either open or close; open, when consisting of large trees whose branches shade the ground below; close, when consisting of trees and underwood, which defend the [[avenue]]s from the rays of the sun and from violent winds. ''Encyc''.

:“2. A [[wood]] of small extent. In America, the word is applied to a [[wood]] of natural growth in the field, as well as to planted trees in a garden, but only to a [[wood]] of small extent and not to a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[hedge|HEDGE]], ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', hedge, protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .]

:“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[hermitage|HER'MITAGE]], ''n''. The habitation of a hermit; a house or hut with its appendages, in a solitary place, where a hermit dwells. ''Milton''.

:“2. The cell in a recluse place, but annexed to an abbey. ''Encyc''.

:“3. A kind of wine.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1: n.p.)

:“[[icehouse|ICEHOUSE]], ''n''. [''ice'' and ''house''.] A repository for the preservation of ice during warm weather; a pit with a drain for conveying off the water of the ice when dissolved, and usually covered with a roof.”

<br/>
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 2 (New York: S. Converse, 1828)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 2 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7CI5MCGT view on Zotero].</ref>'''

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[labyrinth|LAB'YRINTH]], ''n''. [L. ''labyrinthus''. . .]

:“1. Among the ancients, an edifice or place full of intricacies, or formed with winding passages, which rendered it difficult to find the way from the interior to the entrance. The most remarkable of these edifices mentioned, are the Egyptian and the Cretan [[labyrinth]]s. ''Encyc. Lempriere''.

:“2. A maze; an inexplicable difficulty.

:“3. Formerly, an ornamental maze or [[wilderness]] in gardens. ''Spenser''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[lake|LAKE]], ''n''. [G. ''lache'', a puddle; Fr. ''lac''; L. ''lacus''; Sp. It. ''lago''; Sax. ''luh''; Scot. ''loch''; Ir. ''lough''; Ice. ''laugh''. A [[lake]] is a stand of water, from the root of ''lay''. Hence L. ''lagena'', Eng. ''flagon'', and Sp. ''laguna'', lagoon.]

:“1. A large and extensive collection of water contained in a cavity or hollow of the earth. It differs from a ''[[pond]]'' in size, the latter being a collection of small extent; but sometimes a collection of water is called a [[pond]] or a [[lake]] indifferently.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[lawn|LAWN]], ''n''. [W. ''llan'', an open, clear place. It is the same word as ''land'', with an appropriate signification, and coincides with ''plain, planus'', Ir. ''cluain''.]

:“A open space between [[wood]]s, or a plain in a [[park]] or adjoining a noble [[seat]].

:“Betwixt them ''[[lawn]]s'' or level downs, and flocks

:“Grazing the tender herbs, were interspers'd. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mall|MALL]], ''n. mal''. [Arm. ''mailh''. Qu. from a play with [[mall]] and ball, or a beaten [[walk]].]

:“A public [[walk]]; a level shaded [[walk]]. ''Allée d’arbres battue et bordée. Gregoire’s Arm. Dict.''"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“MEAD, [[meadow|MEADOW]], ''n. meed, med’o.'' [Sax. ''moede, moedewe''; G. ''matte'', a mat, and a [[meadow]]; Ir. ''madh''. The sense is extended or flat depressed land. It is supposed that this word enters into the name ''Mediolanum'', now ''Milan'', in Italy; that is, ''mead-land''.]

:“A tract of low land. In America, the word is applied particularly to the low ground on the banks of rivers, consisting of a rich mold or an alluvial soil, whether grass land, pasture, tillage, or [[wood]] land; as the ''[[meadow]]s'' on the banks of the Connecticut. The word with us does not necessarily imply wet land. This species of land is called, in the western states, ''bottoms'', or ''bottom land''. The word is also used for other low or flat lands, particularly lands appropriated to the culture of grass.

:“The word is said to be applied in Great Britain to land somewhat watery, but covered with grass. ''Johnson''.

:“[[Meadow]] means pasture or grass land, annually mown for hay; but more particularly, land too moist for cattle to graze on in winter, without spoiling the sward. ''Encyc. Cyc''.

:“[''Mead'' is used chiefly in poetry.]"

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mound|MOUND]], ''n''. [Sax. ''mund''; W. ''mwnt'', from ''mwn''; L. ''mons''. See ''Mount''.]

:“Something raised as a defense or fortification, usually a bank of earth or stone; a bulwark; a rampart or [[fence]].

:“God has thrown

:“That mountain as his garden ''[[mound]]'', high raised. ''Milton''.

:“To thrid the [[thicket]]s or to leap the ''[[mound]]s''. ''Dryden''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[mount|MOUNT]], ''n''. [Fr. ''mont''; Sax. ''munt''; It. Port. Sp. ''monte''; Arm. ''menez, mene''; W. ''munt'', a [[mount]], mountain or [[mound]], a heap; L. ''mons'', literally a heap or an elevation. Ir. ''moin'' or ''muine''; Basque, ''mendia''. . .]

:“1. A mass of earth, or earth and rock, rising considerably above the common surface of the surrounding land. ''[[Mount]]'' is used for an [[eminence]] or elevation of earth, indefinite in highth [''sic''] or size, and may be a hillock, hill or mountain. We apply it to ''[[Mount]]'' Blanc, in Switzerland, to ''[[Mount]]'' Tom and ''[[Mount]]'' Holyoke, in Massachusetts, and it is applied in Scripture to the small hillocks on which sacrifice was offered, as well as to ''[[Mount]]'' Sinai. Jacob offered sacrifice on the ''[[mount]]'' or heap of stones raised for a witness between him and Laban. Gen. xxxi.

:“2. A [[mound]]; a bulwark for offense or defense.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[nursery|NURS'ERY]], ''n''. . .

:“2. A place where young trees are propagated for the purpose of being transplanted; a [[plantation]] of young trees. ''Bacon''.

:“3. The place where anything is fostered and the growth promoted.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[obelisk|OB'ELISK]], ''n''. [L. ''obeliscus''; Gr. . . .]

:“1. A truncated, quadrangular and slender pyramid intended as an ornament, and often charged with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. Some ancient [[obelisk|obelisks]] appear to have been erected in honor of distinguished persons or their achievements. Ptolemy Philadelphus raised one of 88 cubits high in honor of Arsinee. Augustus erected one in the Campus Martius at Rome, which served to mark the hours on a horizontal dial drawn on the pavement. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[orchard|OR'CHARD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''ortgeard''; Goth. ''aurtigards''; Dan. ''urtegaard''; Sw. ''ortegard''; that is, ''wort-yard'', a [[yard]] for herbs. The Germans call it ''baumgarten'', tree-garden, and the Dutch ''boomgaard'', tree-yard. See ''[[Yard]]''.]

:“An inclosure for fruit trees. In Great Britain, a department of the garden appropriated to fruit trees of all kinds, but chiefly to apples trees. In America, any piece of land set with apple trees, is called an [[orchard]]; and [[orchard]]s are usually cultivated land, being either grounds for mowing or tillage. In some parts of the country, a piece of ground planted with peach trees is called a peach-[[orchard]]. But in most cases, I believe the [[orchard]] in both countries is distinct from the garden.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[park|P`ARK]], ''n''. [Sax. ''parruc, pearruc''; Scot. ''parrok''; W. ''parc''; Fr. ''id''.; It. ''parco''; Sp. ''parque''; Ir. ''pairc''; G. Sw. ''park''; D. ''perk''. . . .]

:“A large piece of ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase, in England, by the king’s grant or by prescription. To constitute a [[park]], three things are required; a royal grant or license; inclosure by pales, a [[wall]] or [[hedge]]; and beasts of chase, as [[deer park|deer]], &c. ''Encyc.''

:“''[[Park]] of artillery'', or ''artillery [[park]]'', a place in the rear of both lines of an army for encamping the artillery, which is formed in lines, the guns in front, the ammunition-wagons behind the guns. . . ''Encyc''. . .

:“''[[Park]] of provisions'', the place where the sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, and that where the bread wagons are stationed.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pavilion|PAVILION]], ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a [[pavilion]]. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]

:“1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.

:“2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes square and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a [[pavilion]] is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[piazza|PIAZ'ZA]], ''n''. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id''.; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]

:“In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch|arches]] or [[column]]s. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[plantation|PLANTA'TION]], ''n''. [L. ''plantatio'', from ''planto'', to plant.]

:“1. The act of planting or setting in the earth for growth.

:“2. The place planted; applied to ground planted with trees, as an [[orchard]] or the like. ''Addison''.

:“3. In ''the United States'' and ''the West Indies'', a cultivated estate; a farm. In ''the United States'', this word is applied to an estate, a tract of land occupied and cultivated, in those states only where the labor is performed by slaves, and where the land is more or less appropriated to the culture of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton, that is, from Maryland to Georgia inclusive, on the Atlantic, and in the western states where the land is appropriated to the same articles or to the culture of the sugar cane. From Maryland, northward and eastward, estates in land are called ''farms''.

:“4. An original settlement in a new country; a town or village planted. . .

:“5. A colony.

:“6. A first planting; introduction; establishment; as the ''[[plantation]]'' of Christianity in England. ''K. Charles''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pleasure ground|PLEAS'URE-GROUND]], ''n''. Ground laid out in an ornamental manner and appropriated to pleasure or amusement. ''Graves''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“GARDEN-[[plot|PLOT]], ''n''. The [[plot]] or [[plantation]] of a garden. ''Milton''. . .

:“[[plot|PLOT]], ''n''. [a different orthography of ''plat''.]

:“1. A [[plat]] or small extent of ground, as a garden ''[[plot]]''. ''Locke''.

:“2. A [[plantation]] laid out. ''Sidney''.

:“3. A plan or scheme. . . ''Spenser''.

:“4. In ''surveying'', a plan or draught of a field, farm or manor surveyed and delineated on paper.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pond|POND]], ''n''. [Sp. ''Port''. It. ''pantano'', a pool of stagnant water, also in Sp. hinderance, obstacle, difficulty. The name imports standing water, from setting or confining. It may be allied to L. ''pono''; Sax. ''pyndan'', to pound, to pen, to restrain, and L. ''pontus'', the sea, may be of the same family.]

:“1. A body of stagnant water without an outlet, larger than a puddle, and smaller than a [[lake]]; or a like body of water with a small outlet. In the United States, we give this name to collections of water in the interior country, which are fed by springs, and from which issues a small stream. These [[pond]]s are often a mile or two or even more in length, and the current issuing from them is used to drive the wheels of mills and furnaces.

:“2. A collection of water raised in a river by a dam, for the purpose of propelling mill-wheels. These artificial [[pond]]s are called ''mill-[[pond]]s''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[porch|PORCH]], ''n''. [Fr. ''porche'', from L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'', a [[gate]], entrance or passage, or from ''portus'', a shelter.]

:“1. In ''architecture'', a kind of vestibule supported by [[column]]s at the entrance of [[temple]]s, halls, churches or other buildings. ''Encyc''.

:“2. A [[portico]]; a covered [[walk]].”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[portico|PORTICO]], ''n''. [It. ''portico''; L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'' or ''portus''.]

:“In ''architecture'', a kind of gallery on the ground, or a [[piazza]] encompassed with [[arch|arches]] supported by [[column]]s; a covered [[walk]]. The roof is sometimes flat; sometimes vaulted. ''Encyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[pot|POT]], ''n''. [Fr. ''pot''; Arm. ''pod''; Ir. ''pota''; Sw. ''potta''; Dan. ''potte''; W. ''pot'', a [[pot]], and ''potel'', a bottle; ''poten'', a pudding, the paunch, something bulging; D. ''pot''; a [[pot]], a stake, a hoard; ''potten'', to hoard.]

:“1. A vessel more deep than broad, made of earth, or iron or other metal, used for several domestic purposes; as an iron ''[[pot]]'', for boiling meat or vegetables; a ''[[pot]]'' for holding liquors; a cup, as a ''[[pot]]'' of ale; and earthern ''[[pot]]'' for plants, called a ''flower'' ''[[pot]]'', &c.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[promenade|PROMENA'DE]], ''n''. [Fr. from ''promener''; ''pro'' and ''mener'', to lead.]

:“1. A walk for amusement or exercise.

:“2. A place for walking.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[prospect|PROS'PECT]], ''n''. [L. ''prospectus'', ''prospicio'', to look forward; ''pro'' and ''specio'', to see.]

:“1. View of things within the reach of the eye.

:“Eden and all the coast in ''[[prospect]]'' lay. ''Milton''.

:“2. View of things to come; intellectual sight; expectation. . .

:“3. That which is presented to the eye; the place and the objects seen. There is a noble ''[[prospect]]'' from the dome of the state house in Boston, a ''[[prospect]]'' diversified with land and water, and every thing that can please the eye.

:“4. Object of view.

:“Man to himself

:“Is a large ''[[prospect]]''. ''Denham''.

:“5. [[View]] delineated or painted; [[picturesque]] representation of a landscape. ''Reynolds''.

:“6. Place which affords an extended [[view]]. ''Milton''.

:“7. Position of the front of a building; as a ''[[prospect]]'' towards the south or north. Ezek. xl.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[quarter|QUARTER]], ''n''. ''quort'er''. [Fr. ''quart'', ''quartier''; It. ''quartiere''; Sp. ''quartel''; D. ''kwartier''; G. ''quartier''; Sw. ''quart'', ''quartal''; Dan. ''quart'', ''quartal'', ''quarteer''; L. ''quartus'', the fourth part; from W. ''cwar'', a square.] . . .

:“6. A particular region of a town, city or country; as all ''[[quarter|quarters]]'' of the city; in every ''[[quarter]]'' of the country or of the continent. Hence,

:“7. Usually in the plural, ''[[quarter|quarters]]'', the place of lodging or temporary residence; appropriately, the place where officers and soldiers lodge, but applied to the lodgings of any temporary resident. He called on the general at his ''[[quarter|quarters]]''; the place furnished good winter ''[[quarter|quarters]]'' for the troops. I saw the stranger at his ''[[quarter|quarters]]''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[rockwork|ROCK'-WORK]], ''n''. Stones fixed in mortar in imitation of the asperities of rocks, forming a [[wall]].

:“2. A natural [[wall]] of rock. ''Addison''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[rustic style|RUST'IC]], RUST'ICAL, ''a''. [L. ''rusticus'', from ''rus'', the country.]

:“1. Pertaining to the country; rural; as the ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' gods of antiquity. ''Encyc''.

:“2. Rude; unpolished; rough; awkward; as ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' manners or behavior.

:“3. Coarse; plain; simple; as ''[[rustic style|rustic]]'' entertainment; ''[[rustic style|rustic dress]]''.

:“4. Simple; artless; unadorned. ''Pope''.

:“''[[rustic style|Rustic]]'' ''work'', in a building, is when the stones, &c. in the face of it, are hacked or pecked so as to be rough. ''Encyc''. . .

:“[[rustic style|RUSTIC]], ''n''. An inhabitant of the country; a clown.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[seat|SEAT]], ''n''. [It. ''sedia''; Sp. ''sede'', ''sitio'', from L. ''sedes'', ''situs''; Sw. ''sate''; Dan. ''soede''; G. ''sitz''; D. ''zetel'', ''zitplaats''; W. ''sez''; Ir. ''saidh''; W. with a prefix, ''gosod'', whence ''gosodi'', to ''set''. See ''Set'' and ''Sit''. . .]

:“1. That on which one sits. . .

:“3. Mansion; residence; dwelling; abode; as Italy the ''[[seat]]'' of empire. The Greeks sent colonies to seek a new ''[[seat]]'' in Gaul.

:“In Alba he shall fix his royal ''[[seat]]''. ''Dryden''.

:“4. Site; situation. The ''[[seat]]'' of Eden has never been incontrovertibly ascertained. . .

:“8. The place where a thing is settled or established. London is the ''[[seat]]'' of business and opulence. So we say, the ''[[seat]]'' of the muses, the ''[[seat]]'' of ''arts'', the seat of commerce.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[shrubbery|SHRUB'BERY]], ''n''. Shrubs in general.

:“2. A [[plantation]] of shrubs.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[square|SQUARE]], ''n''. . .

:“2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.

:“The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large ''[[square]]'' of the town. ''Addison''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[statue|STAT'UE]], ''n''. [L. ''statua''; ''statuo'', to set; that which is set or fixed.]

:“An image; a solid substance formed by carving into the likeness of a whole living being; as a ''[[statue]]'' of Hercules or of a lion.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[summerhouse|SUM'MER-HOUSE]], ''n''. 1. A house or apartment in a garden to be used in summer. ''Pope, Watts''.

:“2. A house for summer’s residence.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

*“[[sundial|SUN'DIAL]], ''n''. [''sun'' and ''dial''], An instrument to show the time of day, by means of the shadow of a gnomon or style on a plate. ''Locke''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[temple|TEM'PLE]], ''n''. [Fr.; L. ''templum''; It. ''tempio''; Sp. ''templo''; W. ''temyl'', [[temple]], that is extended, a [[seat]]; ''temlu'', for form a [[seat]], expanse or [[temple]]; Gaelic, ''teampul''.]

:“1. A public edifice erected in honor of some deity. Among pagans, a building erected to some pretended deity, and in which the people assembled to worship.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“TREILLAGE, ''n. trel'lage''. [Fr. from ''treillis'', [[trellis]].]

:“In ''gardening'', a sort of rail-work, consisting of light posts and rails for supporting [[espalier]]s, and sometimes for [[wall]] trees. ''Cyc''. . .

:“[[trellis|TREL'LIS]], ''n''. [Fr. ''treillis'', grated work.] In ''gardening'', a structure or frame of cross-barred work, or lattice work, used like the treillage for supporting plants.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[urn|URN]] . . . A kind of [[vase]] of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''. . .

:“[[vase|VASE]], ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]

:“1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a ''[[vase]]'' for sacrifice, an [[urn]], &c.

:“2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.

:“3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-[[pot]]s, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.

:“4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[veranda|VERAN'DA]], ''n''. An oriental word denoting a kind of open [[portico]], formed by extending a sloping roof beyond the main building. ''Todd''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[view|VIEW]], ''n. vu''. [[Prospect]]; sight; reach of the eye. . .

:“2. The whole extent seen. . .

:“3. Sight; power of seeing, or limit of sight. . .

:“4. Intellectual or mental sight. . . .

:“5. Act of seeing. . .

:“6. Sight; eye. . .

:“7. Survey; inspection; . . .

:“9. Appearance; show. . .

:“10. Display; . . .

:“11. [[Prospect]] of interest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“GRAV'EL-[[walk|WALK]], ''n''. A [[walk]] or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall|malls]]''. . .

:“WALK, ''n. wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.

:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning ''walk''; an evening ''walk''. ''Pope''.

:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long ''[[walk]]''; a short ''[[walk]]''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant ''[[walk|walks]]''.

:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wall|WALL]], ''n''. [L. ''vallum''; Sax. ''weal''; D. ''wal''; Ir. Gaelic, ''balla'' and ''fal''; Russ. ''val''; W. ''gwal''. In L. ''vallus'' is a stake or post, and probably ''vallum'' was originally a [[fence]] of stakes, a palisade or stockade; the first rude fortification of uncivilized men. The primary sense of ''vallus'' is a shoot, or that which is set, and the latter may be the sense of ''[[wall]]'', whether it is from ''vallus'', or from some other root.].

:“1. A work or structure of stone, brick or other materials, raised to some highth [''sic''], and intended for a defense or security. ''[[Wall]]s'' of stone, with or without cement, are much used in America for [[fence]]s on farms; ''[[wall]]s'' are laid as the foundation of houses and the security of cellars. ''[[Wall]]s'' of stone or brick from the exterior of buildings, and they are often raised round cities and forts as a defense against enemies.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[waterfall|WATERFALL]], ''n''. [''water'' and ''fall''.] A fall or perpendicular descent of the water of a river or stream, or a descent nearly perpendicular; a [[cascade]]; a [[cataract]]. But the word is generally used of the fall of a small river or rivulet. It is particularly used to express a [[cascade]] in a garden, or an artificial descent of water, designed as an ornament. ''Cyc''.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wilderness|WIL'DERNESS]], ''n.'' [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the ''[[wilderness]]'' forty years.

:“2. The ocean. . .

:“3. A state of disorder. . .

:“4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[wood|WOOD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''wuda'', ''wudu''; D. ''woud''; W. ''gwyz''.]

:“1. A large and thick collection of trees; a forest.”

*1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (2: n.p.)

:“[[yard|YARD]], ''n''. [Sax. ''geard, gerd, gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . . .

:“2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The [[yard]] in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-[[yard]]''. In the United States, a small [[yard]] is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-[[yard]]'', or ''cow-[[yard]]''.”

<br />

===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>'''

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 32)

:“[[alcove|AL'COVE]], AL-COVE, n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to [[arch]], to construct with an [[arch]], and its derivatives, an [[arch]], a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .

:“3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.

:“4. A recess in a [[grove]].”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 65)

:“[[arboretum|ARBORETUM]], ''n''. A place in a park, nursery, &C, in which a collection of trees, consisting of one of each kind, is cultivated. ''Brande''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 363)

:“[[dovecote|DOVE'-COT]], (duv’-kot,) ''n''. A small building or box, raised to a considerable hight [''sic''] above the ground, in which domestic pigeons breed.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language . . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 776)

:“[[orangery|OR'AN-GER-Y]], ''n''. [Fr. ''orangerie''.]

:“A place for raising oranges; a [[plantation]] of orange-trees.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 806)

:“[[pavilion|PAVILION]], ''n. pavil'yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a [[pavilion]]. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]

:“1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.

:“2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, . . . ''Gwilt''.

:“The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summerhouse|summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 824)

:“[[piazza|PIAZ'ZA]], ''n''. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id''.; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]

:“1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch|arches]] or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.

:“2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 848)

:“[[portico|POR'TI-CO]], ''n''. [It. ''portico''; L. ''porticus'', from ''porta'' or ''portus''.]

:“In ''architecture'', originally, a colonnade or covered ambulatory; but at present, a covered space, inclosed by [[column]]s at the entrance of a building. ''P. Cyc''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 961)

:“[[rockwork|ROCK'-WORK]], (-wurk,) ''n''. 1. Stones fixed in mortar in imitation of the asperities of rocks, forming a [[wall]].

:“2. In ''gardening'', a pile of stones or rocks, . . . for growing plants adapted for such a situation. ''P. Cyc''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 972)

:“[[rustic style|RUST'IC]], RUST'ICAL, ''a''. [L. ''rusticus'', from ''rus'', the country.]. . .

:“5. In ''architecture'', a term denoting a species of masonry, the joints of which are worked with grooves, or channels, to render them conspicuous. The surface of the work is sometimes left or purposely made rough, and sometimes even or smooth. ''Gloss. of Archit''.”

* 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language. . . Revised and Enlarged'' (p. 1139)

:“[[terrace|TER'RACE]], ''n''. [Fr. ''terrasse''; It. ''terrazzo''; Sp. ''terrado''; from L. ''terra'', the earth.]

:“1. A raised level space or platform of earth, supported on one or more sides by a [[wall]] or bank of turf, &c., used either for cultivation or for a [[promenade]].

:“2. A balcony or open gallery. ''Johnson''.

:“3. The flat roof of a house.”

<br />

===''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850)===
'''Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850)<ref name="Webster_1850">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>'''

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 252)

:“[[conservatory|CON-SERV'A-TO-RY]], ''n''. A place for preserving any thing in a state desired, as from loss, decay, waste, or injury. . .

:“2. A [[greenhouse]] for exotics, often attached to a dwelling-house as an ornament. In large ''[[conservatory|conservatories]]'', properly so called, the plants are reared on the free soil, and not in pots. ''Brande''.”

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 409)

:“[[espalier|ES-PAL'IER]], (es-pal’yer,) ''n''. [Fr. ''espalier''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.]

:“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in [[hedge]]s, so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close [[hedge]] or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.

:“2. A lattice-work of wood, on which to train fruit-trees and ornamental shrubs. ''Brande''.”

* 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 1239)

:“[[vista|VIS'TA]], ''n''. [It., ''sight''; from L. ''visus, video''.]

:“A [[view]] or [[prospect]] through an [[avenue]], as between rows of trees; hence, the trees or other things that form the [[avenue]].

:“The finished garden to the [[view]]

:“Its ''[[vista|vistas]]'' opens and its [[alley]]s green. ''Thomson''.”

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[https://noahwebsterhouse.org/noahwebsterhistory/ Noah Webster House and West Hartford Historical Society]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2189.jpg|Samuel Finley Breese Morse, ''Portrait of Noah Webster'', [1823].

File:2285.jpg|James Herring, Noah Webster, 1833.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Webster, Noah]]

Virgil Warder

2021-10-05T21:32:36Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=1713
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=1793
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=After
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Roles=Gardener
|Keywords=Arbor; Greenhouse; Grove; Labyrinth; Parterre; Seat; Walk; Wilderness
}}
'''Virgil Warder''' (1713–after 1793) was an enslaved African American who served for many years as gardener at [[Springettsbury]], the Penn family estate on the outskirts of Philadelphia.

==History==
Virgil Warder spent his early life at Grove Place, a plantation in Falls Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, owned by Joseph Warder (d. 1775).<ref>For information on Grove Place and the Warder family, see John Woolf Jordan, ed., ''Colonial Families of Philadelphia'', 2 vols. (New York: Lewis Publishing Company, 1911), 2:1405–06, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VSVCX46V view on Zotero].</ref> He was about twenty years old when Joseph Warder sold him to Thomas Penn (1702–1775), a fellow Quaker, on January 26, 1734.<ref>Bill of sale of the negro “Virgill” from Joseph Warder to Thomas Penn, January 26, 1734, in Charles M. Andrews and Frances G. Davenport, ''Guide to the Manuscript Materials for the History of the United States to 1783 in the British Museum, in Minor London Archives, and in the Libraries of Oxford and Cambridge'' (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington, 1908), 358, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G4WECQS2 view on Zotero]; G. M. Justice, May 4, 1844, “Wm. Penn—Not a Slaveholder at the Time of his Death,” ''Living Age'' 8 (1846): 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MU9NKQD6 view on Zotero]; Jordan 1911, 2:1405–06, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3kc2AQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false view on Zotero].</ref> Penn had arrived in Pennsylvania from England two years earlier in order to assume the role of Proprietor. Warder is variously described as his “house servant” and “body servant” or valet. According to the Philadelphia brewer and revolutionary leader Timothy Matlack (1736–1829), Warder also worked as a laborer under the charge of Penn’s gardener, James Alexander (d. 1778), most likely after Penn’s return to England in 1741. Although Matlack locates Warder and Alexander at Pennsbury, the Penn family’s plantation in Morrisville, contemporary sources make clear that Warder actually worked at [[Springettsbury]], the suburban estate on the outskirts of Philadelphia, established in the 1680s by Pennsylvania’s original Proprietor William Penn.<ref>For errors made by Matlack and others in their accounts of Virgil Warder, see: J. R. T., “Appendix.—Referred to in a Preceding Column,” ''Friend'' 18 (1845): 155, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZNJ9E63 view on Zotero]; Justice 1846, 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MU9NKQD6 view on Zotero]; William Watts Hart Davis, ''The History of Bucks County, Pennsylvania: From the Discovery of the Delaware to the Present Time'' (Doylestown, PA: Democrat Book and Job Office Print, 1876), 182, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E32THG7X view on Zotero].</ref>

Traces of Warder’s agricultural activities survive in a bill issued to Thomas Penn on April 7, 1752, for “a scythe for Virgil’s use” and “2 whetstones for d[itt]o.”<ref>In addition, on August 22, 1766, Penn was charged for Warden’s public whipping (“Wiping at Publick Post”) and board for three days in jail; Justice 1846, 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MU9NKQD6 view on Zotero]. </ref> Following James Alexander’s death in 1778, Warder assumed his responsibilities, taking charge of the garden and [[greenhouse]]. <span id="White_cite"></span>He became a well-known fixture of the place, conducting visitors through the gardens and [[greenhouse]]. Both [[Deborah Norris Logan]] and Elizabeth Drinker recalled the “curious aloe,” originally planted by James Alexander and subsequently cultivated by Warder. When it finally bloomed in August 1778, Warder was besieged by curious crowds from Philadelphia who came to see it ([[#White|view text]]).<ref>Elizabeth Drinker, ''Extracts from the Journal of Elizabeth Drinker, from 1759 to 1807 A.D.'', ed. Henry D. Biddle (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1889), 109, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5S3QMIAX view on Zotero].</ref>

Warder was named in the will of Deborah Morris (1724–1793), a daughter of the wealthy Quaker brewer and politician Anthony Morris (1682–1763) and the owner of extensive property in her own right. In her will, dated March 16, 1793, Morris directed her executors to sell “my lot of ground in Seventh Street in the said city [Philadelphia], now in the tenure of Virgil Warder a blackman.”<ref>Robert C. Moon, ''The Morris Family of Philadelphia, Descendants of Anthony Morris, 1654–1721'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Robert C. Moon, M. D., 1898), 1:287, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QNZ4VG4N view on Zotero].</ref> Although the extent of Warder’s relationship with Morris is unknown, her will indicates that she shared his interest in ancient Philadelphia gardens, and that she was highly sympathetic to the plight of enslaved African Americans. The ancestral Philadelphia mansion in which she lived had been erected around 1686 by her grandfather in Mulberry Court, which backed up to the lot on Seventh Street occupied by Warder. The house featured a garden that Morris went to extraordinary lengths to protect in perpetuity through the terms of her will.<ref>“The owner of the several messuages and lots, in this clause mentioned, shall not build nor suffer any building to be erected in the garden spot, on the south end of my said dwelling-house, nor open, nor permit, or suffer to be opened, if they can in any wise prevent it, an alley through the court, in which my said dwelling-house is situated. . . I do declare this devise and several successive estates hereby limited and created to be subject to the same conditions, as to building on the garden lot, or opening the alley as area in the last preceding devise expressed. . . Being desirous that the Court in which I now dwell, shall be kept open for the health, and convenience of the inhabitants, I direct that the garden lots herein before mentioned shall be always left open, and unbuilt on, and that the lot on which my store room lately stood, shall be left open for public use, as part of the said Court, and to enlarge the way therein.” See Moon 1898, 1:290–94, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QNZ4VG4N view on Zotero].</ref> Morris’s will also made provisions for four annuities to benefit the Society of Friends’ Free Negro School in Philadelphia. Toward the end of the document, she articulated the sense of injustice that motivated her generosity: “And before I conclude my will, I feel it necessary to mention that I hope none of my dear relatives will think my donations in favor of the free negro school too large, as it appears to me to be a debt due to the posterity of those whom our predecessors kept in bondage.”<ref>Moon 1898, 1:296, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QNZ4VG4N view on Zotero].</ref>

As a result of his longevity—already approximately eighty years old at the time he was mentioned in Deborah Morris’s will—and his long period of service at [[Springettsbury]], one of Philadelphia’s oldest estates, Warder was viewed as a living historic relic by younger generations of Philadelphians. His wife, Susannah (1701–1809), the daughter of a cook at Pennsbury, was even more celebrated for her longevity than her husband. When she died at the extraordinary age of 109, her obituary appeared in numerous American and British newspapers and journals.<ref>“Obituary, with Anecdotes, of Remarkable Persons,” ''Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Review'' 79 (1809): 885, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CS6ZZV4B view on Zotero]; “Deaths Abroad,” ''Monthly Magazine'' 28 (1809): 546, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M3TC27N3 view on Zotero]; “Deaths,” ''Scots Magazine'' 71 (1809): 216, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2WWCH7I3 view on Zotero]; “Deaths Abroad,” ''European Magazine and London Review'' 56 (1809): 237, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FPGZGU6G view on Zotero]; ''Maryland Gazette'', July 19, 1809, in Robert Barnes, ''Marriages and Deaths from the Maryland Gazette, 1727–1839'' (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co, 1973), 191,[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CS3SCJEQ view on Zotero]. See also Thomas Bailey, ''Records of Longevity, with an Introductory Discourse on Vital Statistics'' (London: Darton & Co., 1857), 389, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT59UUNB view on Zotero].</ref> In recognition of their many years of faithful service, both Warders reportedly received an annuity from the Penn family. It is unclear whether they also received their freedom.<ref>George A. Martin, “Biographical Notes from the ‘Maryland Gazette,’ 1800–1810,” ''Maryland Historical Magazine'' 42 (September 1947): 177, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WBUFUI7H view on Zotero]; Justice 1846, 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MU9NKQD6 view on Zotero]; John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the. . . Inland Part of Pennsylvania from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Penington, 1844), 2:479, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W893QT6D view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Obituary of Susanna Warder, July 7, 1809, ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser'': 3<ref>Obituary of Susanna Warder, ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser'' [Philadelphia] (July 7, 1809), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6GEHTWF7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“DIED, on the 30th of last month, in the hundred and ninth year of her age, Susanna Warder, formerly the wife of Virgil Warder, who was one of the house servants of William Penn [''sic''], proprietor of Pennsylvania.

:“This aged black woman, (a daughter of one of his cooks) was born at his mansion house in Pennsbury Manor, in March 1701, being the same year in which he left the province on his return to England.

:“At that time, Philadelphia, now the largest city in the United States, was a [[wilderness]], the inhabitants of which were chiefly Indians, of the Delaware and other tribes.

:“Susanna was tall and streight in her person, graceful in all her deportments, agreeable in her manners, and temperate in her speech and mode of living.

:“Her memory was good, and her sight, which improved towards the close of her life, remarkably clear; but of late time she became hard of hearing.

:“The Penn family, respecting her faithful services in the time of her youth, allowed an annual sum to support her comfortably, when she was not able to work, to the end of her days.”

*Matlack, Timothy, January 11, 1817, letter to William Findley (Pickering 1826: 185)<ref>Timothy Pickering, “Letters on the Origin and Progress of Attempts for the Abolition of Slavery in Pennsylvania,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 8, 2nd series (1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G5KG6DQ6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Penn left a family of slaves behind him; one of which I have often conversed with, and he always spoke of himself as Penn’s body servant: He lived to extreme old age, and continued a gardener at Pennsbury-house [''sic''], near this city, comfortably provided for to the last of his days.”

* <div id="White"></div>[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], October 10, 1826, diary entry (quoted in White 2008: 19)<ref>Sharon White, ''Vanished Gardens: Finding Nature in Philadelphia'' (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/22U3PGWS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Gardens of [[Springettsbury|Springetsbury]] were in full beauty in my youth, and were really very agreeable after the old fashion, with [[Parterre]]s, Gravelled [[Walk]]s, a [[Labyrinth]] of Horn-beam and a little [[wilderness]] — And the [[greenhouse|Green house]], under the Superintendence of Old Virgil the Gardener, produced a flowering Aloe which almost half the town went to see, produced a comfortable Revenue to the old man — Soon after the house was burned down by accident; and now quantities of the yellow Blossoms of Broom in spring time mark the place. . . ‘where once the garden smiled.’” [[#White_cite|back up to History]]

* Watson, John Fanning, 1830, ''Annals of Philadelphia'' (1830: 534)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia, Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants from the Days of the Pilgrim Fathers'' (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart and G. & C. & H. Carvill, 1830), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4PTREQIN view on Zotero]. This account by Watson contains several errors. William Penn is confused with Thomas Penn and the death dates of both Warders is incorrect.</ref>

:“There were black people, whose surname was Warder. They had been house servants of William Penn [''sic''], and because of their great age were provided for by the Penn family, living in the kitchen part of the house at [[Springettsbury|Springetsbury]]. Virgil was probably upwards of 100 years of age when he died. His wife died in 1782; and there is something concerning both of them to be seen published in Bradford’s Gazette of that time. The aged Timothy Matlack told me he remembered talking with Virgil often about the year 1745, and that he was then quite grey headed, but very active. When Matlack saw him there he was under charge of James Alexander, the gardener.”

* Watson, John Fanning, 1844, ''Annals of Philadelphia'' (1844: 2:478–79)<ref>Watson 1844, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W893QT6D view on Zotero]. Watson’s account contains several erroneous dates.</ref>

:“''[[Springettsbury|Springettsberry]]'' . . . was once cultivated in the style of a gentleman’s [[seat]], and occupied by the Penn family. . . .

:“Celebrated as it was, for its display and beauty, now almost nothing remains. . . Its former [[grove]]s of tall cedars, and ranges of catalpa trees are no more. For many years the Penn family continued to have the place kept up in appearance, even after they ceased to make it a residence. James Alexander, called Penn’s gardener, occupied the premises; and old Virgil Warder, and his wife, servant—blacks, lived there to an old age, occupying the kitchen as their home, on an annuity (as it was said) from the Penn family—paid to them till their deaths, about the year 1782–83. For many years, the young people of the city—before the war of Independence, visited [[Springettsbury|Springettsberry]] in May time, to gather flowers, and to talk with and see old gray-headed Virgil, who had always much to say about the Penns of former days. It was all enchanted ground to the young— . . .

:“In the year 1777 [''sic''], old Virgil had quite a harvest, derived from the blooming there—a great wonder then—of the great American aloe, which had long been nursed in the [[greenhouse|green-house]]. It was visited by many—and all had their gifts ready for the old black man.

:“The garden had evergreens, made into [[arbor|arbours]], and nicely trimmed and clipped in formal array. There was also a seeming [[wilderness]] of shade, with gravel paths meandering through, &c.”

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Warder, Virgil]]

Samuel Vaughan

2021-10-05T21:31:02Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=April 23, 1720
|Birth Circa=No
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|Keywords=Alley; Avenue; Bed; Clump; Fence; Grove; Hothouse; Kitchen garden; Lawn; Mall; Mound; Seat; Shrubbery; Square; View/Vista; Walk; Wall; Yard
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n78053741.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Name Authority File
}}
}}
'''Samuel Vaughan''' (April 23, 1720–1802) was a London merchant and owner of sugar [[plantation]]s in Jamaica. An ardent supporter of the cause of American independence, Vaughan contributed to the development of several important American sites and institutions, including the [[State House Yard]] and the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, where he also designed the popular [[pleasure ground]] known as [[Gray’s Garden]].

==History==
[[File:2295.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Robert Edge Pine, ''Portrait of Samuel Vaughan'', 1785-87.]]
During the 1740s Samuel Vaughan established extensive commercial enterprises in London, the West Indies, and the American colonies. He purchased large quantities of land and slaves in the vicinity of Montego Bay in Jamaica, where he established lucrative sugar [[plantation]]s.<ref>Alan Taylor, ''Liberty Men and Great Proprietors: The Revolutionary Settlement on the Maine Frontier, 1760–1820'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R76N7T3F view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan strengthened his ties to America through marriage in 1747 to Sarah Hallowell (1727–1809), daughter of the wealthy Boston merchant, shipbuilder, and landowner Benjamin Hallowell.<ref>Emma Huntington Nason, ''Old Hallowell on the Kennebec'' (Augusta, ME: Press of Burleigh & Flynt, 1909), 74–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; ''Biographical Sketches of Representative Citizens of the State of Maine, American Series of Popular Biographies—Maine Edition'' (Boston: New England Historical Publishing Company, 1903), 167, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X4E8FE95 view on Zotero]. </ref> Unlike his loyalist father-in-law, Vaughan was a passionate advocate of American liberty and a great admirer of George Washington. In London he was a member of the “Club of Honest Whigs”—a liberal coterie of intellectuals and religious dissenters (several of them, like Vaughan, were Unitarians) who met to discuss science, philosophy, and social and political reform.<ref>Verner W. Crane, “The Club of Honest Whigs: Friends of Science and Liberty,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 23 (April 1966): 220–21, 228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D99WNVM2 view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part I,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (March 1961): 52–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INBHGC5M view on Zotero].</ref> At his home in the English village of Wanstead, Vaughan hosted visiting American patriots such as Benjamin Franklin, who became an intimate family friend, and Josiah Quincy Jr., to whom Franklin introduced Vaughan in 1774.<ref>Josiah Quincy, ''Memoir of the Life of Josiah Quincy, Junior, of Massachusetts Bay: 1744–1775'', ed. Eliza Susan Quincy (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1875), 204, 214, 242, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/247JWVJA view on Zotero].</ref> It was possibly at Wanstead that Vaughan developed the knowledge of [[landscape gardening]] that he later brought to America. Nearby Wanstead House—a magnificent Palladian residence designed by Colen Campbell—was among the first in England to have its existing formal gardens renovated (c. 1725–71) in the Romantic, [[natural style|naturalistic mode]] that became known as the [[English style]]. Thousands of shrubs and trees were added to the [[park]], along with architectural accents (such as a boathouse-[[grotto]] on the man-made [[lake]] and an ornamental [[temple]] that also functioned as a poultry house and keeper’s lodge).<ref>Sally Jeffery, “The Gardens of Wanstead,” in ''Proceedings of a Study Day held at the Temple, Wanstead Park, Greater London, September 25, 1999'', ed. Katherine Myers (London: London Historic Parks and Gardens Trust, 2003), 24–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQK9H3S5 view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan would include similar garden features in the landscape projects he later oversaw in Philadelphia.

Within months of the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War, Vaughan relocated his family to Philadelphia where, in December 1783, he met and initiated an enduring friendship with his hero, George Washington, to whom he was introduced by Benjamin Rush.<ref>Anna Coxe Toogood, ''Independence Square, Volume 1: Historical Narrative'' (Independence Historical National Park: National Park Service, 2004), 74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Craig Compton Murray, “Benjamin Vaughan (1751–1835): The Life of an Anglo-American Intellectual” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1989), 200, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Sarah P. Stetson, “The Philadelphia Sojourn of Samuel Vaughan,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 73 (1949): 461, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan took particular interest in the architecture, grounds, and interior decoration of [[Mount Vernon]], advising Washington on fashionable English trends, offering to supply skilled workmen, and sending gifts such as an English fireplace mantel carved with rustic subjects.<ref>George Washington to Samuel Vaughan, June 20, 1784, ''The Papers of George Washington'', Confederation Series, ed. William Wright Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 1:466, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G2R8EXJI view on Zotero]; see also 1:45–46, 273–74; 2:326; 4:384; Robert F. Dalzell and Lee Baldwin Dalzell, ''George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 112–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7JPVJBPP view on Zotero]; Joseph Manca, ''George Washington’s Eye: Landscape, Architecture, and Design at Mount Vernon'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 9, 22, 25, 171, 173–74, 194, 198, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GUDJUIC7 view o Zotero]; “Samuel Vaughan and George Washington,” [http://mountvernonnewroom.tumblr.com/post/523869841n17/samuel-vaughan-and-george-washington Mount Vernon website].</ref> Vaughan also became a driving force within Philadelphia’s intellectual, civic, and scientific communities. By January 1784 he had engaged a workman to implement his ambitious plan to landscape the [[State House Yard]] (an open [[green]] at the center of State House [[Square]]) as a [[public garden]].<ref>Toogood 2004, 72, 82–83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; John C. Greene, “The Development of Mineralogy in Philadelphia, 1780–1820,” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 113 (August 1969): 283–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2AQBVPGS view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 464–65, 469, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> He joined the American Philosophical Society in the same month, and assumed responsibility for planning Philosophical Hall, the Society’s new headquarters on the grounds of the [[State House Yard]]. In a letter of March 8, 1784, Vaughan assured the Society’s founder, Benjamin Franklin, that the building would “be sufficiently ornamental not to interfere materially with the views of making a publick [[walk]].”<ref>Vaughan quoted in Toogood 2004, 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; see also 82–83; Greene 1969, 290, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2AQBVPGS view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 464–65, 469, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan initially envisioned the [[State House Yard]] as a national [[arboretum]], with “a specimen of every sort of [tree and shrub] in America that will grow in this state.”<ref>Quotation from Samuel Vaughan to Humphry Marshall, May 14, 1785, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” USDA History Collection 7, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SB7UVI3N view on Zotero]. See also Toogood 2004, 86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan purchased many of these specimens from John and [[William Bartram]], and also consulted the Bartrams’ cousin [[Humphry Marshall]]. His high regard for [[Humphry Marshall|Marshall’s]] efforts to document the “original botanical information of the New World,” led Vaughan in May 1785 to solicit support from the American Philosophical Society (of which he was now a vice-president) and the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture (which he had co-founded a few months earlier). When those efforts failed, he personally supervised and financed publication of [[Humphry Marshall|Marshall’s]] manuscript, ''Arbustrum [sic] Americanum'' (1785), and even translated Latin terms for the English language index.<ref>Quotation from Samuel Vaughan to Humphry Marshall, April 30, 1785, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZHJJ4VVD view on Zotero]. See also Toogood 2004, 82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Joseph Ewan, “Philadelphia Heritage: Plants and People,” in ''America’s Garden Legacy: A Taste for Pleasure'', ed. George H. M. Lawrence (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1978), 28 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8PS285CI view on Zotero]; Stetson, 1949, 469–470, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref>

Although Vaughan ultimately scaled back his encyclopedic plan for landscaping the [[State House Yard]], he nevertheless assembled a great number and variety of specimens, which he laid out in accordance with the naturalistic conventions of the [[English style]]. In addition to receiving accolades for his good taste and generosity in developing the [[State House Yard]], Vaughan was praised for his signal contributions to the American Philosophical Society. In a letter of August 2, 1786, Benjamin Rush observed, “He [Vaughan] has been the principal cause of the resurrection of our Philosophical Society. He has even done more, he has laid the foundation of a philosophical hall which will preserve his name and the name of his family among us for many, many years to come.”<ref> William E. Lingelbach, “Philosophical Hall: The Home of the American Philosophical Society,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 43 (1953): 49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E5XJR6BI view on Zotero].</ref> Less well known was Vaughan’s responsibility for the fashionable [[pleasure garden]] recently opened at [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Tavern]] on the [[Schuylkill River]]. With the aid of an English gardener and a team of laborers, Vaughan had transformed the steep, wooded grounds into a romantic [[park]] known as [[Gray’s Garden]]. A maze of paths meandered through informal plantings of flowers and shrubs, and featured [[picturesque]] [[view]]s of fanciful garden structures such as [[grotto|grottoes]], [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] [[bridge]]s, and a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[hermitage]] that functioned as a [[bathhouse]].<ref>Toogood 2004, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 467–68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero]; Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: 275–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1110.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Samuel Vaughan, Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787.]]
Despite his many occupations in Philadelphia, Vaughan traveled frequently to Boston and visited other regions of the United States. In July 1786 he and [[Manasseh Cutler]] began preparations for a trip to the White Mountains, where they intended to study native flora, fauna, and minerals (Vaughan’s pet subject), aided by scientific instruments that Vaughan had imported from Europe.<ref>Cutler 1888, 2:247, 271, 281, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1787 Vaughan hosted two dinners for George Washington while the president was in Philadelphia for the Federal Convention, and then set off on a 1400-mile journey to [[Mount Vernon]]. During his trip, Vaughan kept a journal in which he detailed the sites and natural phenomena he encountered while traveling through Pittsburgh (celebrating the 4th of July at Fort Pitt), [[Berkeley Springs]], Williamsburg, and other towns.<ref>Williams, March 1961, 53, 56–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INBHGC5M view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part II, From Carlisle to Pittsburgh,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (June 1961): 160–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GDP5IR2D view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part III. From Pittsburgh to Fort Cumberland Thence to Mount Vernon,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (September 1961): 261–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G4TTHJVB view on Zotero].</ref> At [[Mount Vernon]] Vaughan made notes on the mansion and grounds and completed a sketch [Fig. 2], from which he later produced two more detailed versions, one of which he sent as a gift to Washington.<ref>Williams, June 1961, 273–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GDP5IR2D view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1790 Vaughan took his final leave of America and returned to England. Just prior to his departure, he formally requested that [[William Bartram]]—rather than an English gardener—be entrusted with maintaining the shrubs and trees at the [[State House Yard]], asserting: “He is fully competent to the business, which I conceive not to be the case of the English Gardiner proposed, who not being acquainted with the productions of this Country & who hath neither ability to judge or means to procure the variety necessary to supply those destroyed or dead.”<ref>Stetson 1949, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> From the other side of the Atlantic, Vaughan continued to exchange scientific information and specimens with [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler]], Washington, and other American friends. He also supervised the development of property inherited from his father-in-law, Benjamin Hallowell, in the town of [[Hallowell, Maine]]. As early as 1784, he had sought to establish a Unitarian community there and he continued to promote the spiritual, agricultural, and mercantile growth of the town through family members who became residents—most notably his son [[Benjamin Vaughan|Benjamin]], who developed a noted garden while advancing the pioneering horticultural work that had become a family tradition.<ref>Taylor 1990, 34–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R76N7T3F view on Zotero]; Murray 1989, 204, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Nason 1909, 50–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; George Willis Cooke, ''Unitarianism in America: A History of Its Origin and Development'' (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1902), 77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7MMW5NPJ view on Zotero]; John H. Sheppard, ''Reminiscences of the Vaughan Family, and More Particularly of Benjamin Vaughan, LL.D.'' (Boston: David Clapp & Son, 1865), 5–6, 12–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Vaughan, Samuel, May 28, 1785, in a letter to [[Humphry Marshall]]<ref>Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, 1785), USDA History Collection, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4N9E2PIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As it is my wish to plant in the [[State House Yard|State house square]] specimens of every tree & shrub that grow in the several states on this Continent that will thrive here, I have enclosed a sketch of such others as I have been able to procure since the 7th of last month, with a list of such others as have occurred to me hitherto, but as I am unacquainted with the vast variety remaining & that you have turned your thoughts in that line, I have to request, & shall be much obliged to you for a list of such as occur to you, with directions in what state or place they are to be had; that I may lay out to procure them to plant in the fall.”

*Hunter, Robert, October, 1785, describing the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in 1943: 169)<ref>Robert Hunter, ''Quebec to Carolina in 1785–1786: Being the Travel Diary and Observations of Robert Hunter, Jr., a Young Merchant of London'', ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1943), 169, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EDP6T3ER view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The state-house is infinitely beyond anything I have either seen in New York or Boston, and the [[walk]] before it does infinite honor to Mr. Vaughan’s taste and ingenuity in laying it out.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in 1888: 1:262–63)<ref>Cutler 1888, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As you enter the [[Mall]] through the State House, which is the only [[avenue]] to it, it appears to be nothing more than a large inner Court-[[yard]] to the State House, ornamented with trees and [[walk]]s. But here is a fine display of rural fancy and elegance. It was so lately laid out in its present form that it has not assumed that air of grandeur which time will give it. The trees are yet small, but most judiciously arranged. The artificial [[mound]]s of earth, and depressions, and small [[grove]]s in the [[square]]s have a most delightful effect. The numerous [[walk]]s are well graveled and rolled hard ; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s 'Line of Beauty' is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of Mr. Sam'l Vaughan, Esq., for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago. The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board [[fence]] that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up. On one part the Philosophical Society are erecting a large building for holding their meetings and depositing their Library and Cabinet. This building is begun, and, on another part, a County Court-house is now going up. But, after all the beauty and elegance of this public [[walk]], there is one circumstance that must forever be disgusting and must greatly diminish the pleasure and amusement which these [[walk]]s would otherwise afford. At the foot of the [[Mall]], and opposite to the Court-house, is the Prison, fronting directly to the [[Mall]].

*Vaughan, Samuel, July 1787, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in 1961: 273)<ref>Vaughan 1961, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G4TTHJVB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Before the front of the house. . . there are [[lawn]]s, surrounded with gravel [[walk]]s 19 feet wide. with trees on each side the larger, for shade. outside the [[walk]]s trees & [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. Parralel [''sic''] to each exterior side a [[Kitchen Garden]]s. with a stately [[hothouse|hot house]] on one side. the exteriour side of the garden inclosed with a brick [[wall]].”

*Anonymous, July 1787, “Account of the State-House of Pennsylvania” (''Columbian Magazine'' 1: 513)<ref>Anonymous, “Account of the State-House of Pennsylvania,” ''Columbian Magazine'', 1, no. 11 (July 1787): 513, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZDHUSQJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[State House Yard|state-house yard]] has been highly improved by the exertions of Mr. Samuel Vaughan, and affords two gravel [[walk]]s, shaded with trees, a pleasant [[lawn]], and several [[bed]]s of shrubs and flowers.”

*Anonymous [“B.”], January 1790, “Explanation of the Plate, exhibiting a View of several Public Buildings in the City of Philadelphia” (''Columbian Magazine'' 4: 25–26)<ref>Anonymous [“B.”], “Explanation of the Plate, exhibiting a View of several Public Buildings in the City of Philadelphia,” ''Columbian Magazine'' 4, no. 1 (January 1790): 25–26, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7TF4THJP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[State House Yard|State-house square]]... is inclosed [''sic''], on three sides, by a brick [[wall]].... This area has, of late, been judiciously improved, under the direction of Samuel Vaughan, Esq. It consists of a beautiful [[lawn]], interspersed with little knobs or tufts of flowering shrubs, and [[clump]]s of trees, well disposed. Through the middle of the gardens, runs a spacious gravel-[[walk]] lined with double rows of thriving elms, and communicating with serpentine [[walk]]s which encompass the whole area. These surrounding [[walk]]s are not uniformly on a level with the [[lawn]]; the margin of which, being in some parts a little higher, forms a bank, which, in fine weather, affords pleasant [[seat]]s. When the trees attain to a larger size, it will be proper to place a few benches under them, in different situations, for the accommodation of persons frequenting the [[walk]]s.

:“These gardens will soon, if properly attended to, be in a condition to admit of our citizens indulging themselves, agreeably, in the salutary exercise of walking. The grounds, though not so extensive as might be wished, are sufficiently large to accommodate very considerable numbers: the objects within [[view]] are pleasing; and the situation is open and healthy. If the ladies, in particular, would occasionally recreate themselves with a few turns in these [[walk]]s, they would find the practice attended with real advantages.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2295.jpg|Robert Edge Pine, ''Portrait of Samuel Vaughan'', 1785-87.

Image:1110.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787.

Image:0069.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

Image:0461.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of Bath [[Berkeley Springs|[Berkeley Springs]]], Virginia, 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.

Image:0462.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, “Warm or [[Berkeley Springs]] in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://tclf.org/pioneer/samuel-vaughan/biography-samuel-vaughan The Cultural Landscape Foundation]

[http://www.masshist.org/findingaids/doc.cfm?fa=fa0040 The Massachusetts Historical Society]

[http://archon.wmlibraries.com:8080/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=6972 Samuel Vaughan Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Swem Library, College of William and Mary]

[http://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0040 Vaughan family papers, Massachusetts Historical Society]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaughan, Samuel}}

Benjamin Vaughan

2021-10-05T21:27:22Z

M-westerby:

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|Keywords=Eminence; Nursery; Piazza; Plantation; Prospect; View/Vista
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'''Benjamin Vaughan''' (April 19, 1751–December 8, 1835) was an agriculturalist, physician, politician, and merchant. He is chiefly known for fostering diplomatic relations and cooperation in matters of science between Britain and America, and for creating a noteworthy landscape at his estate in the town of [[Hallowell, Maine]].

==History==
[[File:2289.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Dr. Benjamin Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1800.]]
Born in Jamaica where his father, the British merchant and planter [[Samuel Vaughan]] owned two large [[plantation]]s, Benjamin Vaughan was educated in Britain and pursued degrees in law and medicine at Cambridge and the University of Edinburgh. He gravitated toward a group of radical thinkers (among them Sir Joseph Banks, Joseph Priestly, and Jeremy Bentham) who shared his unorthodox views on religion, politics, and science.<ref>Andrew J. Hamilton, “Atlantic Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism: Benjamin Vaughan and the Limits of Free Trade in the Eighteenth Century” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2004), 91–127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R68AI8KM view on Zotero]; Craig Compton Murray, “Benjamin Vaughan (1751–1835): The Life of an Anglo-American Intellectual” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1989), 209, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan was sympathetic to the cause of American independence and sought out prominent Americans in London, including [[Thomas Jefferson]], Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and William Bingham. At the outset of the Revolutionary War, he began editing Franklin’s writings (published in 1779 as ''Political, Miscellaneous, and Philosophical Pieces''), and he was instrumental in convincing Franklin to publish an autobiography.<ref>Peter Stallybrass, “Benjamin Franklin: Printed Corrections and Erasable Writing,” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 150 (December 2006): 563–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RD8VSH95 view on Zotero]; Benjamin Franklin, ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', ed. Barbara B. Oberg, 47 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 31:210–18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7JVNSB2H view on Zotero]; Ellen Cohn, “Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Vaughan, and Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical Pieces,” in ''Benjamin Franklin, An American Genius'', ed. Gianfranca Balestra and Luigi Sampietro (Rome: Bulzoni, 1993), 149–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6KCWUSQN view on Zotero]; see also Benjamin Vaughan to Benjamin Franklin, January 31, 1783, Paris, “The Electric Ben Franklin,” [http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/page35.html website].</ref> As private agent to the Earl of Shelburne (then British Prime Minister), Vaughan facilitated peace negotiations between Britain and America in 1782. He thereafter served as an important conduit for the flow of scientific information and materials between the two countries, sending books and scientific equipment to Ezra Stiles (then president of Yale University) and the American Philosophical Society (which elected him a member in 1786), and carrying out a lengthy correspondence focused on medical and scientific news with Benjamin Rush.<ref>Murray 1989, 206, 216, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

Vaughan had presumably been introduced to the subjects of botany and agricultural improvement by the naturalist John Reinhold Forster, who had been one of his teachers at the Warrington Academy in England. He conferred frequently on these topics with Sir Joseph Banks and with naturalists in the British West Indies.<ref>Murray 1989, 210, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref> He was actively engaged in the exchange of seeds between America, the West Indies, Britain, and France. During the 1780s and early 1790s, in addition to disseminating among his friends in England specimens from [[John Bartram|John Bartram's]] “list of American plants fit for this country,” he arranged for West Indian rice seeds to be sent to a number of his correspondents in Virginia—including [[Thomas Jefferson]] and George Washington—and South Carolina, including Henry Laurens and Charles C. Pinckney.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. Julian P. Boyd, 41+ vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961) 16: 274–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IQJ7XFNF view on Zotero]; Charlotte M. Porter, “Philadelphia Story: Florida Gives William Bartram a Second Chance,” ''Florida Historical Quarterly'' 71 (January 1993): 319–20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RC4D4TQA view on Zotero]; Murray 1989, 206–8, 216, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

Vaughan’s support of republicanism and his sympathy for the French Revolution placed him at odds with the British government. In 1794 he fled to France, taking refuge at the country estate of [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] brother-in-law, the American counsel-general, Henry Skipwith of Hors du Monde, Virginia.<ref>Robert Hallowell Gardiner, “Memoir of Benjamin Vaughan, M.D. and LL.D.,” ''Collections of the Maine Historical Society'' 6 (1859): 89, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMN44Z4M view on Zotero].</ref> Three years later, Vaughan immigrated to America with the intention of leading the exemplary life of “a peasant” in rural [[Hallowell, Maine]]. In addition to laying out extensive gardens, he developed a large portion of the property as a model farm, building [[greenhouse]]s and planting [[orchard]]s in order to experiment with the cultivation of a wide range of plant specimens: apple, pear, and stone-fruit scions imported from England; fig and grape cuttings that his brother John sent from France; potatoes imported from continental Europe; Swedish turnips; and Siberian wheat.<ref>Murray 1989, 384–85, 511, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref> He established a successful commercial [[nursery]] and employed an English mechanic to set up New England’s largest cider mill and press. Dr. Vaughan sought to overcome local resistance to his family’s practice of “book farming” by conducting information sessions at his farm and by generously sharing plant and seed specimens.<ref>Henry D. Kingsbury and Simeon L. Deyo, eds., ''Illustrated History of Kennebec County, Maine; 1625–1799–1892'', 2 vols. (New York: H. W. Blake & Company, 1892), 1:191, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SQ3CWD4P view on Zotero]; Samuel L. Boardman, “Appendix to Report on Kennebec County,” in ''Twelfth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture'' (Augusta, ME: Stevens & Sayward, Printers to the State, 1867), 220 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6R33CCIB view on Zotero].</ref>

As a conduit for the exchange of scientific information, Vaughan was as active in his remote Maine outpost as he had been in London, publishing articles on his agricultural experiences and penning letters to correspondents as far flung as [[David Hosack]] in New York, Benjamin Rush in Philadelphia, and David Ramsay in South Carolina.<ref> Murray 1989, 385, 519, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Kingsbury and Deyo, 1892, 1:191, 220, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SQ3CWD4P view on Zotero].</ref> In 1800 he published an “augmented” version of ''The Rural Socrates, or, An Account of a Celebrated Philosophical Farmer Lately Living in Switzerland and Known by the Name of Kliyogg'', which concerned a Swiss peasant who transformed a failing farm into a productive enterprise through attention to proper methods.<ref>Murray 1989, 386, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref> Over the course of his long friendship with Bowdoin College professor Parker Cleaveland (cousin of Nehemiah Cleaveland), Vaughan contributed scientific apparatus and collections to help promote study of the natural sciences at Bowdoin.<ref>John C. Green and John G. Burke, “The Science of Minerals in the Age of Jefferson,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 68 (1978): 78–79, 83, 89, 102, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/38A667QD view on Zotero].</ref> In 1805 he began campaigning to raise money for the establishment of a natural history professorship and experimental [[botanic garden]] at Harvard. By the time of his death, Vaughan had assembled one of the largest private libraries in New England, estimated at between 10,000 and 12,000 volumes, primarily imported from England and France.<ref>Murray 1989, 500, 503, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref> According to the [[Hallowell, Maine|Hallowell]] journalist Samuel Lane Boardman (1836–1914), Vaughan’s library contained “many rare and valuable English works on agriculture and rural economy not often met with in public libraries of this country.”<ref>Samuel L. Boardman, “A General View of the Agriculture and Industry of the County of Kennebec, with Notes upon Its History and Natural History,” in ''Tenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture'' (Augusta, ME: Stevens & Sayward, Printers to the State, 1865), 10: 137–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref> A number of these volumes, heavily marked with his annotations, formed part of the large donations Vaughan made to New England institutions, including Harvard University and Bowdoin College.<ref> Murray 1989, 502–3, 508–9, 527, 535, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Green and Burke 1978, 78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/38A667QD view on Zotero]; Emma Huntington Nason, ''Old Hallowell on the Kennebec'' (Augusta, ME: Press of Burleigh & Flynt, 1909), 86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; John H. Sheppard, ''Reminiscences of the Vaughan Family, and More Particularly of Benjamin Vaughan, LL.D.'' (Boston: David Clapp & Son, 1865), 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1807, describing Benjamin Vaughan’s estate in [[Hallowell, Maine|Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218–19)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W4USVF49 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A more romantic spot is not often found, than that on which stands the house of Mr. [Benjamin] V[aughan]. a descendant of Mr. Hallowell, from whom this town took its name; inheriting from him, it is said, a large landed estate in this country. He is a native of England; and has been heretofore a member of the British Parliament. His house stands on one of the elevated levels, mentioned above, where the hill, bends from its general Southern direction toward the West, and, forming an obtuse, circular point, furnishes a beautiful Southern, as well as Northern and Eastern, [[prospect]]. . . .

:“With this interesting family we spent the evening and the succeeding morning until 11 o’clock; and enjoyed in a high degree the combined pleasures of intelligence, politeness, and refinement. Mr. V. had proposed to carry us to a fine [[view]] of the country, furnished by a neighbouring [[eminence]]: but a mist, rising from the river during the night, precluded us from this gratification, until it became so late, that we were obliged to pursue our journey.”

*Bradford, Alden, 1842, describing Benjamin Vaughan’s estate in [[Hallowell, Maine|Hallowell, ME]] (1842: 409)<ref>Alden Bradford, ''Biographical Notices of Distinguished Men in New England,'' (Boston: S.G. Simkins, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TB98J7HD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mr. Vaughan intended his residence here from the first to be permanent; and at once cultivated his grounds, and attended to the duties of a citizen, but without engaging in party disputes, as many do when they arrive in the United States. He wisely kept aloof from all political parties. He encouraged a taste for agriculture, and prepared a large [[nursery]] of fruit trees, which he distributed gratis in different parts of that new country, where they were much wanted. For twenty years past, the fruit in and near [[Hallowell, Maine|Hallowell]], and in the neighboring towns, has been abundant — owing in a great measure to the generous efforts of Mr. Vaughan. He and his family distributed a great number of books for children in that part of the country; and urged the forming of schools in all the new [[plantation]]s. The benefits have been extensive, and hardly can be duly appreciated.”

*Gardiner, Robert Hallowell, 1859, describing Benjamin Vaughan’s agricultural interests (1859: 6:90–91)<ref>Robert Hallowell Gardiner, “Memoir of Benjamin Vaughan, M.D. and L.L.D.,” ''Collections of the Maine Historical Society'', [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMN44Z4M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Here [at [[Hallowell, Maine]]] he occupied himself in study in an extensive correspondence with distinguished persons on both sides the Atlantic and in promoting the welfare of the place and of the people among whom he had fixed his residence. . . The agriculture of the country was indebted to Dr Vaughan for the introduction of new varieties of seed and plants and for the importation of improved breeds of animals. His fortune was considerably diminished by the large sums expended upon his farm and [[nursery]]. . .”

*Sheppard, John H. 1865, describing Benjamin Vaughan’s agricultural interests (1865: 14)<ref>Sheppard 1865, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Dr. Vaughan was fond of horticulture, and was one of the pioneers of New England in the improvement of fruits and cereals. He imported choice seeds, which he was ever ready to impart to his neighbors. . . He also took great pains in promoting agriculture, and introducing from abroad the best kinds of stock on his farm; superior oxen and more productive cows were not to be seen.”

*Boardman, Samuel Lane, 1865, describing Benjamin Vaughan’s daily habits (1865: 188)<ref>Boardman 1865, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A gentleman who was acquainted with Dr. Vaughan, and from whom I have obtained some incidents of his life, says it was his custom in fair weather to walk a certain number of miles, each day, for exercise; and when the weather would not admit of his being out of doors, he would walk upon his [[piazza]] as many hours as would be equivalent to the distance walked.”

<hr>

==Images==

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:2289.jpg|Dr. Benjamin Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1800.
</gallery>

==Other Resources==
[http://historichallowell.mainememory.net/page/1541/display.html Historic Hallowell website]

[http://www.amphilsoc.org/mole/view?docId=ead/Mss.B.V46p-ead.xml Benjamin Vaughan Papers, American Philosophical Society]

[http://library.bowdoin.edu/arch/mss/vaughan-summaries.pdf Charles Vaughan Papers, Bowdoin College]

[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-2821vau?view=text Benjamin and William Oliver Vaughan Papers, 1774-1830]

[http://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0040 Vaughan Family Papers, 1768-1950, Massachusetts Historical Society]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Vaughan, Benjamin]]

Hannah Callender Sansom

2021-10-05T21:24:36Z

M-westerby:

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'''Hannah Callender Sansom''' (November 16, 1737–March 9, 1801) was a Quaker woman from Philadelphia, who, between 1758 and 1788, kept a diary in which she describes country [[seat]]s in Pennsylvania and New York as well as her family’s estates, Richmond Seat and Parlaville.

==History==
[[File:2108_detail.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 1, Nicholas Scull and George Heap, ''A Map of Philadelphia and Parts Adjacent'' [detail], in Sylvanus Urban, ed. ''Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle'' 23 (1753), p. 373.]]
For more than thirty years, between January 1758 and November 1788, Hannah Callender Sansom kept a diary in which she recorded, among many topics, descriptions of the country seats she visited, primarily in the vicinity of Philadelphia and New York. Sansom, born in 1737, was the only child of William Callender Jr. (1703–1763) and Katharine Smith (1711–1789), devout Quakers and active members of the Philadelphia Monthly Meeting.<ref>William Callender Jr., emigrated from Barbados to America, arriving to the Delaware Valley in 1727. He married Katharine Smith of Burlington, New Jersey, in 1731, and they moved to Philadelphia in 1733. William Callender was a prosperous merchant, who earned his wealth in the West Indian sugar trade and through Philadelphia real estate investments. He also helped found the Library Company of Philadelphia and was involved in politics, serving in the Pennsylvania Assembly from 1753–56. Both William and Katharine with active members of Philadelphia’s Quaker community and played prominent roles in the Monthly Meetings. Hannah was their only child to survive infancy. George Vaux, “Extracts from the Diary of Hannah Callender,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 12, no. 4 (January 1889): 432, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/STWXKSK3 view on Zotero]; Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), 16–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> The family maintained a home on Front Street in Philadelphia as well as a [[plantation]], Richmond [[Seat]], which William established in Point-No-Point, about four miles north of Philadelphia on the banks of the Delaware River [Fig. 1].<ref>Sansom 2010, 17. By July 1760 William Callender had sold his Front Street house, and Richmond Seat became the family’s primary residence. Hannah Callender Sansom, diary entry for July 14, 1760, in Sansom 2010, 138, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> Richmond Seat was a working [[plantation]] that produced “good English hay” for sale and, by 1752, boasted thirty-five acres of meadow with “good English grass,” an eight-acre [[orchard]] for the cultivation of various fruits, a two-acre garden, and “a small well-built brick house, with a boarded kitchen.”<ref>“Advertisements,” ''Pennsylvania Gazette'' (February 16, 1744): 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKWJBRAA view on Zotero]; “To Be SOLD,” ''Pennsylvania Gazette'' (February 25, 1752): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UIJSEJFE view on Zotero].</ref> With its agricultural focus and simple architecture, Richmond Seat fit well within Quaker ideals of plainness and frugality as well as the belief held by many Quakers during this period that farming in the country facilitated spiritual growth.<ref>Mark Reinberger and Elizabeth McLean write that for Quaker men of William Callender’s generation, retreating to the countryside “was religious and involved . . . a closer contact with God through living in the country and farming.” Mark Reinberger and Elizabeth McLean, ''The Philadelphia Country House: Architecture and Landscape in Colonial Philadelphia'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015), 257, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5BEHWQK6 view on Zotero].</ref>

As a member of a wealthy family, Sansom was well educated and, according to the scholars Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf, had access to the collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia throughout her life. Both her father and her husband, Samuel Sansom Jr. (1738/39–1824), were members of the institution, which included various architectural, gardening, and horticultural manuals in its collections.<ref>Hannah Callender Sansom attended Anthony Benezet’s Society of Friends’ girls’ school in Philadelphia and also studied under Maria Jeanne Reynier, a French school mistress. In 1762 she married Samuel Sansom Jr., a merchant, real estate investor, and fellow Quaker from Philadelphia. Beginning in 1776, Samuel Sansom served as treasurer of the Library Company of Philadelphia and the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. The couple had five children: William (b. 1763), Sarah (b. 1764), Joseph (b. 1767), Catherine (b. 1769), and Samuel (b. 1773). Catherine died of smallpox as an infant, but all of the other Sansom children survived to adulthood. Sansom 2010, 12, 14, and 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero]. The Library Company of Philadelphia’s 1770 and 1775 catalogues, for example, include titles such as William Halfpenny, ''Useful Architecture'' (London, 1752); ''The Builder’s Dictionary'' (London, 1734); James Lee, ''An Introduction to Botany'' (London, 1760); Thomas Hitt, ''A Treatise of Fruit Trees'', 2nd ed. (London, 1757); Philip Miller, ''Gardener’s and Florist’s Dictionary'' (London, 1724); Philip Miller, ''The Gardener’s Kalendar'', 12th ed. (London, 1760); John Hill, ''Eden: or, A Compleat Body of Gardening'' (London, 1757); ''(William) Salmon’s English Herbal'' (London, 1710); and James Wheeler, ''Botanist’s and Gardener’s Dictionary'' (London, 1765), among many others. Several of the library’s early printed catalogues are available online, http://librarycompany.org/about/history.htm.</ref> As part of their education, upper-class women in 18th-century Philadelphia were encouraged to read widely and to “enhance and display” the knowledge they acquired from books “through fieldwork and critical observation of the world around them.”<ref>Sarah E. Fatherly, “‘The Sweet Recourse of Reason’: Elite Women’s Education in Colonial Philadelphia,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 128, no. 3 (July 2004): 230, 232, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DDXUGMRR view on Zotero].</ref> Visiting country houses provided “exclusive . . . educational opportunities” for Sansom and her companions, who were often permitted to explore the estates’ art collections, architecture, and gardens.<ref>Fatherly 2004, 251, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DDXUGMRR view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="BushHill_cite"></span>After a September 1758 visit to James Hamilton’s Bush Hill, for example, Sansom wrote about the “fine house and gardens, with Statues, and fine paintings,” and commented in particular upon works depicting St. Ignatius and the mythological story of the rape of Proserpine ([[#BushHill|view text]]). Hamilton had amassed one of the few notable fine art collections in the Philadelphia area during this period, and, because he often welcomed visitors, his estate served as “a kind of art museum for Philadelphia’s gentry.”<ref>Reinberger and McLean 2015, 240, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5BEHWQK6 view on Zotero].</ref>

From May to June 1759, twenty-one-year-old Hannah Callender Sansom traveled to New York City and Long Island. <span id="Bayards_cite"></span> In her diary, she noted the “fine [[walk]] of locas [''sic''] trees” leading to the house at “Boyard’s [''sic''] Country [[seat]]” near New York, with “a beautiful [[wood]] off one side, and a Garden for both use and ornament on the other side.” Despite such praise, Sansom championed Philadelphia’s gardens above New York’s, claiming that New York had “no gardens . . . that come up to ours of [P]hiladelphia” ([[#Bayards|view text]]). <span id="RichmondSeat_cite"></span> After returning to Philadelphia, Sansom recorded the agricultural and ornamental uses of the land at Richmond [[Seat]], observing that half of the sixty-acre property was covered in “a fine [[Woods]],” an [[orchard]], flower and [[kitchen garden]]s, and the house and barn, while the remaining thirty acres was given over to [[meadow]] ([[#RichmondSeat|view text]]).

[[Image:0301.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, William Russell Birch, “View from Belmont Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the Seat of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.]]
Hannah Callender Sansom’s diary also contains descriptions of various country houses situated along the banks of the [[Schuylkill River]]. <span id="Francis_cite"></span> In June 1762 she visited the estate of the late Tench Francis Sr. (d. 1758), and remarked upon the “fine [[prospect]]” available behind the house, from which she could see several neighboring estates, including [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], Dr. William Smith’s Octagon, and Baynton’s House, as well as “a genteel garden, with serpentine [[walk]]s and low [[hedge]]s.” From the garden, Sansom observed, one could “descend by [slopes] to a [[Lawn]]” with a [[summer house]] and then descend again “to the edge of the hill which Terminates by a [[fence|fen[c]e]], for security” ([[#Francis|view text]]). <span id="Belmont1_cite"></span> After a visit to [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], the country [[seat]] of [[William Peters]], Sansom described in great detail various features of the estate’s landscape design ([[#Belmont1|view text]]) [Fig. 2]. [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] long remained one of Sansom's favorite sites. <span id="Belmont2_cite"></span> Twenty-three years after she first described the estate, she once again recorded her impression of [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], which was now under the purview of [[Richard Peters]], lauding it as “the highest and finist [''sic''] situation I know, its gardens and [[walk]]s are in the King William taste, but are very pleasant” ([[#Belmont2|view text]]).

[[File:2122 detail.png|thumb|right|Fig. 3, John Hills (surveyor), William Kneass (engraver), Joseph B. Varnum (publisher), ''A Plan of the City of Philadelphia and its Environs'' [detail], 1808.]]
Hannah and her husband moved their primary residence from Philadelphia to Parlaville, a suburban retreat located about two and a half miles north of the city on the banks of the [[Schuylkill River]], in July 1782 [Fig. 3].<ref>In the diary entry for July 4, 1785, Sansom notes that “this day three years we come to live at Parlaville.” Sansom 2010, 298, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> As Klepp and Wulf have observed, Parlaville, in contrast to Richmond [[Seat]], “was small, private, and quite deliberately divorced from commercial concerns.”<ref>Sansom 2010, 167, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> This contrast between Richmond [[Seat]] as a working [[plantation]] and Parlaville as a suburban retreat mirrors a larger generational shift in Quaker attitudes toward retiring to the countryside. According to Mark Reinberger and Elizabeth McLean, as the religious motivation for working the land waned, country houses were typically located closer to the city and primarily served as a “refuge . . . to protect and improve one’s physical and mental health, though with less emphasis on one’s spiritual health than in earlier days.”<ref>Reinberger and McLean 2015, 333, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5BEHWQK6 view on Zotero].</ref>

Joseph Francis was hired to plan the garden at Parlaville, and Hannah Callender Sansom evidently relished tending it, writing on one occasion that she “rose blythly to sow my seeds” and, in a separate entry, proclaiming gardening “the primitive occupation of man, <u>designed</u> by the almighty for a happy life!”<ref>Hannah Callender Sansom, diary entries for December 10, 1784, and April 14 and 11, 1785, in Sansom 2010, 282, 291, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> During the spring of 1785, Sansom obtained a “variety of Trees, flowers, and plants” for Parlaville, including both native and non-native species. On April 24, for example, Sansom noted that her husband and son Samuel “went nine miles up [the] [[Schuylkill River|Schuikill]] for white pine trees.” Four days later she procured “two Tuby Rose [tuberose] roots” that an acquaintance had brought from Barbados.<ref>Hannah Callender Sansom, diary entries for April 12, 24, and 28, 1785, in Sansom 2010, 291, 292, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> Hannah Callender Sansom and Samuel Sansom moved back to Philadelphia in July 1786, although they continued to maintain a secondary residence at Parlaville.<ref>Hannah Callender Sansom, diary entry for January 1, 1788, in Sansom 2010, 326, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

Hannah Callender Sansom’s diary remained in the possession of her family after her death in 1801. In 1889, George Vaux, a descendant of Sansom, published a selection of entries written by Sansom between 1758 and 1762. The diary, which is now housed in the collection of the American Philosophical Society, was transcribed and published in full in 2010.<ref>Vaux 1889, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/STWXKSK3 view on Zotero]; Sansom 2010, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="BushHill"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, September 9, 1758, diary entry describing Bush Hill, estate of James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 67)<ref name="Sansom_2010">Sansom 2010, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . concluded upon a party to bush hill. . . in the afternoon, a fine house and gardens, with [[Statue]]s, and fine paintings, particularly a picture of Saint Ignatius at his devotions, exceedingly well drawn, and the rape of Proserpine, where the grim god of hell, seems to exult with horrid joy, over his prey, who turns from him with a dread and loathing such as fully pictures, the horrors of a loathed embrace.” [[#BushHill_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Bayards"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, June 11, 1759, diary entry describing Bayard’s country [[seat]], near New York, NY (2010: 114)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . took a walk to ---- Boyard’s Country [[seat]], who was so complaisent as to ask us in his garden. the front of the house, faces the great road, about a quarter of a mile distance, a fine [[walk]] of locas trees now in full blossom perfumes the air, a beautiful wood off one side, and a Garden for both use and ornament on the other side from which you see the City at a great distance. good out houses at the back part. they have no gardens in or about New York that come up to ours of philadelphia” [[#Bayards_cite|back up to History]]

*Sansom, Hannah Callender, June 23, 1759, diary entry describing the vicinity of New York, NY (2010: 117)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . a good many pretty Country [[seat]]s, In particular Murreys, a fine brick house, and the whole [[plantation]] in good order, we rode under the finest row of Button Wood I ever see. . .”

*<div id="RichmondSeat"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, August 1, 1759, diary entry describing Richmond [[Seat]], summer retreat of William Callender Jr. on the Delaware River in Point-No-Point near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 123)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“Morn: 8O'Clock Daddy and I went to [[plantation|Plantation]] . . . the place looks beautiful. the plat belonging to Daddy is 60 acres square: 30 of upland, 30 of [[meadow]], which runs along the side of the river Delawar, half the uplands is a fine [[wood|Woods]], the other [[Orchard]] and Gardens, a little house in the midst of the Gardens, interspersed with fruit trees. the main Garden lies along the [[meadow]], by 3 descents of Grass steps, you are led to the bottom, in a [[walk]] length way of the Garden, on one Side a fine cut [[hedge]] incloses from the [[meadow]], the other, a high Green bank shaded with Spruce, the [[meadow|meadows]] and river lying open to the eye, looking to the house, covered with trees, honey scycle vines on the [[fence|fences]], low [[hedge|hedges]] to part the flower and kitchen Garden, a fine barn. Just at the side of the [[Wood]], the trees a small space round it cleared from brush underneath, the whole a little romantic rural scene.” [[#RichmondSeat_cite|back up to History]]

*Sansom, Hannah Callender, August 30, 1761, diary entry describing the Moravian settlement at Bethlehem, PA (2010: 156)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . Sister Garrison with good humour gave us girls leave, to step cross a field to a little Island belonging to the Single Bretheren, on it is a neat [[Summer house]], with seats of turf, and button wood Trees round it.”

*<div id="Francis"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, June 28, 1762, diary entry describing the estate of the late Tench Francis Sr. near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 180–81)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“..walked agreeably down to [[Schuylkill River|Skylkill]] along its banks adorned with Native beauty, interspersed by little dwelling houses at the feet of hills covered by trees, that you seem to look for enchantment they appear so suddenly before your eyes, on the entrance you find nothing but mere mortality, a spinning wheel, an earthen cup, a broken dish, a calabash and wooden platter: ascending a high Hill into the road by Robin Hood dell went to the Widow Frances’s place, she was there and behaved kindly, the House stands fine and high, the back is adorned by a fine [[prospect]], [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Peter’s House]], Smiths Octagon, Bayntons House &c and a genteel garden, with serpentine [[walk|walks]] and low [[hedge]]s, at the foot of the garden you desend by sclopes to a [[Lawn]]. in the middle stands a [[summer House]], Honey Scykle &c, then you desend by Sclopes to the edge of the hill which Terminates by a [[fence|fense]], for security, being high & almost perpendicular except the craggs of rocks, and shrubs of trees, that diversify the Scene.” [[#Francis_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Belmont1"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 182–83)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . went to [[William Peters| Will: Peters]]’s house, having some small aquaintance with his wife who was at home with her Daughter Polly. they received us kindly in one wing of the House, after a while we passed thro' a covered Passage to the large hall, well furnished, the top adorned with instruments of musick, coat of arms, crest, and other ornaments in Stucco, its sides by paintings and [[Statue]]s in Bronze. from the Front of this hall you have a [[prospect]] bounded by the Jerseys, like a blueridge, and the Horison, a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]], from these Windows down a [[vista|Wisto]] terminated by an [[Obelisk]], on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of [[hedge]] and low ceder with spruce, in the middle stands a [[Statue]] of Apollo, note: in the garden are the [[Statue]]s of Dianna, Fame & Mercury, with [[urn]]s. we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto’s]], in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[Summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].” [[#Belmont1_cite|back up to History]]

*Sansom, Hannah Callender, July 27, 1768, diary entry describing Edgely, estate of Joshua Howell, near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 232–33)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . went to Edgeley. Joshua Howel has a fine Iregular Garden there, walked down to [[Schuylkill River|Shoolkill]], after dinner. . . walked to the [[Summer house|Summer House,]] in view of [[Schuylkill River|Skylkill]] when Benny [Shoemaker] Played on the flute.”

*Sansom, Hannah Callender, May 14, 1785, diary entry describing Bush Hill, estate of James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 293)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . to Hambleton’s Bush hill [estate,] walked over that good house, viewed the fine stucco work, and delightful [[prospect|prospects]] round. . .”

*<div id="Belmont2"></div>Sansom, Hannah Callender, June 20, 1785, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[Richard Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (2010: 296)<ref name="Sansom_2010"></ref>
:“. . . crossed Brittains bridge, to John Penns elegant Villa, passed a Couple of delightfull hours, mounted our chaise and rode a long the [[Schuylkill River|Schuilkill]] to [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Peters place]] the highest and finist situation I know, its gardens and walks are in the King William taste, but are very pleasant, We had a very polite reception from [[Richard Peters|Rich: Peters]], his Wife, and mother, took to our chaise and by his direction, thro a pleasent rode to Riters ferry, crossed and continued our route along [[Schuylkill River|Schuilkill]], to the falls tavern. . .” [[#Belmont2_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

File:2108.jpg|Nicholas Scull and George Heap, ''A Map of Philadelphia and Parts Adjacent'', in Sylvanus Urban, ed. ''Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle'' 23 (1753): p. 373.

Image:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont (Philadelphia, PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.

File:2122.jpg|John Hills (surveyor), William Kneass (engraver), Joseph B. Varnum (publisher), ''A Plan of the City of Philadelphia and its Environs'', 1808.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|S]]

Paul Revere

2021-10-05T21:20:28Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=December 21, 1734
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|Birth Location=Boston, MA
|Roles=Engraver; Silversmith
|Keywords=Common; Obelisk; View/Vista
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'''Paul Revere''' (December 21, 1734–May 10, 1818) was a prominent Boston silversmith, engraver, proto-industrialist, and patriot who played a key role in mobilizing colonial activism that led to the American Revolution. He designed an [[obelisk]], which appeared briefly on [[Boston Common]], to celebrate the repeal of the Stamp Act. He is also remembered for his “midnight ride” during which he alerted the colonial militia to the approaching British forces on the eve of the Battle of Lexington.

==History==
[[File:0482.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Paul Revere, ''A [[View]] of the [[Obelisk]] erected under Liberty-Tree in Boston on the Rejoicings for the Repeal of the Stamp Act'', 1766.]]
Paul Revere produced some of the most sophisticated engravings of the Revolutionary era, including political cartoons intended to undermine British rule.<ref>Elizabeth Louise Roark, ''Artists of Colonial America'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 135–40 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/APXPF4PM view on Zotero].</ref> A veteran of the French and Indian War (1754–63), Revere later joined the Sons of Liberty, a militant group formed in response to the passing of the 1765 Stamp Act.<ref>Jayne E. Triber, ''A True Republican: The Life of Paul Revere'' (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 44–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q9B6H7HE view on Zotero].</ref> To mark the Act’s repeal in 1766, Revere designed an “[[obelisk]] of liberty” which he erected on [[Boston Common]]. Fashioned of translucent paper on a thin frame and illuminated from within by 280 lamps, the [[obelisk]] was ornately decorated with symbols, allegories, portraits, and inscriptions representing the triumph of American liberty and its heroic defenders.<ref>David Hackett Fischer, ''Liberty and Freedom: A Visual History of America’s Founding Ideas'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 99–101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2XDX4X88 view on Zotero].</ref> Following its display on [[Boston Common]] the illuminated [[obelisk]] was to be removed to the Liberty Tree, a large elm that had become a site for acts of political dissent.<ref>Arthur M. Schlesinger, “Liberty Tree: A Genealogy,” ''New England Quarterly'' 25 (1952): 437–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WQT9H9MG view on Zotero].</ref> Before this could be accomplished, however, the [[obelisk]] was destroyed by fireworks launched from its apex in a celebratory pyrotechnical display.<ref>Clarence Brigham, ''Paul Revere’s Engravings'' (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), 26–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A view on Zotero]. For the iconography of Boston illuminations and the use of obelisks in political celebrations, see Peter Bastian, “Celebrating the Empire in the Changing Political World of Boston, 1759–1774,” ''Australasian Journal of American Studies'' 16 (1997): 26–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GZA9VT63 view on Zotero].</ref> Revere had already documented the appearance of the [[obelisk]] in a large copperplate engraving [Fig. 1]—now extremely rare)—which depicts the portraits, allegories, and texts that appeared on each of the [[obelisk]]’s four sides.<ref>Elbridge Henry Goss, ''The Life of Colonel Paul Revere'', 8th ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Howard W. Spurr, 1909), 1:37–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVJJ2UF5 view on Zotero]; Brigham 1956, 26, 29–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A view on Zotero].</ref> The copper plate was subsequently repurposed for the design of a Masonic certificate.<ref>Brigham 1956, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A view on Zotero].</ref>

During the build-up to war with Britain in the 1770s, Revere regularly contributed propagandistic engravings to the ''Royal American Magazine'', while simultaneously helping to organize an intelligence system to gather and disseminate information about the movement of British troops.<ref>John Bakeless, ''Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes: Espionage in the American Revolution'' (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1959), 68–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HX5ZIIIG view on Zotero].</ref> In April 1775 he was instrumental in preventing British capture of rebel leaders and weapons supplies in Concord and Lexington, Massachusetts, by sounding an alarm that called area militias into action. After the American Revolution, Revere became a successful businessman, operating a hardware store, a foundry, and the first rolling copper mill in the United States.<ref>Robert Martello, ''Midnight Ride, Industrial Dawn: Paul Revere and the Growth of American Enterprise'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 204–323, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z6GSJ7C7 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==

* Anonymous, May 19, 1766, ''Boston Evening-Post'' (quoted in Brigham 1954: 21)<ref>Brigham 1954, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “ . . . [T]he Gentlemen Selectmen of ''Boston'', have fix’d upon this Evening for the public Rejoicing, at whose Desire, will be exhibited on the [[Boston Common|Common]], an [[Obelisk|OBELISK]]. — A Description of which is engraved by Mr. ''Paul Revere''; and is now selling by Edes & Gill. — The Signal of its Ending will be by firing a Horizontal Wheel on the Top of the [[Obelisk|''Obelisk'']], when its desired the Assembly would retire.”

*Anonymous, May 26, 1766, ''Boston Evening-Post'', p. 1
: “ . . . On the common the Sons of Liberty erected a magnificent pyramid, illuminated with 280 lamps: The four upper stories of which were ornamented with the figures of their Majesties, and fourteen worthy patriots who have distinguished themselves by their love of Liberty. . .

:“On top of the pyramid was fixed a round box of fireworks horizontally. . . At eleven o’clock the signal being given by a discharge of 21 rockets, the horizontal wheel on top of the pyramid or [[obelisk]] was played off, ending in the discharge of sixteen dozen of serpents in the air, which concluded the shew. — . . . The pyramid, which was designed to be placed under the Tree of Liberty, as a standing monument of this glorious era, by accident took fire about one o’clock, and was consumed: — The lamps by which it was illuminated not being extinguished at the close of the scene, it is supposed to have taken fire by some of them.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2303.jpg|John Singleton Copley, ''Paul Revere'', 1768.

Image:0482.jpg|Paul Revere, ''A [[View]] of the [[Obelisk]] erected under Liberty-Tree in Boston on the Rejoicings for the Repeal of the Stamp Act'', 1766.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Revere, Paul]]

Henry Pratt

2021-10-05T21:19:36Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
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|Keywords=Border; Bower; Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall; Conservatory; Espalier; Fountain; French style; Geometric style; Greenhouse; Grotto; Grove; Hedge; Hothouse; Jet; Landscape gardening; Mound; Parterre; Picturesque; Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden; Plot/Plat; Pond; Prospect; Rustic style; Seat; Shrubbery; Statue; Summerhouse; Temple; Trellis; Vase/Urn; View/Vista; Walk
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'''Henry Pratt''' (May 14, 1761–February 6, 1838) was a wealthy Philadelphia shipping merchant and land speculator. From 1799 until 1836, he was the proprietor of [[Lemon Hill]], a [[Schuylkill River]] estate known for its [[geometric style|geometric-style]] gardens, [[picturesque]] grounds, and extensive [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]] complex, which was reported to be the largest in the United States.

==History==
[[File:2105.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 1, Firm of Joseph Stubbs, decoration after Thomas Birch, Plate with view of Lemon Hill, c. 1825.]]
Henry Pratt, a wealthy shipping merchant and land speculator from Philadelphia, purchased the southern portion of [[The Hills]], [[Robert Morris|Robert Morris's]] [[Schuylkill River]] estate, at a sheriff’s sale in 1799.<ref>The sheriff’s sale took place on March 15, 1799, at the Merchants Coffee House. For $14,654.22, Pratt acquired 42 acres and 93 perches of Morris’s former estate, including the land upon which Morris’s house and greenhouses had stood. Owen Tasker Robbins, “Toward a Preservation of the Grounds of Lemon Hill in Light of Their Past and Present Significance for Philadelphians” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1987), 25, 30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref> Under his ownership, the property, which he renamed [[Lemon Hill]], was renowned for its [[geometric style|geometric-style]] gardens, [[picturesque]] grounds, and extensive [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]] complex. In the mid-1820s, Joseph Stubbs even featured Pratt’s estate prominently in a design for his Staffordshire pottery, a choice that suggests the international reach of [[Lemon Hill|Lemon Hill's]] reputation during the early 19th century [Fig. 1].

[[Lemon Hill]] served primarily as a warm-weather retreat for Pratt’s family as well as a site for business and social entertaining.<ref>By the time Pratt purchased Lemon Hill, he was married to his third wife, Susannah Care (1776–1816), whom he had married in 1794. The couple would have four children together. Previously, he had married Frances Moore (c. 1757–1785) in 1778, with whom he had four children, and Elizabeth Dundas (1764–1793) in 1785, with whom he had six children. Of Pratt’s fourteen children, only seven survived to adulthood. For more information, see the Pratt family tree on the official Lemon Hill website: http://www.lemonhill.org/HistoryPF.html.</ref> Pratt, who was the eldest child of the Philadelphia portrait painter Matthew Pratt (1734–1805) and his wife Elizabeth (1739–1777), held prominent leadership roles within the city’s civic and business communities, reportedly serving as President of the city’s Select Council, President of the Delaware Fire Company, as a member of the Chamber of Commerce, and as a Vestryman at Christ Church, among other positions.<ref>Robbins 1987, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero]. Pratt was elected to a three-year term as President of the city’s Select Council in October 1799. J. Thomas Scharf and Thompson Westcott, ''History of Philadelphia, 1609–1884'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: L. H. Everts & Co., 1884), 3:1708, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8RJIVE6G view on Zotero].</ref> After short stints at the beginning of his career trading in china and crockery and opening a grocery business, he became a successful shipping merchant.<ref>Scharf and Westcott 1884, 3:2212, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8RJIVE6G view on Zotero].</ref> From about 1797 until 1812, he partnered with Abraham Kintzing to form the firm Pratt & Kintzing, which owned a fleet of ships that carried goods such as tobacco, cotton, sugar, indigo, cornmeal, pork, hides, wheat, and clothing to and from ports across the eastern seaboard of the United States, the West Indies, Europe, and Asia.<ref>Robbins 1987, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero]. For additional information on some of the ships that Pratt owned both before and during his partnership with Kintzing, including cargo and trade routes, see Greg H. Williams, ''The French Assault on American Shipping, 1793–1813: A History and Comprehensive Record of Merchant Marine Losses'' (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2009), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6RJJMHBF view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0043_2.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Archibald Woodside, ''Lemon Hill'', 1807.]]
After purchasing [[Lemon Hill]] in 1799, Pratt made a number of significant changes to the property. According to his accounts, construction on a new Federal-style villa to replace [[Robert Morris|Morris's]] house likely began in April 1800, when he placed an order for lumber from a local merchant.<ref>Martha Halpern, “Henry Pratt’s Account for Lemon Hill,” ''Antiques & Fine Art Magazine'', http://www.antiquesandfineart.com/articles/article.cfm?request=198, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5QDN3UB view on Zotero].</ref> His house, which is still extant, is especially notable for its distinctive stack of three oval rooms that protrudes from the south façade of the building, an uncommon architectural feature for the period [Fig. 2].<ref>Roger W. Moss, ''Historic Houses of Philadelphia: A Tour of the Region’s Museum Homes'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press for The Barra Foundation, 1998), 90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8TVTVJ3 view on Zotero].</ref> However, he never lived at [[Lemon Hill]] and instead maintained his primary residence within the city of Philadelphia, in close proximity to his mercantile pursuits and the wharves on the Delaware River.<ref>In 1796 Pratt purchased the residence of Isaac Wharton at 112 North Front Street, which was located next to the home of his business partner, Abraham Kintzing. Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Horace Mather Lippincott, ''Colonial Homes of Philadelphia and its Neighborhood'' (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1912), 263–264, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H8PJNXCV view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:2125 detail.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, J. Allbright (illustrator), J. B. Longacre (engraver), J. & W. W. Warr (engraver), The greenhouse and hothouses at Lemon Hill (1832).]]

In addition to constructing the new house, Pratt also greatly expanded [[Robert Morris|Morris's]] [[greenhouse]] complex. On August 25, 1799, shortly after purchasing [[Lemon Hill]], he paid [[Robert Morris|Morris]] $750 for his [[greenhouse]] plants, which formed the basis of his collection.<ref>Robbins 1987, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Wailes_cite"></span>His [[greenhouse]]s and [[hothouse]]s—said to be the largest of their kind in the United States—contained an enormous quantity and variety of plants ([[#Wailes|view text]]) [Fig. 3]. A June 1838 auction catalog of the contents of [[Lemon Hill|Lemon Hill's]] [[greenhouse]]s and [[hothouse]]s lists nearly three thousand individual plants for sale, including a variety of exotics.<ref>D. & C. A. Hill, ''Catalogue of Splendid and Rare Green House and Hot House Plants, to Be Sold by Auction at Lemon Hill, Formerly the Seat of the Late Henry Pratt, Deceased, on Tuesday, the 5th Day of June, 1838, and to Be Continued Daily until Completed, by D. & C. A. Hill, Auctioneers'' (Philadelphia, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2MZSHJ4 view on Zotero]. See also Robbins 1987, 36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref> According to Owen Tasker Robbins, “Pratt had ample opportunity to collect exotic plant materials from around the world due to his shipping business.”<ref>Robbins 1987, 36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="PHS_cite"></span>Pratt’s lucrative business ventures enabled him to maintain [[Lemon Hill|Lemon Hill's]] grounds and to keep the “beautiful garden . . . in perfect order at great expense” ([[#PHS|view text]]). <span id="Bernhard_cite"></span>In order to water the extensive collection of plants, he installed a hydraulic water-delivery system—reportedly for the costly sum of $3,000—that pumped water up from the [[Schuylkill River]] to a series basins that supplied the [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse]]s ([[#Bernhard|view text]]).<ref>“Report of the Committee appointed by The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the vicinity of Philadelphia—13th July, 1830, as it appeared in the ''Register of Pennsylvania'', edited by Samuel Hazard, Philadelphia, February 12, 1831,” in James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), 432, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Wailes_cite"></span>Pratt’s gardens were elaborately designed, featuring a circular [[grotto]] and numerous [[summerhouse]]s adorned with marble [[statue]]s, goldfish [[pond]]s, fountains, [[cascade]]s, and [[bower]]s ([[#Wailes|view text]]), <span id="Downing1849_cite"></span>as well as [[trellis]]es, springhouses, and [[temple]]s ([[#Downing1849|view text]]). He hired a large team to care for the gardens, and such well-known Philadelphia nurserymen and landscape gardeners as John McAran, [[Robert Buist]] (1805–1880), and Peter Mackenzie (1809–1865) worked at [[Lemon Hill]] early in their careers.<ref>“Report of the Committee appointed by The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society . . .” in Boyd 1929, 434, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero]; Boyd 1929, 385, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero]; Thomas J. Mickey, ''America’s Romance with the English Garden'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013), 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEQKGRPV view on Zotero]; Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, ''From Seed to Flower: Philadelphia 1681–1876'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1976), 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T79WT7WS view on Zotero]; “Death of Peter Mackenzie,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 34, no. 3 (March 1868): 94, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EQBU2C77 view on Zotero]; “What Scots Have Done for Horticulture in America,” ''Gardeners’ Magazine'' 50 (January 12, 1907): 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QP6WPV8D view on Zotero].</ref>

Commentators frequently remarked upon the proprietor’s generosity in opening the estate to the public. <span id="Aloe_cite"></span>In 1821 a writer for the ''Democratic Press'' desired “to pay homage of our consideration and thankfulness to Mr. Pratt, for the distinguished liberality with which his gardens, [[greenhouse|green houses]], &c. are, and long have been, thrown open to strangers and to citizens” ([[#Aloe|view text]]). <span id="Downing1837_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing]] even credited his “praiseworthy spirit” with “contribut[ing] in a wonderful degree to improve the taste of the inhabitants [of Philadelphia], and to inspire them with a desire to possess the more beautiful and delicate productions of nature” ([[#Downing1837|view text]]). <span id="Aloe_cite">On at least one occasion, Pratt also sent rare plants from his [[greenhouse]], including a flowering aloe, offsite—in this instance as part of a philanthropic fundraising exhibition to benefit the Orphans’ Asylum on Cherry Street ([[#Aloe|view text]]).

[[Lemon Hill]] was not Pratt’s only country estate, although it is the property for which he was best known. From 1803 until 1816, he also owned Spring Bank, which was located northwest of Philadelphia near the Wissahickon Creek.<ref>Pratt purchased Spring Bank, which was located on the west side of Wissahickon Avenue near Westview Street, from his father-in-law, Peter Care. Eberlein and Lippincott 1912, 262–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H8PJNXCV view on Zotero].</ref> In 1817 he purchased land northeast of the city at a sheriff’s sale and, in 1820, built Whitehall, a two-and-a-half story white frame house with a two-story porch, which remained in the Pratt family until 1853.<ref>Whitehall was located northwest of the Pennsylvania Railroad, below Wakeling Street near Frankford Avenue. The house was destroyed in 1887. For more information see the Free Library’s website, https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/42849; and LR-1078, ''Pulaski Highway, Delaware Expressway to Roosevelt Boulevard'', Environmental Impact Statement, Appendix vol. 3 (1976), 31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4ASEIJI view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1836, just two years before his death at age seventy-seven, Pratt sold [[Lemon Hill]] to Knowles Taylor, a speculator and merchant, for $225,000.<ref>Appendix A in Robbins’s thesis traces the chain of title for the property. See Robbins 1987, 134–35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero]. According to Robbins, Knowles sold Lemon Hill to Henry J. Williams in trust for the Bank of the United States on September 12, 1840.</ref> The city of Philadelphia purchased Lemon Hill in 1844 and leased the estate to a local entrepreneur who ran the property as a beer garden and [[pleasure garden]] known as “Pratt’s Gardens.”<ref>Robbins 1987, 43–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1855 Lemon Hill became part of Philadelphia’s Fairmount Park.

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
[[File:2106.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, John G. Exilious, “A View of Lemon Hill the Seat of Henry Pratt Esq<sup>r</sup>.,” in Oliver Oldschool [Joseph Dennie], ed. ''Port Folio'' (August 1813): opp. p. 166.]]
*Oldschool, Oliver, August 1813, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (''Port Folio'' 2: 166)<ref>Oliver Oldschool [Joseph Dennie], “American Scenery—for the Port Folio,” ''Port Folio'' 2, no. 2 (August 1813): 166, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGAABXDC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Lemon Hill]] . . . is the seat of Henry Pratt, esq. of Philadelphia; it is situated on a beautiful part of the [[Schuylkill River|river Schuylkill]], about two and a half miles from the city. The [[prospect]] from it is elegant and extensive; the grounds are in the highest state of cultivation; the [[hothouse|hot-house]] is admirably stored, and the [[picturesque]] and ornamental improvements, are highly creditable to the taste of the present liberal proprietor.” [Fig. 4]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, July 7, 1816, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Foster 1997: 298)<ref>Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson’s Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772–1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We drove over the Upper Bridge to Mr Pratts who has a large collection of plants and extensive [[greenhouse|Greenhouses]] & ca. His grounds are too much after the [[French style|French]] manner of [[pleasure garden]]s.”

*<div id="Aloe"></div>Anonymous, 1821, describing an exhibition of an aloe plant from [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (''Plough Boy'': 30)<ref>“The Flowering Aloe,” ''Plough Boy, and Journal of the Board of Agriculture'' (June 23, 1821): 30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNZNFE7H view on Zotero]. A nearly identical article appears in “The Flowering Aloe, from the ''Philadelphia ‘Democratic Press,’”'' ''Niles’ Weekly Register'' (June 16, 1821): 255, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E63UISSF view on Zotero].</ref>
:[June 6] “It is believed that, but two of those plants have come to perfection in the United States. One was at [[Springettsbury|Springbury]], the seat of William Penn, near Bush Hill. This plant flowered in 1777. From it the late Mr. [[William Hamilton]] got a sucker, which he was fortunate enough to rear, and it flowered at [[the Woodlands]], in the year 1804. When Henry Pratt, Esq. bought [[Lemon Hill]], from the late [[Robert Morris]], there was an Aloe in the [[greenhouse|Green House]]. This plant has been cherished and tended for 70 years, with great care, and is now RAPIDLY advancing to an exhibition of all the fragrance and beauty, of which it is susceptible. We will here, perhaps a little out of place, embrace the occasion, to pay homage of our consideration and thankfulness to Mr. Pratt, for the distinguished liberality with which his gardens, [[greenhouse|green houses]], &c. are, and long have been, thrown open to strangers and to citizens.
:“Mr. Pratt, with a liberality and benevolence which entitle him to great praise, has bestowed his plant on the ''Orphan Asylum'', on Cherry-street, near Schuylkill Sixth-street: where it will be exhibited to the public for the benefit of that charitable institution. A building for the reception of the Aloe, being completed at the Asylum, the plant was yesterday moved thither from [[Lemon Hill]]. The greatest care was necessary and was taken in the removal. The Aloe was carried, the whole distance, on the shoulders of 24 men, and we have pleasure in saying that it did not sustain the slightest injury.
:“On the 28th of May last, it was observed that this interesting plant had put forth and unerring evidence that it was about to flower. It put forth an upright shoot, like a strong asparagus. This stem, since that time, has grown 5 feet 8 inches; considerably more than the plant had grown in 60 years before. It will be in full flower about the middle of July next.
:“We give this early notice of this interesting exhibition to afford persons at a distance an opportunity of making their arrangements to enable them to enjoy the gratification of beholding so rare and beautiful a sight.—''Democratic Press.''

:[June 8] “We have great satisfaction in announcing, that Mr. Henry Pratt, not content with the liberality he had already shewn to the ''Widow’s and Orphan’s Asylum'', by the generous gift of the FLOWERING ALOE, has made most liberal additions to his bounty. To render the exhibition at the Asylum as interesting and of course as profitable as possible, Mr. Pratt yesterday sent to that institution a considerable number of rare and beautiful tropical plants. Among them were the Night Blooming Ceres, the Rose Apple of the West Indies, the Sago Palm, the Coffee Tree, the Sugar Cane, &c. &c.—''Ibid.''” [[#Aloe_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Bernhard"></div>Bernhard, Karl, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 1825, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (1828: 140–41)<ref>Karl Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, ''Travels through North America, during the Years 1825 and 1826'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Carey, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2FI56FP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A merchant, Mr. Halbach, to whom I was introduced, took a walk with me to two gardens adjoining the city. One of these belongs to a rich merchant, Mr. Pratt, and is situated upon a rocky peninsula, formed by the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], immediately above the water-works. The soil consists mostly of quartz and clay. The owner seldom comes there, and this is easy to be perceived, for instead of handsome [[plot|grass-plots]] you see potatoes and turnips planted in the garden. The trees, however, are very handsome, mostly chestnut, and some hickory. I also observed particularly two large and strong tulip trees; the circumference of one was fifteen feet. In the [[hothouse|hot-houses]] was a fine collection of orange trees, and a handsome collection of exotic plants, some of the order Euphorbia from South America; also a few palm trees. The gardener, an Englishman by birth, seemed to be well acquainted with his plants. Through a hydraulic machine the water is brought up from the river into several basins, and thence forced into the [[hothouse|hot-houses]]. There was also in the garden a mineral spring of a ferruginous quality. From several spots in the garden there are fine views of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], whose banks, covered with trees, now in the fall of the year, have a striking and pleasant effect from the various hues of foliage.” [[#Bernhard_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Wailes"></div>Wailes, Benjamin L. C., December 29, 1829, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Moore 1954: 359–60)<ref name="Moore_1954">John Hebron Moore, “A View of Philadelphia in 1829: Selections from the Journal of B. L. C. Wailes of Natchez,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 78 (July 1954): 353–360, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z9IBV7A4/q/Moore view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the most enchanting [[prospect]] is towards the grand pleasure [[grove]] & [[greenhouse|green house]] of a Mr. Prat[t], a gentleman of fortune, and to this we next proceeded by a circutous rout, passing in view of the fish [[pond]]s, [[bower]]s, rustic retreats, [[summerhouse|summer houses]], [[fountain]]s, [[grotto]], &c., &c. The [[grotto]] is dug in a bank [and] is of a circular form, the side built up of rock and arched over head, and a number of Shells [?]. A dog of natural size carved out of marble sits just within the entrance, the guardian of the place. A narrow aperture lined with a [[hedge]] of arbor vitae leads to it. Next is a round fish [[pond]] with a small [[fountain]] playing in the [[pond]]. An Oval & several oblong fish [[pond]]s of larger size follow, & between the two last is an artificial [[cascade]]. Several [[summerhouse|summer houses]] in [[rustic style]] are made by nailing bark on the outside & thaching the roof. There is also a rustic [[seat]] built in the branches of a tree, & to which a flight of steps ascend. In one of the [[summerhouse|summer houses]] is a Spring with [[seat]]s around it. The houses are all embelished with marble busts of Venus, Appollo, Diana and a Bacanti. One sits on an Island on the fish [[pond]]. All the [[pond]]s filled with handsome coloured fish.
:“The grounds are planted with a great variety of [[shrubbery]] & evergreens of various kinds of the pine & fir, and the [[hothouse|hot house]] is said to be the largest in the US. It is filled to overflowing with the choicest Exotics: the Chaddock Orange of different kinds & the Lemon loaded with fruit. There are two coffee trees with their berries. Some few shrubs were in flower & others seeded, & I was politely furnished with a few seed of 2 varieties of flowers (Myrtle & an accacia). In front of the [[hothouse|hot house]], one at each end, is a Lion of marble, well executed, & a dog in front. On the roof is a range of marble busts.” [[#Wailes_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="PHS"></div>Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 431–33)<ref name="Boyd_1929">Boyd 1929, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/q/boyd view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This beautiful garden, so creditable to the owner, and even to the city of Philadelphia, is kept in perfect order at great expense. Few strangers omit paying it a visit, a gratification which is afforded to them in the most liberal manner by the proprietor. Nor can any person of taste contemplate the various charms of this highly improved spot, without being in rapture with the loveliness of nature—everywhere around him, so chastely adorned by the hand of man.
:“Undoubtedly this is the best kept garden in Pennsylvania, and when associated with the [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot house]] department, may be pronounced unrivalled in the Union. The gravel [[walk]]s, [[espalier]]s, plants, shrubs, [[mound]]s, and grass [[plat]]s, are dressed periodically and minutely. . . .
:“Along the [[walk]]s, the flower [[border]]s are interspersed with Thunbergias, Eccremocarpus, Chelonias, Mimosas, &c. The Laurustinus, sweet Bay, English Laurel, Rosemary, Chinese privet, Myrtle, Tree Sage and South Sea Tea, stand among them, and bear the winter with a little straw covering. Even the Verbena triphylla, or Aloysia Citriodora, has survived through our cold season in Mr. Pratt’s city garden; seven of these plants are evergreens, and if they become inured to our climate, they will add greatly to our ornamental shrubs.
:“The treasures contained in the [[hothouse|hot]] and [[greenhouse|green houses]] are numerous. Besides a very fine collection of Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Shaddock, Bergamot, Pomgranate and Fig trees in excellent condition and full of fruit, we notice with admiration the many thousand of exotics to which Mr. Pratt is annually adding. The most conspicuous among these, are the tea tree; the coffee tree——loaded with fruit; the sugar cane; the pepper tree; Banana, Plantain, Guva, Cherimona, Ficus, Mango, the Cacti in great splendour, some 14 feet high, and a gigantic Euphorbia Trigonia—19 years old, and 13 feet high. The [[greenhouse|green houses]] are 220 feet long by 16 broad; exhibiting the finest range of glass for the preservation of plants, on this continent.
:“Colonel Perkins, near Boston, has it is true, a grapery and peach [[Espalier]], protected by 330 feet of glass, yet as there are neither flues not foreign plants in them, they cannot properly be called [[greenhouse|green houses]], whereas Mr. Pratt’s are furnished with the rarest productions of every clime, so that the committee place the [[conservatory]] of [[Lemon Hill]] at the very head of all similar establishments in this country.
:“There are some pretty [[bower]]s, [[summerhouse|summer houses]], [[grotto]]s and fish [[pond]]s in this garden—the latter well stored with gold and silver fish. The mansion house is capacious and modern, and the [[prospect]]s, on all sides, extremely beautiful. In [[landscape gardening]], water and wood are indispensable for [[picturesque]] effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and lawn and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount.
:“An engine for raising water to the plant houses, is sometimes put in operation. Mr. Pratt placed it here at a cost of three thousand dollars. The vegetable garden is well kept and is of suitable size. For many years the chief gardener was assisted by eleven or twelve labourers, he now employs only six; probably owing to the finished condition to which the proprietor has brought his grounds. The whole plot may contain about 20 acres; Mr. Pratt has owned it 30 years or more. The superintendent aided by the liberal spirit of that gentleman, conducts his business with skill and neatness, and may challenge any garden for minute excellence or general effect.” [[#PHS_cite|back up to History]]

*D. & C. Landreth, 1832, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (''Floral Magazine and Botanical Repository'' 1: 6)<ref>D. & C. Landreth, ed., “Lemon Hill,” ''Floral Magazine and Botanical Repository'' 1 (1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UTAZX6SE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mutability of all earthly possessions transferred the premises, with the collection, about thirty years ago, to Mr. HENRY PRATT, the present proprietor, who is deserving of much applause for the improvements he is constantly creating. . .
:“Few strangers visit Philadelphia without an examination of these grounds, and the proprietor has received the thanks of thousands for the gratification his liberality afforded.”

*<div id="Downing1837"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 4)<ref name="Downing_January 1837">Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For a long time the grounds of Mr. Pratt, at [[Lemon Hill]], near Philadelphia, have been considered the show-garden of that city: and the proprietor, with a praiseworthy spirit, opening his long-shaded [[walk]]s, cool [[grotto|grottoes]], [[jet|jets d’eau]], and the superb range of [[hothouse|hot-houses]], to the inspection of the citizens, contributed in a wonderful degree to improve the taste of the inhabitants, and to inspire them with a desire to possess the more beautiful and delicate productions of nature.” [[#Downing1837_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (1849: 43)<ref name="Downing_1849">Andrew Jackson Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the Fairmount water-works of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the [[geometric style|geometric]] mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial plantations, formal gardens with [[trellis|trellises]], [[grotto|grottoes]], spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d’eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], admirable; and its liberal proprietor, Mr. Pratt, by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.” [[#Downing1849_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]]'', c. 1800.

File:2107.jpg|Artist/maker unknown, ''A [[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]] on the River Schuylkill, the [[Seat]] of Henry Pratt Esq. of Philadelphia'', early 19th century.

Image:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:2102.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''The Upper Bridge over the Schuylkill, Philadelphia—[[Lemon Hill]] in the Background'', c. 1811–13.

File:2106.jpg|John G. Exilious, “A [[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]] the [[Seat]] of Henry Pratt Esq<sup>r</sup>.,” in Oliver Oldschool [Joseph Dennie], ed. ''The Port Folio'' (August 1813): opp. 166.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:2105.jpg|Firm of Joseph Stubbs, decoration after Thomas Birch, Plate with [[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]], c. 1825.

File:2104.jpg|Firm of Joseph Stubbs, decoration after Thomas Birch, Soup plate with [[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]], c. 1825.

File:2103.jpg|Firm of Joseph Stubbs, Tureen and cover with [[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]], c. 1828.

File:2125.jpg|J. Allbright (illustrator), J. B. Longacre (engraver), J. & W. W. Warr (engraver), The [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s at [[Lemon Hill]], detail of the title page, in D. & C. Landreth, ''Floral Magazine and Botanical Repository'' (1832).

File:2112.jpg|James Fuller Queen, ''[[Temple]] in Pratt’s garden on the Schuylkill'', recto, 1840.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Pratt, Henry]]

Eliza Lucas Pinckney

2021-09-28T17:27:52Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Alternate names=Eliza Lucas; Elizabeth Lucas Pinckney
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=December 28, 1722
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=May 26, 1793
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=British Colony of Antigua
|Roles=Manager
|Keywords=Avenue; Basin; Bowling green; Gate/Gateway; Green; Grove; Mount; Nursery; Orchard; Plot/Plat; Pond; Prospect; Seat; Temple; Thicket; Walk; Wall; Wilderness
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n50010298.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00737.html?a=1&n=pinckney&d=10&ss=4&q=6
|External link text=American National Biography Online
}}
}}
'''Elizabeth “Eliza” Lucas Pinckney''' (December 28, 1722–May 26, 1793) managed several [[plantation]]s in South Carolina, including Wapoo and Belmont, where she laid out gardens. Her extensive correspondence includes descriptions of local houses and gardens. An agricultural innovator and amateur botanist, Pinckney was a pioneer in the American cultivation of indigo, which became South Carolina’s second most lucrative cash crop—second only to rice—and a crucial buttress to the colony’s faltering economy.

==History==
Born to expatriate English parents living on the West Indian island of Antigua, Eliza Lucas received a classical education in London.<ref>Harriet Simons Williams, “Eliza Lucas and Her Family: Before the Letterbook,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 99, no. 3 (July 1998): 259–79, 265–68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> In about 1739 she and her family relocated to South Carolina, where her father had inherited a [[plantation]] on Wappoo Creek, near Charleston.<ref>For evidence regarding the date of the family’s arrival in America, see Williams 1998, 268–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> Recalled to Antigua shortly thereafter, he entrusted the responsibility of managing Wappoo [[Plantation]] and two much larger Carolina estates to his sixteen-year-old daughter. She later recalled his assurance that she could channel her fondness for “the vegetable world” into “something of real and public utility, If I could bring to perfection the plants of other Countries which he would procure me.”<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972) 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; see also David L. Coon, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and the Reintroduction of Indigo Culture in South Carolina,” ''Journal of Southern History'' 42 (1976): 66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]; Christopher P. Iannini, ''Fatal Revolutions: Natural History, West Indian Slavery, and the Routes of American Literature'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 119, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZGRU793 view on Zotero]; Barbara L. Bellows, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney: The Evolution of an Icon,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 106 (2005): 147–65, 152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I5WWSVB9 view on Zotero].</ref> Armed with her father’s collection of books and the seeds he sent from Antigua for trial growth, she experimented with ginger, cotton, cassava, and alfalfa before producing a successful crop of indigo (''Indigofera tinctoria''), an export commodity that was in great demand in Britain for its use as a blue dye.<ref> Andrea Feeser, ''Red, White, and Black Make Blue: Indigo in the Fabric of Colonial South Carolina Life'' (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013), 103–104, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Joyce E. Chaplin, ''An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 152, 192, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ER3AQKMJ view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero].</ref> She also carried out landscape improvements at Wappoo, laying out a fig [[orchard]], [[grove]]s of oak and cedar trees, and a garden where she strolled each morning.<ref>Harriott Horry Ravenel, ''Eliza Pinckney'' (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1896), 5, 31–32, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 7, 34–36, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> These and other agricultural projects, together with political and local events and social calls to neighboring houses, such as Crowfield, are detailed in her letters.

In 1744 Eliza Lucas married Charles Pinckney (1699–1758), a wealthy, widowed South Carolina lawyer and planter who shared her interest in horticulture and who promoted indigo cultivation in articles published under the pseudonym “Agricola.”<ref>Feeser 2013, 55, 57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, 71–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]. For his career, see Walter B. Edgar and N. Louise Bailey, ''Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives'', 5 vols. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 2:522–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G89DVTV3 view on Zotero].</ref> Continuing to act as her father’s agent, she embarked on fresh experiments, endeavoring to cultivate flax, hemp, and silk as well as foreign species of trees. For advice, she turned to Dr. [[Alexander Garden]], a family friend and pioneering South Carolina botanist.<ref>Feeser 2013, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Ben Marsh, “Silk Hopes in Colonial South Carolina,” ''Journal of South History'' 78 (2012): 807–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGKXEP4T view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 102, 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]. </ref> Pinckney and her family left South Carolina for England in 1753. She arranged an audience at Kew Palace in order to present Princess Augusta— mother of the future King George III—with gifts indigenous to South Carolina, including birds (an indigo nonpareil and a yellow bird) and silk of her own cultivation.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 143–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero].</ref> On a tour to see “everything [that] was curious and Elegant” in Wiltshire, she visited several stately homes renowned for their gardens and [[park]]s, including Wilton House and Longford Castle. From her residence in Surrey, she often visited friends at Beddington Park, where magnificent Tudor-era gardens featuring [[orangery|orangeries]] and imported fruit trees had been updated a few decades earlier with a [[canal]] and radiating tree-lined [[avenue]]s.<ref>John Phillips, ''Beddington Park and the Grange Management Plan 2009–2014 Appendices'' (Sutton Parks Service, 2008), 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AX2ABMR6 view on Zotero]; John Phillips and Nicholas Burnett, “The Chronology and Layout of Francis Carew’s Garden at Beddington, Surrey,” ''Garden History'' 33 (2005), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKJXS9I view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 143–54, 157, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 77, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

Soon after returning to South Carolina in 1758, Pinckney’s husband died and she assumed responsibility for managing a number of his [[plantation]]s and other properties. She corresponded with an extensive network of friends across the Atlantic, to whom she occasionally sent distinctive South Carolina flora and fauna. To the King family of Ockham Court, Surrey, for example, she sent a pimento tree (“a pretty ornament in my Lords [[Greenhouse|Green-house]]”) as well as myrtle and magnolia seeds, describing the latter as “the most beautiful of all trees.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 119–20, 139, 155–56, 162, 175–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> In a letter of 1760 to a friend in London, she described the extensive landscaping project she was overseeing at Belmont [[Plantation]]: “I am myself head gardener and I believe work much harder than most principal ones. We found it in ruins when we arrived from England, so that we have had a [[wood]] to clear, and indeed it was laid out in the [[ancient style|old taste]], so that I have been modernizing it which has afforded me much imployment.” Carrying out her work with precision, Pinckney complained of the mistaken felling of “one remarkable fine tree” planted by her husband, explaining that “Being a sort of enthusiast in my Veneration for fine trees, I look upon. . . an old oak with the reverencial [''sic''] Esteem of a Druid.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 185, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; re. Pinckney’s failed attempt to prevent the British from burning “certain Oak Trees of remarkable beauty” planted by her husband at Belmont, as described in Alexander Garden, ''Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character of Persons the Most Distinguished, in the Southern States, for Civil and Military Services'' (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1822), 268–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CVQHMHV view on Zotero]; and Eliza Lucas Pinckney, “Letters of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1768–1782,” ed. Elise Pinckney, ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 76 (1975): 170, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/56EA7US6 view on Zotero].</ref> On a visit to South Carolina in 1791, George Washington visited Pinckney and her family, who “arrayed [themselves] in sashes and bandeaux painted with the general’s portrait and mottoes of welcome.” When she died two years later, Washington asked to serve as one of her pallbearers.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 311, 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; see also Constance Schulz, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and Harriott Pinckney Horry: A South Carolina Revolutionary-Era Mother and Daughter,” in ''South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times'', ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Valinda Littlefield, and Joan Marie Johnson, 3 vols. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 1:101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MIVQQUQ6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 35)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"> Pinckney 1972, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“O! I had like to forget the last thing I have done a great while. I have planted a large figg [[orchard]] with design to dry and export them. I have reckoned my expence and the prophets to arise from these figgs, but was I to tell you how great an Estate I am to make this way, and how ’tis to be laid out you would think me far gone in romance.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 36)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“You may wonder how I could in this gay season think of planting a Cedar [[grove]], which rather reflects an Autumnal gloom and solemnity than the freshness and gayty of spring. But so it is. I have begun it last week and intend to make it an Emblem not of a lady, but of a compliment which your good Aunt was pleased to make to the person her partiality has made happy by giving her a place in her esteem and friendship. I intend then to connect in my [[grove]] the solemnity (not the solidity) of summer or autumn with the cheerfulness and pleasures of spring, for it shall be filled with all kind of flowers, as well wild as Garden flowers, with seats of Camomoil and here and there a fruit tree—oranges, nectrons, Plumbs, &c., &c.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“The house stands a mile from, but in sight of the road, and makes a very hansoume appearance; as you draw nearer new beauties discover themselves, first the fruitful Vine manteling up the [[wall]] loading with delicious Clusters; next a spacious [[basin|bason]] in the midst of a large [[green]] presents itself as you enter the [[gate]] that leads to the house, which is neatly finished; the rooms well contrived and elegantly furnished. From the back door is a spacious [[walk]] a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpentine manner with flowers. Next to that on the right hand is what imediately struck my rural taste, a [[thicket]] of young tall live oaks where a variety of Airry Chorristers pour forth their melody; and my darling, the mocking bird, joyned in the artless Concert and inchanted me with his harmony. Opposite on the left hand is a large square [[bowling green|boleing green]] sunk a little below the level of the rest of the garden with a [[walk]] quite round composed of a double row of fine large flowering Laurel and Catulpas which form both shade and beauty.

:“My letter will be of an unreasonable length if I dont pass over the [[mount]]s, [[Wilderness]], etc., and come to the bottom of this charming spott where is a large fish [[pond]] with a [[mount]] rising out of the middle—the top of which is level with the dwelling house and upon it is a roman [[temple]]. On each side of this are other large fish [[pond]]s properly disposed which form a fine [[prospect]] of water from the house.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I. . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the [[Avenue]] that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1761, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 162)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I will endeavor to make amends and not only send the Seeds but plant a [[nursery]] here to be sent you in plants at 2 years old.”

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://src6.cas.sc.edu/poelp/ The Digital Edition of Eliza Lucas Pinckney & Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1739–1830]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]]

Eliza Lucas Pinckney

2021-09-28T17:27:06Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Alternate names=Eliza Lucas; Elizabeth Lucas Pinckney
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=December 28, 1722
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=May 26, 1793
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=British Colony of Antigua
|Keywords=Avenue; Basin; Bowling green; Gate/Gateway; Green; Grove; Mount; Nursery; Orchard; Plot/Plat; Pond; Prospect; Seat; Temple; Thicket; Walk; Wall; Wilderness
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n50010298.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00737.html?a=1&n=pinckney&d=10&ss=4&q=6
|External link text=American National Biography Online
}}
}}
'''Elizabeth “Eliza” Lucas Pinckney''' (December 28, 1722–May 26, 1793) managed several [[plantation]]s in South Carolina, including Wapoo and Belmont, where she laid out gardens. Her extensive correspondence includes descriptions of local houses and gardens. An agricultural innovator and amateur botanist, Pinckney was a pioneer in the American cultivation of indigo, which became South Carolina’s second most lucrative cash crop—second only to rice—and a crucial buttress to the colony’s faltering economy.

==History==
Born to expatriate English parents living on the West Indian island of Antigua, Eliza Lucas received a classical education in London.<ref>Harriet Simons Williams, “Eliza Lucas and Her Family: Before the Letterbook,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 99, no. 3 (July 1998): 259–79, 265–68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> In about 1739 she and her family relocated to South Carolina, where her father had inherited a [[plantation]] on Wappoo Creek, near Charleston.<ref>For evidence regarding the date of the family’s arrival in America, see Williams 1998, 268–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> Recalled to Antigua shortly thereafter, he entrusted the responsibility of managing Wappoo [[Plantation]] and two much larger Carolina estates to his sixteen-year-old daughter. She later recalled his assurance that she could channel her fondness for “the vegetable world” into “something of real and public utility, If I could bring to perfection the plants of other Countries which he would procure me.”<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972) 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; see also David L. Coon, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and the Reintroduction of Indigo Culture in South Carolina,” ''Journal of Southern History'' 42 (1976): 66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]; Christopher P. Iannini, ''Fatal Revolutions: Natural History, West Indian Slavery, and the Routes of American Literature'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 119, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZGRU793 view on Zotero]; Barbara L. Bellows, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney: The Evolution of an Icon,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 106 (2005): 147–65, 152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I5WWSVB9 view on Zotero].</ref> Armed with her father’s collection of books and the seeds he sent from Antigua for trial growth, she experimented with ginger, cotton, cassava, and alfalfa before producing a successful crop of indigo (''Indigofera tinctoria''), an export commodity that was in great demand in Britain for its use as a blue dye.<ref> Andrea Feeser, ''Red, White, and Black Make Blue: Indigo in the Fabric of Colonial South Carolina Life'' (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013), 103–104, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Joyce E. Chaplin, ''An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 152, 192, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ER3AQKMJ view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero].</ref> She also carried out landscape improvements at Wappoo, laying out a fig [[orchard]], [[grove]]s of oak and cedar trees, and a garden where she strolled each morning.<ref>Harriott Horry Ravenel, ''Eliza Pinckney'' (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1896), 5, 31–32, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 7, 34–36, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> These and other agricultural projects, together with political and local events and social calls to neighboring houses, such as Crowfield, are detailed in her letters.

In 1744 Eliza Lucas married Charles Pinckney (1699–1758), a wealthy, widowed South Carolina lawyer and planter who shared her interest in horticulture and who promoted indigo cultivation in articles published under the pseudonym “Agricola.”<ref>Feeser 2013, 55, 57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, 71–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]. For his career, see Walter B. Edgar and N. Louise Bailey, ''Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives'', 5 vols. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 2:522–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G89DVTV3 view on Zotero].</ref> Continuing to act as her father’s agent, she embarked on fresh experiments, endeavoring to cultivate flax, hemp, and silk as well as foreign species of trees. For advice, she turned to Dr. [[Alexander Garden]], a family friend and pioneering South Carolina botanist.<ref>Feeser 2013, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Ben Marsh, “Silk Hopes in Colonial South Carolina,” ''Journal of South History'' 78 (2012): 807–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGKXEP4T view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 102, 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]. </ref> Pinckney and her family left South Carolina for England in 1753. She arranged an audience at Kew Palace in order to present Princess Augusta— mother of the future King George III—with gifts indigenous to South Carolina, including birds (an indigo nonpareil and a yellow bird) and silk of her own cultivation.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 143–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero].</ref> On a tour to see “everything [that] was curious and Elegant” in Wiltshire, she visited several stately homes renowned for their gardens and [[park]]s, including Wilton House and Longford Castle. From her residence in Surrey, she often visited friends at Beddington Park, where magnificent Tudor-era gardens featuring [[orangery|orangeries]] and imported fruit trees had been updated a few decades earlier with a [[canal]] and radiating tree-lined [[avenue]]s.<ref>John Phillips, ''Beddington Park and the Grange Management Plan 2009–2014 Appendices'' (Sutton Parks Service, 2008), 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AX2ABMR6 view on Zotero]; John Phillips and Nicholas Burnett, “The Chronology and Layout of Francis Carew’s Garden at Beddington, Surrey,” ''Garden History'' 33 (2005), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKJXS9I view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 143–54, 157, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 77, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

Soon after returning to South Carolina in 1758, Pinckney’s husband died and she assumed responsibility for managing a number of his [[plantation]]s and other properties. She corresponded with an extensive network of friends across the Atlantic, to whom she occasionally sent distinctive South Carolina flora and fauna. To the King family of Ockham Court, Surrey, for example, she sent a pimento tree (“a pretty ornament in my Lords [[Greenhouse|Green-house]]”) as well as myrtle and magnolia seeds, describing the latter as “the most beautiful of all trees.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 119–20, 139, 155–56, 162, 175–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> In a letter of 1760 to a friend in London, she described the extensive landscaping project she was overseeing at Belmont [[Plantation]]: “I am myself head gardener and I believe work much harder than most principal ones. We found it in ruins when we arrived from England, so that we have had a [[wood]] to clear, and indeed it was laid out in the [[ancient style|old taste]], so that I have been modernizing it which has afforded me much imployment.” Carrying out her work with precision, Pinckney complained of the mistaken felling of “one remarkable fine tree” planted by her husband, explaining that “Being a sort of enthusiast in my Veneration for fine trees, I look upon. . . an old oak with the reverencial [''sic''] Esteem of a Druid.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 185, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; re. Pinckney’s failed attempt to prevent the British from burning “certain Oak Trees of remarkable beauty” planted by her husband at Belmont, as described in Alexander Garden, ''Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character of Persons the Most Distinguished, in the Southern States, for Civil and Military Services'' (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1822), 268–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CVQHMHV view on Zotero]; and Eliza Lucas Pinckney, “Letters of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1768–1782,” ed. Elise Pinckney, ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 76 (1975): 170, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/56EA7US6 view on Zotero].</ref> On a visit to South Carolina in 1791, George Washington visited Pinckney and her family, who “arrayed [themselves] in sashes and bandeaux painted with the general’s portrait and mottoes of welcome.” When she died two years later, Washington asked to serve as one of her pallbearers.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 311, 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; see also Constance Schulz, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and Harriott Pinckney Horry: A South Carolina Revolutionary-Era Mother and Daughter,” in ''South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times'', ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Valinda Littlefield, and Joan Marie Johnson, 3 vols. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 1:101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MIVQQUQ6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 35)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"> Pinckney 1972, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“O! I had like to forget the last thing I have done a great while. I have planted a large figg [[orchard]] with design to dry and export them. I have reckoned my expence and the prophets to arise from these figgs, but was I to tell you how great an Estate I am to make this way, and how ’tis to be laid out you would think me far gone in romance.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 36)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“You may wonder how I could in this gay season think of planting a Cedar [[grove]], which rather reflects an Autumnal gloom and solemnity than the freshness and gayty of spring. But so it is. I have begun it last week and intend to make it an Emblem not of a lady, but of a compliment which your good Aunt was pleased to make to the person her partiality has made happy by giving her a place in her esteem and friendship. I intend then to connect in my [[grove]] the solemnity (not the solidity) of summer or autumn with the cheerfulness and pleasures of spring, for it shall be filled with all kind of flowers, as well wild as Garden flowers, with seats of Camomoil and here and there a fruit tree—oranges, nectrons, Plumbs, &c., &c.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“The house stands a mile from, but in sight of the road, and makes a very hansoume appearance; as you draw nearer new beauties discover themselves, first the fruitful Vine manteling up the [[wall]] loading with delicious Clusters; next a spacious [[basin|bason]] in the midst of a large [[green]] presents itself as you enter the [[gate]] that leads to the house, which is neatly finished; the rooms well contrived and elegantly furnished. From the back door is a spacious [[walk]] a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpentine manner with flowers. Next to that on the right hand is what imediately struck my rural taste, a [[thicket]] of young tall live oaks where a variety of Airry Chorristers pour forth their melody; and my darling, the mocking bird, joyned in the artless Concert and inchanted me with his harmony. Opposite on the left hand is a large square [[bowling green|boleing green]] sunk a little below the level of the rest of the garden with a [[walk]] quite round composed of a double row of fine large flowering Laurel and Catulpas which form both shade and beauty.

:“My letter will be of an unreasonable length if I dont pass over the [[mount]]s, [[Wilderness]], etc., and come to the bottom of this charming spott where is a large fish [[pond]] with a [[mount]] rising out of the middle—the top of which is level with the dwelling house and upon it is a roman [[temple]]. On each side of this are other large fish [[pond]]s properly disposed which form a fine [[prospect]] of water from the house.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I. . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the [[Avenue]] that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1761, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 162)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I will endeavor to make amends and not only send the Seeds but plant a [[nursery]] here to be sent you in plants at 2 years old.”

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://src6.cas.sc.edu/poelp/ The Digital Edition of Eliza Lucas Pinckney & Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1739–1830]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]]

Eliza Lucas Pinckney

2021-09-28T17:26:32Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Alternate names=Eliza Lucas
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=December 28, 1722
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=May 26, 1793
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=British Colony of Antigua
|Keywords=Avenue; Basin; Bowling green; Gate/Gateway; Green; Grove; Mount; Nursery; Orchard; Plot/Plat; Pond; Prospect; Seat; Temple; Thicket; Walk; Wall; Wilderness
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n50010298.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00737.html?a=1&n=pinckney&d=10&ss=4&q=6
|External link text=American National Biography Online
}}
}}
'''Elizabeth “Eliza” Lucas Pinckney''' (December 28, 1722–May 26, 1793) managed several [[plantation]]s in South Carolina, including Wapoo and Belmont, where she laid out gardens. Her extensive correspondence includes descriptions of local houses and gardens. An agricultural innovator and amateur botanist, Pinckney was a pioneer in the American cultivation of indigo, which became South Carolina’s second most lucrative cash crop—second only to rice—and a crucial buttress to the colony’s faltering economy.

==History==
Born to expatriate English parents living on the West Indian island of Antigua, Eliza Lucas received a classical education in London.<ref>Harriet Simons Williams, “Eliza Lucas and Her Family: Before the Letterbook,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 99, no. 3 (July 1998): 259–79, 265–68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> In about 1739 she and her family relocated to South Carolina, where her father had inherited a [[plantation]] on Wappoo Creek, near Charleston.<ref>For evidence regarding the date of the family’s arrival in America, see Williams 1998, 268–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FT66IBDR view on Zotero].</ref> Recalled to Antigua shortly thereafter, he entrusted the responsibility of managing Wappoo [[Plantation]] and two much larger Carolina estates to his sixteen-year-old daughter. She later recalled his assurance that she could channel her fondness for “the vegetable world” into “something of real and public utility, If I could bring to perfection the plants of other Countries which he would procure me.”<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972) 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; see also David L. Coon, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and the Reintroduction of Indigo Culture in South Carolina,” ''Journal of Southern History'' 42 (1976): 66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]; Christopher P. Iannini, ''Fatal Revolutions: Natural History, West Indian Slavery, and the Routes of American Literature'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 119, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZGRU793 view on Zotero]; Barbara L. Bellows, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney: The Evolution of an Icon,” ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 106 (2005): 147–65, 152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I5WWSVB9 view on Zotero].</ref> Armed with her father’s collection of books and the seeds he sent from Antigua for trial growth, she experimented with ginger, cotton, cassava, and alfalfa before producing a successful crop of indigo (''Indigofera tinctoria''), an export commodity that was in great demand in Britain for its use as a blue dye.<ref> Andrea Feeser, ''Red, White, and Black Make Blue: Indigo in the Fabric of Colonial South Carolina Life'' (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013), 103–104, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Joyce E. Chaplin, ''An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 152, 192, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ER3AQKMJ view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero].</ref> She also carried out landscape improvements at Wappoo, laying out a fig [[orchard]], [[grove]]s of oak and cedar trees, and a garden where she strolled each morning.<ref>Harriott Horry Ravenel, ''Eliza Pinckney'' (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1896), 5, 31–32, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 7, 34–36, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> These and other agricultural projects, together with political and local events and social calls to neighboring houses, such as Crowfield, are detailed in her letters.

In 1744 Eliza Lucas married Charles Pinckney (1699–1758), a wealthy, widowed South Carolina lawyer and planter who shared her interest in horticulture and who promoted indigo cultivation in articles published under the pseudonym “Agricola.”<ref>Feeser 2013, 55, 57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Coon 1976, 71–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J262NVUJ view on Zotero]. For his career, see Walter B. Edgar and N. Louise Bailey, ''Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives'', 5 vols. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 2:522–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G89DVTV3 view on Zotero].</ref> Continuing to act as her father’s agent, she embarked on fresh experiments, endeavoring to cultivate flax, hemp, and silk as well as foreign species of trees. For advice, she turned to Dr. [[Alexander Garden]], a family friend and pioneering South Carolina botanist.<ref>Feeser 2013, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRJZJRNF view on Zotero]; Ben Marsh, “Silk Hopes in Colonial South Carolina,” ''Journal of South History'' 78 (2012): 807–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGKXEP4T view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 102, 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]. </ref> Pinckney and her family left South Carolina for England in 1753. She arranged an audience at Kew Palace in order to present Princess Augusta— mother of the future King George III—with gifts indigenous to South Carolina, including birds (an indigo nonpareil and a yellow bird) and silk of her own cultivation.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 143–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero].</ref> On a tour to see “everything [that] was curious and Elegant” in Wiltshire, she visited several stately homes renowned for their gardens and [[park]]s, including Wilton House and Longford Castle. From her residence in Surrey, she often visited friends at Beddington Park, where magnificent Tudor-era gardens featuring [[orangery|orangeries]] and imported fruit trees had been updated a few decades earlier with a [[canal]] and radiating tree-lined [[avenue]]s.<ref>John Phillips, ''Beddington Park and the Grange Management Plan 2009–2014 Appendices'' (Sutton Parks Service, 2008), 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AX2ABMR6 view on Zotero]; John Phillips and Nicholas Burnett, “The Chronology and Layout of Francis Carew’s Garden at Beddington, Surrey,” ''Garden History'' 33 (2005), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKJXS9I view on Zotero]; Ravenel 1896, 143–54, 157, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; Pinckney 1972, 77, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

Soon after returning to South Carolina in 1758, Pinckney’s husband died and she assumed responsibility for managing a number of his [[plantation]]s and other properties. She corresponded with an extensive network of friends across the Atlantic, to whom she occasionally sent distinctive South Carolina flora and fauna. To the King family of Ockham Court, Surrey, for example, she sent a pimento tree (“a pretty ornament in my Lords [[Greenhouse|Green-house]]”) as well as myrtle and magnolia seeds, describing the latter as “the most beautiful of all trees.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 119–20, 139, 155–56, 162, 175–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref> In a letter of 1760 to a friend in London, she described the extensive landscaping project she was overseeing at Belmont [[Plantation]]: “I am myself head gardener and I believe work much harder than most principal ones. We found it in ruins when we arrived from England, so that we have had a [[wood]] to clear, and indeed it was laid out in the [[ancient style|old taste]], so that I have been modernizing it which has afforded me much imployment.” Carrying out her work with precision, Pinckney complained of the mistaken felling of “one remarkable fine tree” planted by her husband, explaining that “Being a sort of enthusiast in my Veneration for fine trees, I look upon. . . an old oak with the reverencial [''sic''] Esteem of a Druid.”<ref>Pinckney 1972, 185, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero]; re. Pinckney’s failed attempt to prevent the British from burning “certain Oak Trees of remarkable beauty” planted by her husband at Belmont, as described in Alexander Garden, ''Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character of Persons the Most Distinguished, in the Southern States, for Civil and Military Services'' (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1822), 268–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CVQHMHV view on Zotero]; and Eliza Lucas Pinckney, “Letters of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1768–1782,” ed. Elise Pinckney, ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 76 (1975): 170, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/56EA7US6 view on Zotero].</ref> On a visit to South Carolina in 1791, George Washington visited Pinckney and her family, who “arrayed [themselves] in sashes and bandeaux painted with the general’s portrait and mottoes of welcome.” When she died two years later, Washington asked to serve as one of her pallbearers.<ref>Ravenel 1896, 311, 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P6XKAXAP view on Zotero]; see also Constance Schulz, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and Harriott Pinckney Horry: A South Carolina Revolutionary-Era Mother and Daughter,” in ''South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times'', ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Valinda Littlefield, and Joan Marie Johnson, 3 vols. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 1:101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MIVQQUQ6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 35)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"> Pinckney 1972, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“O! I had like to forget the last thing I have done a great while. I have planted a large figg [[orchard]] with design to dry and export them. I have reckoned my expence and the prophets to arise from these figgs, but was I to tell you how great an Estate I am to make this way, and how ’tis to be laid out you would think me far gone in romance.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1742, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 36)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“You may wonder how I could in this gay season think of planting a Cedar [[grove]], which rather reflects an Autumnal gloom and solemnity than the freshness and gayty of spring. But so it is. I have begun it last week and intend to make it an Emblem not of a lady, but of a compliment which your good Aunt was pleased to make to the person her partiality has made happy by giving her a place in her esteem and friendship. I intend then to connect in my [[grove]] the solemnity (not the solidity) of summer or autumn with the cheerfulness and pleasures of spring, for it shall be filled with all kind of flowers, as well wild as Garden flowers, with seats of Camomoil and here and there a fruit tree—oranges, nectrons, Plumbs, &c., &c.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“The house stands a mile from, but in sight of the road, and makes a very hansoume appearance; as you draw nearer new beauties discover themselves, first the fruitful Vine manteling up the [[wall]] loading with delicious Clusters; next a spacious [[basin|bason]] in the midst of a large [[green]] presents itself as you enter the [[gate]] that leads to the house, which is neatly finished; the rooms well contrived and elegantly furnished. From the back door is a spacious [[walk]] a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpentine manner with flowers. Next to that on the right hand is what imediately struck my rural taste, a [[thicket]] of young tall live oaks where a variety of Airry Chorristers pour forth their melody; and my darling, the mocking bird, joyned in the artless Concert and inchanted me with his harmony. Opposite on the left hand is a large square [[bowling green|boleing green]] sunk a little below the level of the rest of the garden with a [[walk]] quite round composed of a double row of fine large flowering Laurel and Catulpas which form both shade and beauty.

:“My letter will be of an unreasonable length if I dont pass over the [[mount]]s, [[Wilderness]], etc., and come to the bottom of this charming spott where is a large fish [[pond]] with a [[mount]] rising out of the middle—the top of which is level with the dwelling house and upon it is a roman [[temple]]. On each side of this are other large fish [[pond]]s properly disposed which form a fine [[prospect]] of water from the house.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, c. May 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I. . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the [[Avenue]] that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

* Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 1761, describing Wappoo Plantation, property of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Charleston, SC (1972: 162)<ref name="Pinckney_1972"></ref>

:“I will endeavor to make amends and not only send the Seeds but plant a [[nursery]] here to be sent you in plants at 2 years old.”

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://src6.cas.sc.edu/poelp/ The Digital Edition of Eliza Lucas Pinckney & Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1739–1830]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]]

Pierre Pharoux

2021-09-28T17:22:01Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=1759
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=Yes
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=September 20, 1795
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Roles=Architect; Engineer
|Keywords=Basin; Bridge; Canal; Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall; English style; French style; Greenhouse; Hedge; Meadow; Orchard; Park; Picturesque; Pond; Square; Statue; Sundial; View/Vista; Walk
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2005001257.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
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|External link text=Getty ULAN
}}
}}
'''Étienne-Pierre Pharoux''' (1759? – September 20, 1795)<ref>The date of birth of Pierre Pharoux is unknown. However, archival records from 1790 reports “Pharoux, Etienne-Pierre, architect,” as 31 years old. Source: ''Assemblée électorale de Paris, 18 novembre 1790 - 12 août, 1792 : publiées d'après les originaux des archives nationales, avec des notes historiques et biographiques,'' https://archive.org/stream/assemblelect01charuoft/assemblelect01charuoft_djvu.txt For Pharoux's date of death see note 23</ref> was a French architect, a trained-engineer, and a shareholder and agent of ''La Compagnie de New York'' (the New York Company), a Paris-based land enterprise that in the 1790s launched a speculative endeavor to settle more than two hundred thousand acres of land in a northwestern region of New York State, named Castorland. His experience in America is known through a few executed works, a journal and a series of visionary architectural and town planning designs that document Pharoux’s response to the urban landscape and the natural environment he encountered.

==History==
[[File:2264.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Winterbotham, published by John Reid, ''The state of New York'', 1796.]]
In summer 1794, Étienne-Pierre Pharoux started a survey to acquire proper knowledge of Castorland, today Lewis and Jefferson Counties. [Fig. 1] His journal of the voyage, written in French and compiled for the most part with his compatriot, Simon Desjardins, became an important testimony of post-revolution American history and culture. Often mentioned as the mentor of notorious engineer Marc Isambard Brunel (1769-1849),<ref>When he joined Pharoux and Desjardins, Brunel was a young engineer. Later, he “was celebrated for his tunnels and dockyards” and the construction of the Thames Tunnel. Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: the Americans and the French in a revolutionary world, 1780-1820'', (New York: Knopf, Distributed by Random House, 1989): 47-48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JKGCPHI9 view on Zotero].</ref> Pharoux left his own significant mark on American architecture by responding to the urban landscape and to natural environment he encountered with a series of visionary designs and ambitious plans. His architectural vocabulary featuring a neoclassical style ingrained in French Enlightenment, secured him prominent clients such as U.S. Senator from New York Philip Schuyler—father-in-law of Alexander Hamilton—and the Livingston family.<ref>Douglas G. Bucher, W. Richard Wheeler, Mary Raddant Tomlan, ''A Neat plain modern stile: Philip Hooker and his contemporaries, 1796-1836'', Fred L. Emerson Gallery-Albany Institute of History of Art, (Clinton, N.Y.: Trustees of Hamilton College; Amherst, Mass.: Distributed by University of Massachusetts Press, 1993): 15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5P5RN69S view on Zotero].</ref>

Little is known about Pharoux's life before boarding for New York in 1793. In the years immediately after the French Revolution (1789), he was a member of the ''Bataillon de Volontaires Bonne-Nouvelle'' (1791) and one of the sixteen “''électeurs''” of the Bonne-Nouvelle section of the Electoral Assemblies in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris (1790-1792).<ref> Source: ''Assemblée électorale de Paris, 18 novembre 1790 - 12 août, 1792 : publiées d'après les originaux des archives nationales, avec des notes historiques et biographiques,'' https://archive.org/stream/assemblelect01charuoft/assemblelect01charuoft_djvu.txt</ref> Both Pharoux and Desjardins, the other commissioner of ''La Compagnie'' in charge of Castorland, were marked as "''expert bourgeois''" –trained surveyors– in an architect listing of the time. The record further documents their address, respectively Rue de Cléry n.15 and Rue du Porte-Foin n.15. It appears as Pharoux had begun to work as surveyor in 1789, while Desjardins is listed as practicing since 1782.<ref>“PHAROUX Etienne-Pierre. Expert bourgeois, 1789-1792, Rue de Cléry n. 15 (1790) [. . . ] DESJARDINS, Expert bourgeois, 1782-1792, Rue du Porte-Foin n.15 (1803)”, in Werner Szambien, "Les architectes parisiens à l'époque révolutionnaire", in ''Revue de l'Art'', (1989: 83): 36-50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PQDTXMIK view on Zotero].</ref> However, Pharoux is noted as "''architecte à Paris''" in notary records starting in April 1785.<ref>Source: Probate Registers - Registres de tutelles, Centre historique des Archives nationales (Paris, France), 04/01/1785 - 04/10/1785, AN Y5128A</ref>

As he reported in his journal, Pharoux and Desjardins arrived in New York City from France on a late summer night in September 1793. After a few days, they managed to meet with their American associates and, presented with fewer details about the purchased land than expected, they departed promptly for the first of several inland expeditions in the northwestern frontiers of New York State. They were joined by Marc Isambard Brunel who they had met on the ship from France.<ref>''Précis analytique des travaux'', by the Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Rouen (France: Printed by Alfred Péron, 1849), 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XJP5DXI4 view on Zotero]; and Edith Pilcher, ''Castorland: French refugees in the western Adirondacks, 1793-1814'', (Harrison, N.Y.: Harbor Hill Books, 1985): 36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D79FBV8N view on Zotero].</ref> Most of Desjardins’ cargo, which included nearly two thousand volumes, furniture, plant seeds, and several cases of wine, was seized, and then recovered with the exception of a few bottles of wine that remained with the custom clerks.<ref>Simon Desjardins, Pierre Pharoux, John A. Gallucci, ''Castorland Journal: an account of the exploration and settlement of northern New York State by French émigrés in the years 1793 to 1797'', (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2010): 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EZA7GD99 view on Zotero]. See also, Edith Pilcher, ''Castorland: French refugees in the western Adirondacks, 1793-1814'', (Harrison, N.Y.: Harbor Hill Books, 1985): 102, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FTM3B6VD view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2271.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Pierre Pharoux, Plan of Esperanza, 1795.]]
The documentation of their journey includes descriptions of them traveling the shores of the Black River, the Hudson and Mohawk rivers, where they met with other land speculators, settlers, and members of the Native American tribes such as the Iroquois, the Mississauga, and the Oneida.<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 24, 56, 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5U36Q6T6 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>The journal also narrates their trips to New York and Philadelphia, where they visited the home of [[John Bartram]] on the Schuylkill River ([[#Bartram|view text]]), and includes notes on their meetings with Alexander Hamilton and [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RAAAC5EC view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Philadelphia_cite"></span>While visiting Philadelphia, Pharoux expressed his distaste of the uniformity of the architecture there. He suggested greater diversity in the cityscape, an approach which would emerge in his own architectural plans. ([[#Philadelphia|view text]]) [Fig. 2]

The original journal in French was re-discovered decades later by historian Franklin Benjamin Hough (1822-1885), and remains in the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society.<ref name="Castorland_a">Other members of the expedition included Marc Brunel (1769-1849), Desjardins’s younger brother Geoffrey, and Jean-Baptiste Bossout who sometimes added entries to the journal. The ''Castorland Journal'' was fully translated from the French and published only after Hough’s death. ''Castorland Journal'', (2010): X, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IJ59RR9G view on Zotero].</ref> Hough first described his findings in the ''History of Lewis County'' in 1883, and meant to publish his English translation soon after, but his work was left incomplete. In 1985, historian Edith Pilcher finally published Pharoux and Desjardin’s account for the first time, based on Hough’s translations.<ref name="Castorland_a"></ref>

Compiled two years earlier than the renown journals by [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] about American architecture and landscape, ''Castorland Journal'' is more than an historic record of the two Frenchmen’s voyage across the North East. From a linguistic point of view, translator John Gallucci—who re-published the manuscript in 2010 with a new translation directly from the French original—has described how increasingly, as time passed, both English and French words were used to chronicle the surroundings, revealing the "process of acculturation" of its authors "between two linguistic and cultural worlds."<ref name="Castorland_b">''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XII, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWIJ3UA7 view on Zotero].</ref> Words such as “surveyor, fieldbook, [[fence]], acre, Yankee” were eventually added along with neologisms such as “fencer” to indicate “to fence in.” <ref name="Castorland_b"></ref>

[[File:2272.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Pierre Pharoux, ''A Map of the Black River's [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cataract]]'', 1795.]]
What emerged from their accounts was that, contrary to their expectations, Pharoux and Desjardins encountered a number of significant hardship and obstacles as they surveyed the northern territories. When they first travelled to Albany, they could not move further via land as "there being no road opened for more than thirty miles." The area was in the proximity of Fort Oswego and it was "held by the English at the mouth of the Onnondago," they wrote, and then added “as we were French, it was to be feared that they would not let us through and might even take us prisoner."<ref> Journal entry of 24 September 1973. ''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VWFAC6JI view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Schenectady_cite"></span>Despite improvements in the navigation and [[canal]]s as a consequence of the works led by The Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, traveling in the region remained difficult at least through 1803.<ref>See, Philip Lord Jr., ''The Navigators. A Journal of Passage on the Inland Waterways of New York'', (New York State Museum, 2003), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XSNSTKWU view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Mohawk_cite"></span>Nonetheless, the landscape provided some solace and relief to the two commissioners ([[#Schenectady|view text]]) who found themselves in contemplation of astonishing [[vista]]s throughout their voyage ([[#Mohawk|view text]]). <span id="Seeds_cite"></span>In addition, once their garden was finally established at Castorland [Fig. 3] they were able to put to use the two hundred plant seeds Desjardin had brought over from France and shared with the Baron Von Steuben with whom they had soon become friends, for his property was somewhat close to Castorland. ([[#Seeds|view text]])

<span id="Constitution_cite"></span>''La Compagnie de New York'' was created in Paris in 1793 with the intent to invest in lands in northern and northwestern New York ([[#Constitution|view text]]). Those territories had been purchased from New York State in 1791 by a single individual, merchant Alexander Macomb (1748-1831).<ref>Alta M. Ralph, "The Chassanis or Castorland Settlement," in ''The Quaterly Journal of the New York State Historical Association'', Vol. 10, No 4 (October 1929) 333-345: 333, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RD3E4G9J view on Zotero].</ref> The northwestern region had remained surprisingly unknown to Europeans despite several accounts by explorers and writers of New Amsterdam, New France, and New York.<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XVII, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W4274GJA view on Zotero].</ref> Because the land was teeming with beavers (''castor'' in both French and Latin), it became known as Castorland.<ref>Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: the Americans and the French in a revolutionary world, 1780-1820'', (New York: Knopf, Distributed by Random House, 1989): 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BFSWQ9PG view on Zotero].</ref>

Following the turmoil and instability of the French political scenario at the time, the Macomb’s Purchase became particularly relevant to investors willing to sell the land to those interested in leaving France. There, two prominent French-Americans were directly involved in promoting the sales: former French consul in New York James Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur (1735–1813), author of ''Letters from an American Farmer'' (1782), and James Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont (1760-1841), whose father Jacques, among other things, had served as Benjamin Franklin’s host in France.<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XVIII, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2FGZTGCZ view on Zotero].</ref> Ventures such as the one launched by ''La Compagnie de New York'' were common. Land speculators in the region abounded as the Hudson River was an important waterway for commerce that had attracted the interest of international traders long before the arrival of Pharoux.<ref>Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France'', (1989): 32-36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DTXST383 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2265.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, Claude Joseph Sauthier and William Faden, ''A chorographical map of the Province of New-York in North America, divided into counties, manors, patents and townships; exhibiting likewise all the private grants of land made and located in that Province'', 1779.]]
Before Pharoux and Desjardins embarked on the exploration, ''La Compagnie de New York'' did not own a topographic map of the northwestern lands to show to investors. William Constable, Macomb’s representative in Europe, was using a map by Claude Joseph Sauthier (1736-1802) from 1779, [Fig. 4] on which Constable had wrongly marked the course of the Black River, which constituted the southern border of Castorland.<ref>The history of the speculation over the two thousand acres of land purchased by ''La Compagnie de New York'' is well illustrated by John A. Gallucci in the introduction to the 2010’s edition of the ''Castorland Journal'', in particular in the section dedicated to the Prospectus published in 1792 by the company to publicize the land. ''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XIX- XXIII, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QZZMRSST view on Zotero].</ref> Pharoux and Desjardins soon discovered that "the actual boundaries as measured on the ground resulted in a significant detriment to the New York Company."<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XXIV, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NI6J6BUR view on Zotero].</ref> In addition, agreements with Native Americans concerning the title of the land as stated in the Company’s ''Prospectus'' were uncertain.<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XIX, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QZZMRSST view on Zotero].</ref> The Black River became a major matter of contention due to Constable’s misguidance, as well as to the British garrison on the area near Lake Ontario and played a crucial role in the expedition of the two Frenchmen. Tragically, Pharoux drowned in its waters on September 20, 1795.<ref>Although Roger Kennedy dates Pharoux’s death to September 21, 1795, in his entry to the journal that day Desjardins affirms that the accident had happened the day before: "''Monday, 21 September 1795. . . At three, I caught sight of some people on the other side of the river: I recognized them as being from Pharoux’s company, and I was afraid that there had been some accident. A half- hour later, my fears were confirmed. Messrs. Brodhead & Tassart arrived with one of their men, and informed me that yesterday morning, wanting to cross on a raft to the opposite shore, they were swept into some falls by the violence of the current, where Pharoux and two men perished.''" See, Kennedy, (1989): 52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/MW787XPS view on Zotero], and ''Castorland Journal'', (2010): 205, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KR6HCUB2 view on Zotero].</ref>

Ultimately, the venture of ''La Compagnie de New York'' failed. The enterprise finally dissolved in 1814. Although, in their journal Pharoux and Desjardins reported several settlements in the Northwestern region of New York State, the area did not develop the way they envisioned. After Pharoux’s tragic death, Desjardins completed the survey, but was eventually removed from his post. Those lands later were subject to further business dealing by James Le Ray de Chaumont and his son Vincent.<ref>''Castorland Journal'', (2010): XXVII-XXIX, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5GJTR69S view on Zotero].</ref>

In the two years spent in North America, Pharoux became a prominent figure in the Hudson region holding soirees that made local squires "rush to his doors."<ref>Roger G. Kennedy in the introduction to ''A Neat plain modern stile: Philip Hooker and his contemporaries'', 1796-1836, (1993): 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4E3AEZHT view on Zotero].</ref> Along with the ''Castorland Journal'', the French designer legacy includes a fifty-nine page architectural sketchbook, resurfaced in 1991, in which he rendered plans for potential clients. Historian Roger Kennedy has defined it as "the most important book of architectural drawings to be created in the Western Hemisphere before the advent of the nineteenth century."<ref>Quote by Roger G. Kennedy, "A new discovery enhances the architectural legacy of Pierre Pharoux," in ''Architectural digest'', CXXXIX:2, (Feb 1991): 27-40, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JXZMT7E2 view on Zotero].</ref> Many of his designs were never or only partially executed. Among these were the ambitious plans for the town of Esperanza sited on the west side of the Hudson River (also called Speranza, and now Athens, NY) commissioned by the Livingston family [See Figs. 2, 5-11].<ref>Douglas G. Bucher, W. Richard Wheeler, Mary Raddant Tomlan, ''A Neat plain modern stile: Philip Hooker and his contemporaries, 1796-1836'', Fred L. Emerson Gallery-Albany Institute of History of Art, (Clinton, N.Y.: Trustees of Hamilton College; Amherst, Mass.: Distributed by University of Massachusetts Press, 1993): 35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/H9VRJ3JF view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2266.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''City Tavern'', 1795.]]
[[File:2267.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Market'', 1795.]]
[[File:2268.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Courthouse'', 1795.]]
[[File:2269.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 8, Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Church'', 1795.]]
[[File:2270.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Small Building'', 1795.]]
The plans were made in early January 1795 and sent to engraver Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin (1770–1852) in April [Figs. 5-9]. In a few months, the French architect had realized "the map. . . the plan of the church. . . [laid out] the streets and lots. . . and [made] plans [of] various edifices to be constructed there."<ref>Quote in ''Orders from France'', (1989): 70-71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C9PJE8E2 view on Zotero].</ref> Pharoux organized the urban environment into a grid made of [[avenue]]s that frame lots, [[square]]s, and parks, the latter often arranged symmetrically around buildings [Fig. 10]. In another drawing, perhaps also for Esperanza, a building constitutes the focal point from which a series of streets radiate outwards while intersecting semi-circular roads. Parks and gardens are sketched as part of the overall design. [Fig. 11]
[[File:2273.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 10, Pierre Pharoux, Plan of two buildings and parks at Esperanza, 1795.]]
[[File:2274.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Pierre Pharoux, Plan of an area of Esperanza, 1795]]

[[File:2255.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 12, Pierre Pharoux, "General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor", c. 1793.]]
[[File:0973.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Pierre Pharoux, "Plan of Tivoli Laid Out into Town Lots" [detail], 1795.]]
<span id="Steuben_cite"></span>In addition, Pharoux made a plan on a grand scale for the estate of Baron Von Steuben near Remsen, NY, ([[#Steuben|view text]]) [Fig. 12] and one for the town of Tivoli [Fig. 13] commissioned by Pierre de La Bigarre, who had purchased the land on the Hudson River from Robert R. Livingston.<ref>''Orders from France'', (1989): 9 and 77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7ECG2KWK view on Zotero].</ref> His neoclassical style had helped Pharoux to build a reputation for himself, for it suited well the taste of his contemporaries and those seeking to move away from the "Anglo-Dutch red-brick-and-white-trim of the past" which many saw as a reminiscence of the British colonial period and appearance.<ref name="Orders">''Order from France'', (1989): 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FJ54INJ6 view on Zotero].</ref>

Roger Kennedy has argued that Pharoux’s architectural vocabulary was vast and he was willing to move nimbly between styles and to combine a neoclassicist language imbued with a sought-after French taste with other visual elements.<ref name="Orders"></ref> For instance, he still considered bricks (as he had done in the plans for Esperanza) for the design of a three-story shop, granary, and residence for Jacob Quesnel, which also included a [[yard]], to be located on the northeast corner of Market (now Broadway) and State streets, in Albany, NY [Figs. 14-15]. It remains uncertain whether Quesnel’s house was ever built.<ref>''A Neat plain modern stile: Philip Hooker and his contemporaries, 1796-1836'', (1993): 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6VDAVDSP view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:2276.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 14, Pierre Pharoux, Plan for the house of Jacob Quesnel, first floor and storefront, 1795]]

Immediately after the American Revolution, the architectural style of American cities was multifarious. Had he survived, Pharoux might have contributed to modify the appearance of American cities as did [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1764-1820), [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] (1754-1825), or Joseph Ramée (1764-1842), with whom he shared a style that moved away from the Anglo-Dutch appearance but remained informed by past European traditions.<ref>Cfr, H. Paul Caemmerer, ''Pierre Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'', (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2ATXHTWZ view on Zotero]; Thomas E. Conroy III, "The politics of style: buildings, builders, and the creation of federal Boston" (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2005), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AT22CQZR view on Zotero]; Therese O’Malley, "Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC 1791–1852" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IJ3JTTJB/ view on Zotero]; Paul Venable Turner, ''Joseph Ramée: international architect of the revolutionary era'', (Cambridge; New York, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CEPVZW68 view on Zotero].</ref> As noted by Kennedy, this was a moment when "the language of architecture, like the language of commerce, became more and more multilingual."<ref>Quote by Kennedy, ''Orders from France'', (1989): 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M6NFK9TF view on Zotero].</ref> Pharoux seems to have embraced the multilingualism himself, as is shown in the ''Castorland Journal'' and his sketchbook.

—''Valeria Federici''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Constitution"></div>Anonymous, Constitution of ''La Compagnie de New York'', 1793, Heading 6, Article 4 [in Gallucci, 2010: XVII]<ref>Pharoux and Desjardins were required to fill a journal as per the constitution of the company. ''Castorland Journal'' (2010): XVII, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W4274GJA view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . .to attend the formation of the individual lots. . ."
:"8th. . . to solicit from the government of New York the opening and the making, at the expense of the said government, of the main roads and [[canal]]s for communication." [[#Constitution_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Schenectady"></div>Simon Desjardin and Pierre Pharoux commenting on the landscape in the proximity of Schenectady, NY [in Gallucci, 2010: 12]<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GG3IGPBI view on Zotero].</ref>

:3 October 1793 ". . .At about a mile, we encountered the first rapid. . . When we had crossed this obstacle by using poles. . . we found ourselves on a plane higher than the rest of the waters to the left, right, and behind us; this gave us a [[view]] as novel as it was [[picturesque]]." [[#Schenectady_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Mohawk"></div>Simon Desjardin and Pierre Pharoux commenting on the surroundings of the Mohawk River [in Philip Lord Jr., 2003]<ref>Philip Lord Jr., ''The Navigators'' (2003), 24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SEDSUJDH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Finally you land at the foot of the [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|fall]], at the mouth of the projected [[canal]]. This spot presents a scene at once grand, wild, and romantic, and it might well nourish melancholy thoughts of ruin, chaos, and desolation." [[#Mohawk_cite|back up to History]]

*Pierre Pharoux describing Elizabethtown outside New York City [in Gallucci, 2010: 66-67]<ref name="Castorland_c">''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 66-67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RTJQQP99 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"27 November 1793. . . Disembarking one mile from Elizabethtown; we got there by a road made of trees laid across the salt marshes. It is very pretty, rural city. Its proximity to New York and its soil, suitable for fruits, explain why its inhabitants cultivate these especially, with the result that here, even this late in the season, the countryside has been planted and offers to the eye of the traveler a delightful [[orchard]]."

*<div id="Philadelphia"></div>Pierre Pharoux describing Philadelphia [in Gallucci, 2010: 67-69]<ref name="Castorland_c"></ref>

:28 November 1793 ". . .the city of Philadelphia is the one city in the universe where a foreigner has the most reasons for getting lost, since all the streets look alike."
:2 December 1793. "A Sojourn in Philadelphia appeared to us as sad, as the city is uniform. . . The [[view]] of the Delaware is obstructed by dingy and obscure houses whose foundations are laid in the mud of the harbor, so at to shut out of [[view]] both the river and the shipping. There is not a public [[square]]. The building where Congress meets is a pile of bricks, as is the library, over the door of which the fine [[statue]] of Franklin has set into a recess, like a saint, with the result that the sculpture’s beauty cannot be enjoyed." [[#Philadelphia_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Steuben"></div>Pierre Pharoux describing Baron Von Steuben’s estate plan [in Kennedy, 1989: 52]<ref>Quote in ''Orders from France'', (1989): 52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/MW787XPS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There would be a [[French style|French]] formal garden next to the house, where one could take the air after dinner before strolling graveled [[walk]]s around the [[pond]] and [[meadow]]."[Fig. 12] [[#Steuben_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:2279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Simon Desjardins, Pierre Pharoux, Castorland journal, 1793-1797, p. 285/294]]
*Simon Desjardin and Pierre Pharoux describing several improvements to Castorland [in Gallucci, 2010: 93, 98, 106, 107, 126]<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 93, 98, 106, 107, 126, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PK3R8E57 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"17 June 1794. Pharoux made a plan for a small [[pond]] in the [[English style]], which was to collect all the waters and then distribute them into the prairie below. Our loghouse was completely covered and the hinges set in place. . ."
:"23 June 1794. Pharoux made the plan of the fall and the two [[basin]]s, upper and lower. . . Above the great [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|fall]], the junction of the Moose River with the Black River creates a peaceful [[basin]], the waters of which, held back by a long belt of closely joined rocks, rapidly escape over their entire extent in a two-foot sloping sheet until they reach the opening in the rocks of the [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], where they plunge downwards in an impetuous torrent which widens as it falls." [Fig. 3]
:"5 July 1794. Baptiste was kept busy enclosing the small garden with some dry [[hedge]]s."
:"7 July 1794. Settlement. The hoeing of the small garden was finished, it was sown and planted. It has only a cord and a half of terrain but is sufficient for this year.”
:"12 August 1794. Survey. Made the leveling table as indicated below and a [[Sundial|sun-dial]] for latitude 40°."

*<div id="Seeds"></div>Simon Desjardin commenting his departure for New York [in Gallucci, 2010: 129]<ref>Desjardin first mentioned “a case of seeds” he “had brought from France” on May 20, 1794, then on June 30, 1974, and finally on August 15, 1794. ''Castorland Journal'' (2010), 84, 102, 129, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZXICFSKB view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Journey to New York''. I had our waggon set out as soon as it was morning, loaded with provisions and a shipment of cabbage, sorrel, etc., that the Baron gave me for our garden. The Baron’s was perfectly well maintained and stocked, due to my chest of seeds from Europe, of which I had made a present to him, foreseeing that it would be impossible to sow them this year at Castorland. For this, the Baron was very grateful and said to us that he considered himself as my depositary, and that not only he but his neighbors, to whom he had distributed some, would furnish me with everything of this sort which we might need afterwards. The Baron had sown some lentils, which succeeded perfectly well, in spite of the prejudice which leads to their not being cultivated. They are an excellent acquisition for this country." [[#Seeds_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Bartram"></div>Simon Desjardin and Pierre Pahroux describing the property of [[John Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] at Schuylkill [in Gallucci, 2010: 161; 162]<ref>''Castorland Journal'' (2010): 161, 162, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZSWFURFI view on Zotero].</ref>

:''Saturday, 6 December 1794'' We went to see M. Le Rebours, one of our fellow passengers. He had retired to the home of [[John Bartram|Mr. Bartram]], the botanist. . . The farm is about five miles from Philadelphia, on the Schuylkill. We crossed over the [[bridge]]s made of logs which he described and which are very dangerous, there not being a year in which several accidents do not occur. The countryside on the other shore is uneven. The land, as it is all along the North River, is also very uneven and composed of rock, sand and clay, which proximity to manures, the products of a large city, can alone fertilize. We could see some houses rather attractively located, the [[view]] of the Schuykill offering some charming [[view]]s. We found, not without difficulty, the house of [[John Bartram|Mr. Bartram]], and our friend Le Rebours in a dressing gown, a pair of large spectacles on his nose, his entire appearance that of the true scientist. We complimented him on this, as well as on his very attractively located retreat. The garden and the [[Greenhouse|green house]] have nothing that is not very ordinary and would not be talked of in Europe; but it is a lot for this country. Judging from M. de Crèvecoeur’s narrative, it appears that the son has not augmented greatly his father’s acquisitions. We walked about, visited the [[Botanic_garden|botanical garden]], the farm, the dyke for drying the marsh and protecting the [[meadow]] at the shore of the river from the tide. We dined without being treated to the sounds of the Aeolian harp: it no longer existed and there was no recollection of it even. We also had some very good pork, with cabbage and some excellent apples, which they call Newton pippin, and the seeds of which we kept. [[#Bartram_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2265.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier and William Faden, ''A chorographical map of the Province of New-York in North America, divided into counties, manors, patents and townships; exhibiting likewise all the private grants of land made and located in that Province'', 1779.

File:2279.jpg|Simon Desjardins, Pierre Pharoux, Castorland journal, 1793-1797, p. 285/294

File:2255.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, "General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor", c. 1793.

File: 2266.jpg|Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''City Tavern'', 1795.

File: 2267.jpg|Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Market'', 1795.

File: 2268.jpg|Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Courthouse'', 1795.

File: 2269.jpg|Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Church'', 1795.

File: 2270.jpg|Charles B. J. Févret de Saint-Mémin, ''Small Building'', 1795.

File: 2271.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan of Esperanza, 1795.

File: 2272.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, ''A Map of the Black River's [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cataract]]'', 1795.

File: 2273.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan of two buildings and [[park]]s at Esperanza. 1795.

File: 2274.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan of an area of Esperanza, 1795

File: 2275.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for the house of Jacob Quesnel, 1795.

File: 2276.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for the house of Jacob Quesnel, 1795. First floor and storefront.

File:2264.jpg|William Winterbotham, published by John Reid, ''The state of New York'', 1796.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People]]

William Peters

2021-09-28T17:16:43Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=1702
|Birth Circa=No
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|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
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|Death Date=September 8, 1789
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
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|Roles=Architect
|Keywords=Avenue; Chinese manner; Green; Hedge; Labyrinth; Obelisk; Prospect; Seat; Statue; Summerhouse; Temple; Vase/Urn; View/Vista; Walk; Wood/Woods
}}
'''William Peters''' (1702–September 8, 1789) was an English lawyer and amateur architect from Liverpool who lived in Philadelphia for nearly three decades before returning to England. He built [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], one of the earliest villa-retreats on the banks of the [[Schuylkill River]], and laid out formal gardens there.

==History==
[[File:0301.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.]]
Peters arrived in Pennsylvania in 1739 and embarked on a lucrative private law practice. Guided by his taste for luxury and his pretensions to high social status, he purchased in July 1742 a 220-acre parcel of land on a commanding position on the west side of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], which he named [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] [Fig. 1].<ref>Richard Peters Jr., “Belmont Mansion,” ''Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia'' 30 (1925): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NFTXIF6S view on Zotero].</ref> He immediately began to develop the property in a remarkably ambitious and sophisticated manner. Conceiving of [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] as an Epicurean retreat, he designed a Palladian-style villa (only the second in America) and extensive [[pleasure garden]]s.<ref>Mark Reinberger, “Belmont: The Bourgeois Villa in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” ''Arris: Journal of the Southeast Chapter of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 9 (1998): 23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref> [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] evidently established Peters’s reputation as an amateur gentleman-architect and he was often called upon to provide his Philadelphia neighbors with expertise in architectural matters. In 1743, while mulling plans for a new residence at [[Springettsbury]], his country estate on the opposite side of the river from [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], Thomas Penn, the Proprietor of Pennsylvania, informed Peters, “I hope to have the pleasure ere long of visiting your Country Retirement and gaining something by your experience.”<ref>Thomas Penn to William Peters, August 22, 1743, quoted in Reinberger 1998, 17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero]. For the involvement of “Mr. Peters” in Penn’s plans for a projected residence at Springettsbury, see Richard Hockley to Thomas Penn, June 27, 1742, in Richard Hockley, “Selected Letters from the Letter-Book of Richard Hockley, of Philadelphia, 1739–1742 (Continued),” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 27 (1903): 435, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NHUS9BK7 view on Zotero].</ref> Writing to Penn a few years later, the Philadelphia merchant Richard Hockley praised the plan Peters had drawn up for a townhouse as “a very compleat one, of the dimensions, and the best I think by far in this place and most convenient and commodious.”<ref>Richard Hockley to Thomas Penn, April 18, 1749, quoted in Reinberger 1998, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref> Peters went on to supervise the construction of a ferry house on the Delaware River for Penn, and to advise Benjamin Chew on plans for a country house he intended to build in the Germantown neighborhood near Philadelphia.<ref>Reinberger 1998, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref>

Peters’s introduction to the Penn family came through his younger brother, the Anglican Reverend Richard Peters (1704–1776), who had immigrated to Philadelphia in 1735 and secured Thomas Penn’s patronage soon after. William Peters provided legal services to the Penns and through their agency gained appointments to a number of profitable public offices, including Notary Public for Pennsylvania (1744), Register of the Admiralty Court of Pennsylvania (1744), and Justice of the Peace and of the Courts of Common Pleas, Quarter Sessions, and Orphans (1757).<ref>John Hill Martin, ''Martin’s Bench and Bar of Philadelphia: Together with Other Lists of Persons Appointed to Administer the Laws in the City and County of Philadelphia, and the Province and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Res Welsh & Co., Publishers, 1883), 9, 33–34, 45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VSUDNHA3 view on Zotero].</ref> Over the years, Thomas Penn became concerned by the degree to which building and landscaping projects at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] were distracting Peters from his official duties. In 1752, the Rev. Peters felt obliged to apologize for his brother’s extravagant expenditure of capital and attention at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], acknowledging in a letter to Penn that William’s “country schemes had well night ruined him, & [the] hurt done to his circumstances by their expense was not half so great as that done by a dissipation of mind.” He nevertheless assured Penn that “now he is come to town & in full business I am in hopes he will do much good.”<ref>The Rev. Richard Peters to Thomas Penn, June 20, 1752, quoted in Reinberger 1998, 36n17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref> Despite this reassurance, William Peters continued to devote himself to rural retirement at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] while neglecting his business in town, prompting Penn, in a letter of 1760, to make the pointed observation, “He may, I think fix some office hours, so as to have time for his Air, Exercise and Retirement.”<ref>Thomas Penn to the Rev. Richard Peters, November 15, 1760, quoted in Reinberger 1998, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref>

Penn allowed William Peters to succeed his brother Richard as secretary of the Pennsylvania Land Office in 1760. Peters served in that capacity for five years, using his position to supplement his income and expand his property holdings by raising warrant and patent fees and purchasing land under false names.<ref>Donna B. Munger, ''Pennsylvania Land Records: A History and Guide for Research'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1991), 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHI9ENMV view on Zotero].</ref> This self-dealing led to a final rift with Penn, who dismissed Peters from office in 1765. Peters returned to England in 1768, settling in Knutsford, Cheshire.<ref>John W. Jordan, ed., ''Colonial Families of Philadelphia'', 2 vols. (New York: Lewis Publishing Company, 1911), 2:1107, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemkey/vsvcx46v view on Zotero].</ref> He created a deed of trust leaving [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] in the care of his eldest son, [[Richard Peters]], to whom he legally transferred the estate and all his other Pennsylvania properties in 1786.<ref>Nellie Peters Black, ''Richard Peters, His Ancestors and Descendents: 1810–1889'' (Atlanta: Foote & Davies, 1904), 61, 91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TM8MFVBZ view on Zotero].</ref> Peters continued to pursue his interest in horticulture after returning to England. In his 84th year, he sent parcels of flower seeds to his son and daughter in Philadelphia, informing them in a letter of January 8, 1787: “The seeds consist of an amazing variety of sorts, and if you are as fond of flowers as I am, they will afford you a great deal of pleasure and I shall be glad to hear from you how they succeed.”<ref>Black 1904, 36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TM8MFVBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Callender Sansom, Hannah]], June 30, 1762, diary entry (quoted in Callender 2010: 182–83)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . went to Will: Peters’s house, having some small aquaintance with his wife who was at home with her Daughter Polly. they received us kindly in one wing of the House, after a while we passed thro’ a covered Passage to the large hall, well furnished, the top adorned with instruments of musick, coat of arms, crest, and other ornaments in Stucco, its sides by paintings and [[Statue]]s in Bronze. from the Front of this hall you have a [[prospect]] bounded by the Jerseys, like a blueridge, and the Horison, a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro’ a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]], from these Windows down a [[vista|Wisto]] terminated by an [[Obelisk]], on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of [[hedge]] and low ceder with spruce, in the middle stands a [[Statue]] of Apollo, note: in the garden are the [[Statue]]s of Dianna, Fame & Mercury, with [[urn]]s. we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto’s]], in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[Summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Peters, William]]

Richard Peters

2021-09-28T17:13:35Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=May 22, 1744
|Birth Circa=No
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|Birth Location=Belmont, Philadelphia, PA
|Keywords=Ancient style; Avenue; Eminence; Grove; Hedge; Landscape gardening; Obelisk; Orchard; Piazza; Picturesque; Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden; Seat; Statue; Vase/Urn; View/Vista; Walk
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n85363458.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Name Authority File
}}
}}
'''Richard Peters''' (June 22, 1744–August 22, 1828), a federal judge and Revolutionary War patriot, devoted himself to agricultural experiments at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], his family’s estate outside of Philadelphia, where he operated a model farm. Peters published extensively and became a leading authority on best practices for American agriculture.

==History==
[[File:0301.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.]]
Richard Peters was born at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], the estate on the [[Schuylkill River]] that his father, [[William Peters]], was then in the process of developing as a suburban villa and [[pleasure garden]] [Fig. 1]. Following [[William Peters|William’s]] return to England in 1768, Peters assumed responsibility for the property, which served as his primary residence for the next sixty years. He made significant changes to the house and gardens, adding wings to the north and south sides of the building and a [[piazza]] across the front, and substantially reducing the size of the ornamental gardens in order to devote more land to practical farming.<ref>Mark Reinberger, “Belmont: The Bourgeois Villa in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” ''Arris: Journal of the Southeast Chapter of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 9 (1998): 22, 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero].</ref> In contrast to his Loyalist father, Richard Peters was an ardent supporter of American independence. He served as secretary of the Board of War, working closely with [[Robert Morris]] to raise money and supplies for the Continental Army.<ref>Royce Shingleton, ''Richard Peters: Champion of the New South'' (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1985), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WN5FMNI2 view on Zotero]; Samuel Breck, ''Address Delivered before the Blockley and Merion Agricultural Society, on Saturday, September 29th, 1828, on the Death on [sic] Their Late President, The Hon. Richard Peters'' (Philadelphia: Lydia R. Bailey, 1828), 6–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INU66QCU view on Zotero]; Richard Peters Jr., “Belmont Mansion,” ''Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia'' 30 (1925): 85–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NFTXIF6S view on Zotero].</ref> He also represented Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress (1782–83) and served as a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly from 1787 to 1792. Renowned for his lively wit and generous hospitality, Peters hosted many prominent Americans and foreign visitors at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], particularly during the years that Philadelphia served as the seat of the federal government (1790–1800).<ref>Richard Peters and Samuel Breck, “A Collection of Puns and Witticisms of Judge Richard Peters,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 253 (1901): 366–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6ZDNIWV3 view on Zotero]; Rufus Wilmot Griswold, ''The Republican Court: Or American Society in the Days of Washington'' (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1855), 264–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2FR244CI view on Zotero].</ref> Among those who strolled [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont’s]] gardens and discussed agriculture and politics with Peters were George Washington, John Quincy Adams, James Madison, John Jay, and the Marquis de Lafayette.<ref>Nellie Peters Black, ''Richard Peters, His Ancestors and Descendants: 1810–1889'' (Atlanta: Foote & Davies, 1904), 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TM8MFVBZ view on Zotero]; Peters 1925: 88–89, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NFTXIF6S view on Zotero].</ref>

Peters actively experimented with new scientific methods of agriculture and animal husbandry intended to improve the productivity of American farms. The use of plaster of Paris as a fertilizing agent, which he recommended in a widely circulated pamphlet published in 1797 (with a dedication to his friend George Washington), influenced the methods of other gentlemen farmers, including Washington and [[Thomas Jefferson]], with whom he frequently corresponded on agricultural matters.<ref>Benjamin R. Cohen, ''Notes from the Ground: Science, Soil, and Society in the American Countryside'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 38–40, 97, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MGKGZIKZ view on Zotero]. See also Richard Peters, ''Agricultural Enquiries on Plaister of Paris: Also Facts, Observations and Conjectures on That Sub[s]tance, When Applied as Manure: Collected, Chiefly from the Practice of Farmers in Pennsylvania, and Published as Much with a View to Invite, as to Give Information'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist and John Markland, 1797), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P3C9I8MC view on Zotero].</ref> Peters went on to promote scientific methods of agriculture in ''A Discourse on Agriculture: Its Antiquity and Importance to Every Member of the Community'' (1816) and in more than 100 reports published under the auspices of the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture (founded in 1785), of which he was a charter member, and president from 1805 to 1828. Under his leadership, the Society gained new momentum, organizing exhibitions of farm products and labor-saving machinery, analyzing seeds and plant specimens, and distributing foreign seeds to American farmers.<ref>Simon Baatz, ''“Venerate the Plough”; A History of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, 1785–1985'' (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, 1985), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W3KPMSDN view on Zotero]; Shingleton, 1985, 7–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WN5FMNI2 view on Zotero]; Breck 1828, 23–26, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6ZDNIWV3 view on Zotero].</ref> Peters also founded the Merion Society for Promoting Agriculture and Rural Economy in 1790, serving as its president for 38 years, and as a judge of the U.S. District Court of Pennsylvania from 1792 until his death in 1828.

In the late 1790s Peters spearheaded the planning and construction of a permanent [[bridge]] over the [[Schuylkill River]] (opened in 1805) which made it possible to commute to Philadelphia from country houses such as [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], rendering the west side of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] truly suburban.<ref>Frank Griggs Jr., “The Permanent Bridge,” ''Structure Magazine'' (October 2013), http://www.structuremag.org/?p=817; Peters 1825, 86–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NFTXIF6S view on Zotero]; Reinberger 1998, 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWBTRV23 view on Zotero]. See also Richard Peters, ''A Statistical Account of the Schuylkill Permanent Bridge: Communicated to the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture, 1806'' (Philadelphia: Johnson & Warner, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JCCE54JT view on Zotero].</ref> In recognition of his service, one of the [[bridge]] posts was decorated with a portrait of Peters in a bronze medallion.<ref>Breck 1828, 19–20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INU66QCU view on Zotero].</ref> Along with Benjamin Franklin, he was one of the first non-Quakers to join the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery. Peters also served for several years as president of the American Convention of Antislavery Societies, corresponded with many British abolitionists, and campaigned against the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793.<ref>Kathryn Kish Sklar and James Brewer Stewart, ''Women’s Rights and Transatlantic Antislavery in the Era of Emancipation'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 146, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IDUZ3ADU view on Zotero]; Edward Needles, ''An Historical Memoir of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery'' (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Thompson, 1848), 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N6FFE2GZ view on Zotero].</ref> His multifarious activities reportedly caused Peters to neglect [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], which some described as presenting a shabby appearance. When taken to task for the derelict appearance of his fields, the judge reportedly delivered the riposte, “How can you expect me . . . to attend to all these things when my time is so taken up in telling others how to farm?"<ref>Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Horace Mather Lippincott, ''The Colonial Homes of Philadelphia and Its Neighbourhood'' (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1912), 149, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H8PJNXCV view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==

*Chastellux, François Jean, Marquis de, c. 1780–82, ''Travels in North America'' (1787: 1:304)<ref name="Chastellux_1787"> Chastellux 1787, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Nothing can equal the beauties of the coup d'oeil which the banks of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] present, in descending towards the south to return to Philadelphia.

:“I found a pretty numerous company assembled at dinner at the Chevalier de la Luzerne’s, which was augmented by the arrival of the Comte de Custine and the M. de Laval. In the evening we took them to see the President of the Congress, who was not at home, and then to Mr. Peters, the Secretary to the Board of War, to whom it was my first visit. His house is not large, nor his office of great importance.”

*Anonymous English translator of Marquis De Chastellux, c. 1787, ''Travels in North America, 1780–81–82'' (1787: 1:301)<ref name ="Chastellux_1787"> Chastellux 1787, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The beautiful banks of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] are every where covered with elegant country houses; among others, those of [[Springettsbury|Mr. Penn]], the late proprietor, Mr. Hamilton, and Mr. Peters, late Secretary to the Board of War, are on the most delightful situations. The tasty little box of the last gentleman is on the most enchanting spot that nature can embellish, and besides the variegated beauties of the rural banks of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], commands the Delaware, and the shipping mounting and descending it, where it is joined at right angles by the former. From hence is the most romantic ride up the river to the Falls, in which the opposite bank is likewise seen beautifully interspersed with the country houses of the opulent citizens of the capital. On your arrival at the Falls, every little knoll or [[eminence]] is occupied by one of these charming retreats.”

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, diary entry describing a visit to [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]] (quoted in Foster 1997: 292–93)<ref>Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson’s Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772–1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the evening I accompanied my Uncle over to [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] to pay my respects to Judge Peters—the House is finely situated and looks down on the [[Schuylkill River|River Schuylkill]] command[ing] a view of the grounds of Lansdown, Eaglesfield and the distance closed by the City & Jersies. He show’d me his Gardens and [[Orchard]]s in the latter of which was a variety of Grasses, but I saw none of that sort which in England is commonly called ''Heaver''. In the Garden he show’d me a Chesnut Tree which General Washington planted, the day he came out to take leave of his old friend. . . He has promised me some fruit from it, & a young tree of the same. . .

:“I was also shown a [[grove]] of Pines in which the General used frequently to walk in and converse with the Judge. . .

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a [[Piazza]] in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy walk in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building.”

* Breck, Samuel, September 29, 1828, ''Address Delivered before the Blockley and Merion Agricultural Society'' (1828: 78–79)<ref>Breck 1828, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INU66QCU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The President who placed him on the bench, knew him [Richard Peters] well, and took great delight in his society. When a morning of leisure permitted that great man to drive to [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], the birth-place and country residence of Judge Peters, it was his constant habit so to do. There, sequestered from the world,—the torments and cares of business, Washington would enjoy a vivacious, recreative, and wholly unceremonious intercourse with the Judge; walking for hours, side by side, in the beautiful gardens of [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], beneath the dark shade of lofty hemlocks, placed there by his ancestors, nearly a century ago. In those romantic grounds, there stands a chestnut tree, reared from a Spanish nut, planted by the hand of Washington. Large, healthy, and fruitful, it is cherished at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], as a precious evidence of the intimacy that subsisted between those distinguished men. The stranger who visits these umbrageous [[walk]]s, trimmed and decorated in the style of the seventeenth century, pauses amid ‘clipt [[hedge]]s of pyramids, [[obelisk]]s, and balls,’ formed by the evergreen and compact spruce, to contemplate this thriving tree, and carry back his memory to the glorious virtuous career of him who placed it there.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1844: 31–32, 33)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7DED2X9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[seat]] of the late Judge Peters [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|[Belmont]]], about five miles from Philadelphia, was, 30 years ago, a noted specimen of the [[ancient style|ancient]] school of [[landscape gardening]]. Its proprietor had a most extended reputation as a scientific agriculturist, and his place was also no less remarkable for the design and culture of its [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], than for the excellence of its farm. Long and stately [[avenue]]s, with [[vista]]s terminated by [[obelisk]]s, a garden adorned with marble [[vase]]s, busts and [[statue]]s, and [[pleasure ground]]s filled with the rarest trees and shrubs, were conspicuous features here. Some of the latter are now so remarkable as to attract strongly the attention of the visitor. Among them, is the chestnut planted by Washington which produces the largest and finest fruit; very large hollies; and a curious old box tree much higher than the mansion near which it stands. But the most striking feature now, is the still remaining grand old [[avenue]] of hemlocks, (''Abies canadensis''.) Many of these trees, which were planted 100 years ago, are now venerable specimens, ninety feet high, whose huge trunks and wide spread branches, are in many cases densely wreathed and draped with masses of English Ivy, forming the most [[picturesque]], sylvan objects we ever beheld. . .”

:“Judge Peters’ [[seat]], [[Lemon Hill]], and Clermont were of the [[ancient style]], in the earliest period of the history of [[landscape gardening|Landscape Gardening]] among us.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

File:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.<sup>a</sup> the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Peters, Richard]]

Charles Willson Peale

2021-09-28T17:10:13Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=April 15, 1741
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|Death Date=February 22, 1827
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
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|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
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|Birth Location=Chester, Maryland
|Roles=Artist
|Keywords=Arch; Aviary/Bird cage/Birdhouse; Basin; Bath/Bathhouse; Bed; Beehive; Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall; Chinese manner; Column/Pillar; Deer park; Fall/Falling garden; Fence; Fountain; Gate/Gateway; Green; Greenhouse; Grove; Hedge; Icehouse; Jet; Meadow; Obelisk; Piazza; Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden; Plot/Plat; Pond; Pot; Seat; Shrubbery; Square; Statue; Summerhouse; Temple; Vase/Urn; View/Vista; Walk; Wall; Wood/Woods; Yard
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|External link URL=https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80025860.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
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|External link text=Getty ULAN
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|External link text=American National Biography
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'''Charles Willson Peale''' (April 15, 1741–February 22, 1827) was an American artist, naturalist, and museum proprietor [Fig. 1]. He fought in the Revolutionary War under George Washington, of whom he made numerous portraits, and corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] regarding their shared interest in natural history, agriculture, and landscape design. Their correspondence informed the development of his country retreat, [[Belfield]], just outside Philadelphia.

==History==
[[File:2168.jpg|thumb||Fig. 1, Charles Willson Peale, ''The Artist in His Museum'', 1822.]]
Born in straitened circumstances in Chester, Maryland, Charles Willson Peale initially pursued a variety of careers—saddler, harness-maker, upholsterer, and silversmith—before landing on the profession by which he would make his livelihood: portrait painter.<ref>David Ward, Charles Willson Peale: ''Art and Selfhood in the Early Republic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 8–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCITM4SK view on Zotero].</ref> He began creating portraits of Maryland’s colonial elite, who later underwrote Peale’s travel to England. In the absence of art academies in the colonies, an academic art education required travel abroad. Supported by this group of wealthy Marylanders, thanks to his wife’s well-connected family, Peale sailed for London to study with the expatriate American artist, Benjamin West.<ref>Ward 2004, 26–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCITM4SK, view on Zotero].</ref>

Peale’s three years abroad—from 1767 to 1770—enhanced his artistic skill and reputation, and his career continued to grow following his return from abroad. In 1776 he relocated his growing family from Maryland to Philadelphia, then the most cosmopolitan city in the British colonies, to develop an expanded network of patronage.<ref>Charles Coleman Sellers, ''Charles Willson Peale'' (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969), 119–20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWCSA5AD view on Zotero]. Peale would marry three times and have eighteen children, though only eleven of them would live to adulthood. See Kate Nearpass Ogden, “The Peale Family of Painters,” in ''The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia'', http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/peale-family-of-painters/.</ref> There he painted portraits of the city’s political figures and became politically engaged himself: he was a lieutenant in the Philadelphia militia during the American Revolution, and also fought in the Continental Army under General George Washington.<ref>Ward 2004, 72–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCITM4SK view on Zotero].</ref> He would play an important role in developing Washington’s political image through the seventy portraits he made, beginning in 1772, of the noted military figure and first U.S. President.<ref>Sellers 1969, 99–100, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWCSA5AD view on Zotero]; Ward 2004, 45–46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCITM4SK view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2169_cropped.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Charles Willson Peale, ''[[William Bartram]]'', c. 1808.]]
[[File:2170.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Titian Ramsay Peale, ''The Gigantic Mastodon'', January 1821.]]
As the Revolutionary War drew to a close, Peale began a series of portraits of statesmen, designers, and naturalists—including [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], [[William Bartram]], among many others—who he believed would shape the future of the new nation [Fig. 2].<ref>Ward 2004, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCITM4SK view on Zotero]. Ward describes this series as a “pantheon that would perpetuate American republicanism.”</ref> Many of these figures were members of the American Philosophical Society, one of Philadelphia’s first learned societies, to which Peale had likewise been elected in 1786.<ref>Sellers 1969, 214, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWCSA5AD view on Zotero].</ref> Their portraits became a key feature of his Philadelphia Museum, which he opened following his official “retirement” from painting in 1794. The institution, a “world in miniature,” married Peale’s keen interest in natural history with his passion for art. Developed to enlighten and educate the public, the museum’s central gallery or “Long Room” featured preserved zoological specimens arranged in discrete dioramas according to the Linnaean system—the prevailing taxonomy of the second half of the 18th century—surmounted by Peale’s portraits of American patriots (see Fig. 1).<ref>Sidney Hart and David C. Ward, “Peale’s Philadelphia Museum,” in Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward, eds., ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), 222–23, 233, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XDT5MHM3 view on Zotero]. Though Peale would continue to paint in the coming years, his output was less prodigious; see Sellers 1969, 262, for Peale’s notice of his retirement in ''Claypoole’s Daily Advertiser'' (April 24, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWCSA5AD view on Zotero].</ref> Following Peale’s ambitious exhumation of mastodon bones in Newburgh, New York, in 1801, he included the reassembled skeleton in his galleries [Fig. 3].

[[File:1958.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Willson Peale, ''Cabbage Patch, The Gardens of [[Belfield]], Pennsylvania'' [the [[temple]] is on the right in the middle distance], c. 1815–16.]]
Peale oversaw the Philadelphia Museum until 1810, when he passed its directorship to his son Rubens and removed to [[Belfield]], his country retreat outside Philadelphia. Though retired, his entrepreneurial spirit remained active and, as with his museum, he endeavored to merge his scientific and aesthetic interests in the farm’s design. Belfield was intended to be functional and profitable as well as beautiful: Peale cultivated clover, corn, buckwheat, and oats, as well as ornamental plants, and featured a number of garden structures—such as a [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] summerhouse, a [[temple]], and an [[obelisk]] [Figs. 4 and 5]—likely drawn from such sources as Batty Langley’s ''City and Country Builder’s Treasury'' (1740) and [[G. (George) Gregory|G. Gregory’s]] ''Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1807).<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Belfield in American Garden History,” in Miller and Ward 1991, 271–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/94GWR76E view on Zotero]; David C. Ward, “Enlightened Agriculture in the Early Republic,” in Miller and Ward 1991, 291–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HH8H7CN5 view on Zotero].</ref> Peale sought both plants and advice for [[Belfield]] from the rich network of botanists and plant enthusiasts in the early republic, such as the nurseryman [[Bernard M’Mahon]]; the botanist, Benjamin Smith Barton; and [[William Hamilton]], the proprietor of [[The Woodlands]].<ref name="Rudnytzky">Kateryna Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (honor’s thesis, La Salle University, 1986), 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero]; O’Malley 1991, 269, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/94GWR76E view on Zotero]; Ward 1991, 297, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HH8H7CN5].</ref> [[Belfield]] was essentially an ornamental farm or ''[[ferme ornée]]'', much like [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson’s]] [[Monticello]], and Peale often corresponded with the former president about his farm’s progress and considerable challenges.<ref>O’Malley 1991, 269–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/94GWR76E view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0010.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Charles Willson Peale, Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]] [the [[obelisk]] is featured in the left-hand margin of the letter], Nov. 12, 1813.]]
Disappointed by his struggles to make [[Belfield]] profitable, Peale returned in 1821 to Philadelphia, where he set about creating a series of portraits, this time of himself. He portrayed himself as painter, as naturalist, and—in his 1822 opus, ''The Artist in His Museum''—as entrepreneurial showman who could craft knowledge and order from the raw materials of the natural world (see Fig. 1).<ref>Roger B. Stein’s essay “Charles Willson Peale's Expressive Design: The Artist in His Museum” offers an in-depth analysis of this painting; see Miller and Ward 1991, 167–218, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W6M5H2HT view on Zotero].</ref> This series of portraits would constitute Peale’s final efforts at solidifying his legacy as an enlightened American patriot before his illness and death in 1827.<ref>Sellers 1969, 431–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PWCSA5AD view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Athens''

<hr>

==Texts==
[[File:0037.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772.]]
*Peale, Charles Willson, February 15, 1772, describing a portrait of William Paca, including his garden in Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1983: 1:113)<ref name="Miller_1">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 1, ''Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1753–1791'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have spent some time about Mr. Paca’s whole lenght [''sic''] . . . if you remember the action he is resting on a pedestal on which I have introduced the Bust of Tully but believe [I] will be obliged to put some other in its [ ] place in the distance is a View of his [[summerhouse|Summer house]].” [Fig. 6]

[[File:0887.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Charles Willson Peale, “A [[View]] of the Grand Civic [[Arch]],” 1824, in Charles Coleman Sellers, “Charles Willson Peale with Patron and Populace,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 59, no. 3. (1969): 103.]]
*Peale, Charles Willson, December 8, 1783, describing his triumphal [[arch]] erected in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sellers 1969: 196)<ref>Charles Coleman Sellers, “Charles Willson Peale with Patron and Populace,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 59, no. 3. (1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKDWT3TP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I am at this time employed in painting a transparent triumphal [[Arch]] for the Public rejoicings on the peace, and very much hurried.” [Fig. 7]

*Peale, Charles Willson, June 1788, describing Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1983: 1:498)<ref name="Miller_1"></ref>
:“being invited to dine with the fish Club, I took my Gun for further Amusement; the club had a marqui fixed opposite the Cool Spring ([[bathhouse|bath House]]) on the other side of the creek. They have skittle Ground and qu[o]ites to amuse themselves.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, June 12, 1804, describing the Carroll Garden, Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1988: 2:704)<ref name="Miller_2">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 2, ''Charles Willson Peale: The Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791–1810'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“at each end of the [[wall]] is an octagon Building projecting beyond it, one is a [[summerhouse|''Summer'' House]] & probably the other is a [[Temple]], it is locked up, & at first sight they might be thought to be intended for such purposes but on finding that one has no holes, People are naturally led to believe that the internal structure is similar, since the outsides are perfectly so.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing farms in Pennsylvania (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:49, 51)<ref name="Miller_3">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“I visited Job Roberts the day before yesterday, his farm is a model of excellence in the Culture. . . . He is growing several [[hedge]]s which in less than 7 yrs. will be complete [[fence]]s against all sorts of Cattle. The management of which is a good lesson, which I hope to make usefull to this place. . . .</p>
:<p>“I am often pleased with the solemn [[grove]]s skirting [[meadow]]s in majestic silence and cool appearance. There is a Spring belonging to Chas Wistar in the most romantic scinery [''sic''] your imagination can conceive. . . . The spring comes out a large rock into a [[basin|bason]] which is covered with another large rock, then passes beneath a rock under your feet, and bursts out again before it joins the creek.”</p>

[[File:0560.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Charles Willson Peale, Ground plot of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*Peale, Charles Willson, July 29, 1810, describing the ground [[plot]] at [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:53)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:“This ground [[plot]] is made by recollection, but I think it near anough [''sic''] the truth to give you a more precise Idea of the place & the other Sketches which I intend to annex to my letters.” [Fig. 8]

*Peale, Charles Willson, July 29, 1810, describing his sketches of [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:54–56)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:<p>“In this [[view]] imagine that you see a beautiful [[Meadow]] on the right. The Tennants House seems to terminate the lane, from thence it turns up a Gentle declivity to the Mansian, of which you see the Top of a Red roof on the left over the hill. formerly a road went over this hill at the dotted lines. . . . The Common water course is on the edge of the [[Meadow]] on the right and the doted [''sic''] line is a ditch to which I have a flood-gate to let water on the [[Meadow]] at Pleasure. . .</p>
:<p>“I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a [[piazza|Piazer]] extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill. . .</p>
:<p>“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden [[fence]] which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]]. The Barn and one of the Barracks on the West, the Coach-House near the Center, Spring-house on the East side and the [[bathhouse|Bath House]] below it. There is 4 large Popplers (Tulip Tree) which crosses the Road, and the Lumbardy Poppler a row of them on your right hand. Just above the [[bathhouse|bath-House]] is a small fish [[pond]] with about 200 Catfish which I brought from the falls of Schulkill. . .</p>
:<p>“In this [[view]] the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the [[yard]] in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. [[Green]] Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]] & beneath rose bushes. you may discover a long Roof which has shelves for [[beehive|Bee hives]] conveniently situated to get their food from the flowers of the Garden.” [Fig. 9]</p>
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 9, Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of Belfield [detail], 1810.]]

*Peale, Charles Willson, August 2, 1813 and November 12, 1813, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale Robinson, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:202 and 216)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
: [August 2, 1813] “We are now beginning to ornament about the House Our Garden is much admired, Franklin is shewing his taste in neat workmanship. He has built an Elligant [[summerhouse|Summer House]] on that commanding spot which you may remember being pointed out to you. It is a hexicon base with 6 well turned [[Pillar]]s supporting a circular Top & dome on which is placed a bust of Genl. Washington, it would have been more appopriate [''sic''] to have had 13 [[pillar]]s, but I did not want so large a building, and it was work enough for Franklin to turn those 6 [[pillar]]s which he was able to execute will [with] the layth in the mill.”

:[November 12, 1813] “I have made an [[obelisk|Oblisk]] to terminate a [[Walk]] in the Garden, read in Dictionary of Arts for description of them. I made it of rough boards & white washed it with lime & allum—The allum It is said will convert the lime in time to Stone. I have put the following motto on it—on one side ‘Never return an Injury, It is a noble Triumph to overcome Evil by Good.’ another, ‘Labour while you are able it will give health to the Body—peaceful content to the mind.’ another, ‘He that will live in peace & Rest, must hear, and see, and say the best & in french ‘y voy, & te tas, si tu veux vivre en paix.’ and on another ‘Neglect no Duty.’ The distick which I have adopted is claimed by several Nations, I have put the french because it is more concise & equally expressive.”

[[File:0009.jpg|thumb|200px|Fig. 10, Charles Willson Peale, Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at Belfield, November 22, 1815.]]
*Peale, Charles Willson, November 22, 1815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale Robinson, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:370–71)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:<p>“I have also painted . . . a tolerable large Landscape almost finished, it is a [[View]] of the Garden and most of the Buildings, as seen from what we call my [[seat]] in the [[Walk]] to the mill,—difficult part in it, that is, a representation of the down hill or rather Valley between the point of sight and the Garden.</p>
:<p>“The objects in sight are the road ascending to the Dwelling, Stone [[wall]] & Thorn [[hedge]] on it inclosing the Garden. The Garden [[Gate]] at the [[Fountain]], [[greenhouse|Green House]], [[summerhouse|Summer house]] a doom supported by 6 Pillars and bust of Washington crowning it – beyond that an [[obelisk|Oblisk]] The Hay barracks; Barn with the wind mill on top of it to <pu> pump water for the Stock; Stables; Mantion-House Wash house and connecting [[piazza|Piaza]]; Carriage House; Spring House; [[bathhouse|Bath house]] and Cover of the [[icehouse|Ice-House]]. The whole comprehending a tolerable handsome [[View]] including Trees of various folliages—But what must render this Picture more interesting, will be some Portraits setting on the Bench under a Beach Tree, (as yet a Small Tree) but being the nearest object, it must be most distinctly finished, The declining [[Meadow]] will form a charming background for the figures on the Bench. There should also be figures in various parts of the Ground to give animation to the sciene, all of which are yet to be done. I intend it for the Museum when finished to my mind I wish I could have you as one of the figure on the Bench.” [Fig. 10]</p>

*Peale, Charles Willson, March 15, 27, 29, 1814, in a letter to his sons, Benjamin Franklin Peale and Titian Ramsey Peale, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:239)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:<p>“As soon as the weather becomes settled & warm, I will have the [[basin|Bason]] walled up with a proper morter, and when that is doing I shall put a Cock to the Leaden pipe to let the water pass out untill the [[basin|Bason]] is prepaired to receive it. and when my leasure and I can spare a man to hall dirt I will raise the water in the fish [[Pond]] which will encrease its surfaces considerably raising the water to the stone [[wall]] at the head of the [[Pond]], deeper, and more water, will be better for fish & will raise the [[jet|get [jet]]] at the [[fountain]] considerably.</p>
:<p>“The stone and ground is remooved at the Bottom of the Garden but the [[Wall]] is not as high and access into the Garden is not so easey as it used to be, even before any [[wall]] is made.”</p>

*Peale, Charles Willson, September 6, 1814, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:263)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:“I have finished my [[fountain]] and . . . the [[basin|Bason]] holds the water after much labour to make fountain so having raised the Fish-[[pond]] it gives a [[jet]] of 12 feet high. . . . Rubens has place all his [[Pot]]s round the [[fountain]] [[basin|B[a]son]] and it makes a very handsome display, The [[basin|Bason]] being 13 feet long & 10 wide.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, September 14, 1814, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:266)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:“The [[fountain]] [[basin|Bason]] now holds water completly, and the [[jet]] is 12 feet high, and is kept continually playing; Day & night, Rubens has placed all his plants round the [[basin|Bason]], and it is very handsome.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, August 4, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]] (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 44)<ref name="Rudnytzky"></ref>
:“I have been so long neglecting the [[view]] I am about in [the] garden that the trees & [[shrubbery]] have grown so high that I cannot represent them truly without almost totally hiding the [[walk]]s, therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make them smaller.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, October 13, 1816, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:452)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:“Other parts of my farm excited the curiousity of the Public—a wind-mill for pumping Water for the Cattle &c.—A [[fall garden|falling Garden]], [[fountain]], fish [[Pond]], common Sewers &c Machines to add [aid] the dairy and carriages of various uses—all these things employed the whole of my time to emprove & to keep them in proper order.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, October 1, 1818, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:607)<ref name="Miller_3"></ref>
:“'I have chosen two views I wish to paint, one is at the beginning of the rise of the high hill leading to Germantown, it takes in my [[obelisk|Oblisk]], Barn and Mansion House and both the [[summerhouse|Summer Houses]]—The [[Gate]] & willow tree on the left, the hill back of the Garden, the road, the water in the road & mill race, and a piece of Mr. Wistar's [[wood]] for a finish on the right of the picture.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, January 14, 1824, in a letter to his son, Charles Linnaeus Peale, describing [[Belfield]] (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 32)<ref name="Rudnytzky"></ref>
:“Dear Linnius I wish you to consider whether it is not better to avoid these expenses by burying your Child in the Garden on the south side of the [[obelisk|Oblisk]], a place which if I hold the farm untill my decease, I shall desire to have my body deposited. This has been my determination ever since I painted those inscriptions.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, c. 1825, describing Philadelphia, PA (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:91)<ref name="Miller_5">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“When Peace was concluded between Great Britain & the united States of America, President Dickenson and the Executive Counsil employed Peale to paint a Triumphal [[Arch]] in transparent Colours. It consisted of three [[arch|arches]], the Center [[Arch]] was 20 feet high, and the side [[arch|arches]] each 15 feet high, and the whole length extended nearly to the width of Market street, and it was 46 feet high, independant of the [[statue|statues]] of the 4 cardenal Virtues larger than human figures. The architecture was of the Ionic order, ornamented with reaths of Flowers, in festoons and winding round the [[column|Columes]]. It was also ornamented in sundry parts of the building as follows[:]</p>

:<p>“A figure of Peace, represented in a beautiful female figure, and various attendants amidst the Clouds. These were to be lighted by lights placed behind the clouds and out of the sight of the spectators, and doubtless would have had a most pleasing affect in passing down from the Top of the Presidents House to the Triumphal [[Arch]], with a fuse in the hand of Peace, which was to be directed to a fuse which would light 1100 Lamps, & illuminate the whole of the Triumphal Arch in a minute.”</p>

*Peale, Charles Willson, c. 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:147)<ref name="Miller_5"></ref>
:“The Coll. is possessed of immence property, he had 400 Ars. of land in a [[deer park|park]] to keep Deer, round which was a [[fence]] of 20 rails high, Maise were planted within for sustenance of his deer.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, c. 1825, describing the Brideswell (Workhouse), New York, NY (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:167–68)<ref name="Miller_5"></ref>
:“In the garden they saw the remains of the [[statue]] of Mr. Pitt. . . the head was gone and other parts much mutilated, This was done by the British, pehaps because the americans had broken to pieces the [[statue]] of King George, which was an equistrian [[statue]] of Lead, which they cast into bullets.”

*Peale, Charles Willson, c. 1825, describing New York, NY (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:247–48)<ref name="Miller_5"></ref>
:<p>“Peale went to a [[bath|bathing house]] on the north river, this building has a private as well as public bathing places, for men or women. The cost of public bathing is 12 1/2 Cts. and 25 Cents for private bathing. . . </p>

:<p>“The public [[Bath]] is extended wings on each side about 40 feet into the river on which there are a range of boxes to dress and undress, these have stairs with ropes to decend into the water on the 3 sides and at the end next the river is a sunken vessel of an oblong [[square]], and the debth of the water therein is about 4 feet, for the accomdation of those who cannot swim. In the private baths they have the same kind of vessels which rise and fall with the tide. You are furnished with a towel and an oil cap for the head. They have warm [[bath]]s for those who want them. The[re] is another [[bath|bathing house]] on the same river, which at present is not in order except for the accomodation of women.</p>

:<p>“If there were also [[bath|Bathing houses]] on the east river, and it was the custom generally for the Inhabitants to make frequent use, especially during the hot seasons, it would contribute much to ward off those dreadful fevers which too oftain afflict large Cities.</p>

:<p>“Walking with Mrs. Peale one evening to take the fresh air at the Battery, in those pleasant gravelly [[walk]]s skirted with Trees. Adjoining to these [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] they observed places of entertainment brilliantly lighted up with lamps and to regaile the Ear a variety of Musick—they are called Gardens, small but neatly fitted up with boxes and [[seat]]s, [[walk]]s divided by small [[bed]]s of flowers. In the center of that they visited was a circular sort of [[Temple]] with an ornamented [[vase]] in the center, round the cornich [cornice] of this [[temple]] a considerable number of lamps, the light of which shew a number of small [[jet]]s from the [[vase]] of waters thrown as high as the cornish. perhaps this [[fountain]] gets its supply of water from some resevoir in the adjacent building, and by pipes beneath the [[walk]]s conveyed to the [[Vase]]. They paid 1/4$ for each ticket, which purchases Ice creams, Cakes or other refreshments as may be choosen to the value. There was another Garden near this where the company are regailled with vocal musick.”</p>

*Peale, Charles Willson, c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]] (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:380–83)<ref name="Miller_5"></ref>
:<p>“The proprietor made [[summerhouse|summer houses]] (so called) roofs to ward off the Sunbeams with [[seat]]s of rest. one made of the [[chinese manner|chinease]] [''sic''] taste, dedicated to medieation [''sic''], with the following sentiments round within it:</p>

:<p>“Mediate on the Creation of ''Worlds'', which perform their evolutions in proscribed periods! . . .</p>

:<p>“He wanted a place to keep the garden seeds & Tools, and in a part of the Garden where a [[seat]] in the shade was often wanted, he built a shed or small room, and to hide that Salt-like-box, and to try his art of Painting, he made the front like [a] [[gateway|Gate Way]] with a step to form a [[seat]], and above, steps painted as representing a passage through an [[Arch]] beyond which was represented a western sky, and to ornament the upper part over the [[arch]], he painted several figures on boards cut to the outlines of said figures as representing [[statue]]s in sculpture. . . </p>

:<p>“Having a good spring-house the water from it supplied a small fish-[[pond]], in which he put many cat-fish brought from the Schulkill and although they lived and perhaps might be breed there yet being petts never was served at his table[.] The same with Pidgeons, they had commodious house, and once a pr. of squabs was taken to the Kitchen, but the Parent came after them and alighting on the Kitchen window, Mrs. Peale’s delicate feelings could not suffer them to be killed and accordingly they were returned to the [[pigeon house|Pidgeon-house]].</p>

:<p>“finding a spring stream in the Garden he followed it up the side of the hill, untill it become of some debth and among large Stones—and having at this place made a considerable cavity in the bank round the source of the Spring, to wall it up this hollow and arch it over, it was thought that it might be an excellent place to keep cabbage and Turnups &c during the winter season, but on tryal it was found to[o] moist and warm, for those vegetables sprouted and took a second groath, and they were obliged to take them out, in the first of January, and cover them with earth in the usial mode. This tryal gave the Idea of building a [[greenhouse|green house]] jouining to the arched cave—and that [[greenhouse|Green house]] keepted all exotic plants perfectly well without the aid of Stoves in the severest winters.</p>

:<p>“below the [[greenhouse|Green house]] he made a round [[basin|bason]] to receive the Water from the cave back of it—and from the fish-[[pond]] near the spring-house, to this [[basin|bason]] in the Garden is a fall of 15 feet, and in order to have a [[fountain]] in the [[basin|Bason]] he put log-pipes under ground, and thus had a [[jet]] of 13 feet high but of small diameter, in order that it might constantly [be] rising. but unfortunately he make the bore of his logs only of one inch diameter, the consequence was that Frogs in two instances got into the bore of the logs and not being able to pass through all the joints, stopped the water, of course to free the passage of the logs, gave much labour. had these things been foreseen, trouble might have been prevented, by making the bore of the logs of a greater diameter, with other provisions to keep the passage free.”</p>

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2168.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''The Artist in His Museum'', 1822.

Image:2169_cropped.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''William Bartram'', 1808.

Image:0190.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''Charles Carroll'', c. 1770.

Image:0191.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''Margaret Tilghman Carroll'', c. 1770.

Image:1849.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''[[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Falls]] of the Schuylkill'', c. 1770.

Image:0453.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''John Beale Bordley'', 1770.

Image:0037.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772.

Image:0115.jpg|James Trenchard after Charles Willson Peale, “An East View of GRAY’S FERRY, near Philadelphia, with the TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, &c. erected for the Reception of General Washington, April 20th. 1789,” in ''Columbian Magazine'' 3, no. 5 (May 1789): pl. opp. 282.

Image:0116.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of [[Belfield]] [detail], 1810.

Image:2298.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0560.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Ground [[Plot/Plat|plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0010.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]] [detail], November 12, 1813.

Image:0009.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]], November 22, 1815.

Image:1958.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''Cabbage Patch, The Gardens of [[Belfield]], Pennsylvania'', c. 1815–16.

Image:1957.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''[[Belfield]] Farm'', c. 1816.

Image:0044.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''[[View]] of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:2170.jpg|Titian Ramsay Peale, ''The Gigantic Mastodon'', January 1821.

Image:0887.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, “A [[View]] of the Grand Civic [[Arch]],” 1824, in Charles Coleman Sellers, “Charles Willson Peale with Patron and Populace,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 59, no. 3 (1969): 103.

File: 2301.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''Mary White (Mrs. Robert) Morris (1749-1827), from life'', c. 1782.
</gallery>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Peale, Charles Willson]]

André Parmentier

2021-09-27T13:44:23Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=July 3, 1780
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
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|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=November 27, 1830
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
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|Death Present End=No
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|Keywords=Alley; Arbor; Border; Botanic garden; Bridge; Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground; Drive; Fence; Ferme ornée/Ornamental farm; Hedge; Hermitage; Hothouse; Landscape gardening; Modern style/Natural style; Park; Pavilion; Picturesque; Plantation; Pot; Prospect; Rustic style; Seat; Shrubbery; Sundial; View/Vista; Walk; Wood/Woods
}}
'''André Joseph Ghislain Parmentier''' (July 3, 1780–November 27, 1830) was a Belgian-born horticulturalist who immigrated to Brooklyn in 1824, where he established his [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]]. He was known for importing European fruit trees, grape vines, and roses to the United States, and for introducing the country to the [[modern style]] of [[landscape gardening]].

==History==
André Parmentier was born in 1780 in Enghien, Belgium, to a Walloon family that had been ennobled in the 16th century.<ref>“Biographie Enghiennoise,” ''Mémoires et publications de la Société des sciences, des arts et des lettres'' (Mons: Dusquesne Masquillier, 1876), 485, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DFND2SRI view on Zotero].</ref> He counted among his relatives a number of celebrated botanists and horticulturalists: a cousin, Antoine Augustin Parmentier, who was known for introducing the potato to France, and two of his brothers—Joseph Julien Ghislain Parmentier (1775–1852) and Louis Joseph Ghislain Parmentier (1782–1847)—who were also recognized for their work in horticulture. Joseph served as mayor of Enghien from 1802 to 1830 and oversaw the rehabilitation of the Duke of Arenburg’s formal gardens, which had fallen into disrepair during the political upheavals in Europe; he also developed his own expansive garden that featured many rare and exotic plants.<ref>Patrick Neal, ''Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Some Parts of Flanders, Holland, and the North of France, in the Autumn of 1817'' (Edinburgh: Bell and Bradfute, 1823), 325–32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E7PVRNMT view on Zotero].</ref> Louis likewise established his own garden and was known as great ''rosiériste'', trading in the more than 3000 varieties of roses he had cultivated at Enghien.<ref>Fr. Mertens, “Les roses de Louis Parmentier (1782–1847),” ''Annales du cercle archeologique d’Enghien'' 26 (1990): 86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WGHBA2DV view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanical Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]
Although the precise reasons are not fully clear as to André Parmentier’s decision to immigrate to America with his wife Sylvie, 8-year-old daughter Adèle, and 4-year-old son Léon, he is believed to have suffered serious financial difficulties in Belgium due to a failed speculation.<ref>An 1821 court case, in which André Parmentier struggled to recoup outstanding debt, may have contributed to his financial difficulties; see ''Pasicrisie belge: Recueil général de la jurisprudence des cours de Belgique en matière civile, commerciale, criminelle, de droit public et administratif'' (Brussels: Adolphe Wahlen et Cie, 1844), 125.</ref> Like his brothers, he had established an international reputation in the field of horticulture, and less than a month after he and his family arrived in the United States on May 31, 1824, he was unanimously elected to membership in the New-York Horticultural Society.<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''American'' [New York] (June 28, 1824): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref> By June 1825, he was already advertising [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|his newly established nursery]] in Brooklyn, [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] [Fig. 1].<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>

At [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|his nursery]] Parmentier worked doggedly to corner the market on certain types of plants, such as grape vines, which he sold by subscription, offering a warranty to purchasers that the plants would be fruitful, “provided that his instructions are followed.”<ref>“Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut,” ''Salem (MA) Observer'' (July 7, 1827): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PKR5U3E8 view on Zotero]. On July 26, 1827, Parmentier’s nursery was the subject of a vitriolic letter to the editor of the ''American'', in which the author—identified only by the pseudonym “A Friend to the Vine”—claimed that “[i]t cannot but be inferred . . . that Mr. P. would wish to be the only importer of the grape vine for cultivation into this country.”</ref> Parmentier was clearly reliant on his brothers for portions of his stock, with grape vines and fruit trees—especially pears—being a specialization of his brother Joseph.<ref>Cynthia Zaitzevsky, “Parmentier, André (1780–1830),” in Charles A. Birnbaum and Robin Karson, eds., ''Pioneers of American Landscape Design'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 286, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC7E58JM view on Zotero]. In 1824 Joseph sent a list of nearly 200 pear varieties, along with descriptions of the fruits’ texture, size, and flavor, to the Horticultural Society of London. See Joseph Parmentier, “A List of Pears Cultivated in France and the Netherlands . . . ,” ''Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London'' 5 (1824): Appendix II, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JZXHAGCX view on Zotero].</ref> The advertisements for Parmentier’s Brooklyn [[nursery]] often mention fruit trees specifically, and he submitted a letter on the cultivation of pears in America to the Société d’Horticulture de Paris, which later published it in their ''Annales''.<ref>André Parmentier, “Sur les Arbres fruitiers d’Amérique,” ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' 4 (1829): 351–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WRFUH5XB view on Zotero].</ref> He also did a brisk business in roses, the primary focus of his brother Louis. An 1827 advertisement points out: “At the [[greenhouse|green houses]] in [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Mr. Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden]] in Brooklyn . . . the admirers of flowers may see many rare and elegant varieties of roses. . . . As these plants are cultivated in [[pot]]s, their transportation may be safely effected at any season.”<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (May 19, 1827): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K44FFB9V view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Rustic prospect-arbor,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
[[File:2166.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Nathaniel Currier, ''Upper Canada College (1831–1891)'', 1835.]]
Parmentier was not, however, solely a nurseryman; he was also a landscape designer. His [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] differed from other [[nursery|nurseries]] in its layout, which was not purely utilitarian but featured serpentine [[walk]]s, a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere]], and other key elements of the [[modern style|modern]] or naturalistic style of [[landscape gardening]]. As early as March 1826 Parmentier had begun to advertise “on the advice of several of his friends” his landscape services along with his nursery business, and he is known to have provided designs for Hawkswood, in Pelham, New York; the University of Toronto (originally King’s College) [Fig. 3]; and Moss Park, also in Toronto.<ref>“On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (March 4, 1826): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XU4R98QW view on Zotero]; see also Zaitzevsky 2000, 286, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC7E58JM view on Zotero].</ref> His essay “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” which articulates the primary features of the [[modern style]] of landscape design, was incorporated into Thomas Fessenden’s ''The New American Gardener'' (1828). [[A. J. Downing]], in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', identified Parmentier as the first practitioner of this style in America, citing the layout and design of the [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], as well as Parmentier’s contributions to the design of [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] estate on the Hudson River, [[Hyde Park]] [Fig. 4].<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theory%20and%20practice%20 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2046.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Nathaniel Currier, ''Hyde Park, Hudson River'', c. 1835.]]
The degree of success André Parmentier achieved as a nurseryman and landscape designer in the United States belies the short six and a half years he lived in the country. On November 27, 1830, after “seven weeks and three days” of an undefined illness, he died at his home in Brooklyn. Following his death his daughter Adèle paid tribute to her father in a letter published in several newspapers, noting that his final wish was for his widow, Sylvie, “to continue the establishment for the good of his children.”<ref>The letter, dated November 29, 1830, was sent to the editor of the ''New England Farmer'' and republished in several newspapers; this excerpt is quoted from the ''New-York Spectator'' (December 28, 1830): 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ME8ZMRZ3 view on Zotero].</ref> Sylvie Parmentier continued to maintain the nursery for the next three years, but ultimately sold it for $53,000 in October 1833. The plot was then divided into lots and auctioned off the following month.<ref>Some papers cite the original sale price as $57,000; see “Price of Farms,” ''New-York American'' (November 22, 1833): 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZB28JDE7 view on Zotero]. For additional details of the sale and subsequent auction, see “Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56/q/parmentier's%20garden view on Zotero], “All in the Wrong,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' [New York] (November 9, 1833): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4AV8M7X3 view on Zotero], and ''New-York American'' (November 19, 1833): 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CQZTHBC6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Athens''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, June 28, 1824, “Horticultural Memoranda” (''New-York American'')<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''New-York American'' (June 28, 1824): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Ninety-seven new members had signed the constitution [of the New-York Horticultural Society] since the last sitting and were unanimously elected: amongst this number are . . . two distinguished horticulturists from Europe, Mr. Stead, from the Botanic Garden of Liverpool, member of the Yorkshire Horticultural Society, and Mr. Parmentier, of Enghien, a member of the scientific societies of that place, and of Brussels. These gentlemen have brought with them an extensive collection of fruit trees, rare plants, and seeds.”

*Anonymous, June 6, 1825, advertisement for [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>
:"ANDREW PARMENTIER has established himself in America with a view to Horticulture, and has already set on foot a nursery of considerable extent and variety, of ornamental & fruit-bearing trees, at the cross-roads formed by the intersection of the Jamaica & Flatbush turnpikes. . . . He has also a fine collection of [[shrubbery|shrubs]] and flowers, in [[pot]]s, for sale.

:“Mr. P. intends to devote particular care to adding to his collection, those European fruits and remarkable rare trees, which are as yet unknown here, or have not been generally introduced into the United States.

:“Mr. Parmentier will be happy to exhibit his garden and nursery to the ladies and gentlemen of New York, who may honor him with a visit.”

*Anonymous, April 6, 1827, “Mr. Parmentier” (''National Advocate'' (New York))<ref>“'Mr. Parmentier,” ''National Advocate'' (New York), (April 6, 1827): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAKCD7HA view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are few individuals in our country to whom the friends of agriculture and Botany are more indebted than to Mr. Parmentier of King’s county, Long Island. At an immense expense he has imported, from all parts of Europe, the choicest seeds, fruit and other trees, the collection of which he is introducing into the United States with great success. He is deserving of all encouragement, and we strongly recommend his establishment to public patronage.”

*Anonymous, July 7, 1827, “Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut” (''Salem (MA) Observer'')<ref> “Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut,” ''Salem (MA) Observer'' (July 7, 1827): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PKR5U3E8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Not less than seven vineyards have been established in these states from the plants furnished by Mr. Andrew Parmentier, at the [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural Garden]], Brooklyn, L. I. and that they are all in the most flourishing condition. Two of these vineyards are at Middletown, (N. J.) and not a single plant has failed. Those at Yellow Hook, Flatbush, and Flatbush hill, (L. I.) are equally successful. The one at Bridgeport, (Conn.) is very flourishing, and that at Phillipstown, (N. Y.) is coming on well. Several other establishments of the same kind are about to be undertaken under the superintendence of Mr. P. who warrants his grape-vines to live, provided that his instructions are followed, and that the order sent is for more than one hundred plants.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, “The Art of Landscape Gardening” (Fessenden 1828: 185–87)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), 184–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH/q/fessenden view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a symmetric garden to one in [[modern style|modern]] taste; who would not prefer to walk in a plantation irregular and [[picturesque]], rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, [[border|bordered]] with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?

:“Where is the person, gifted with any taste, who would not choose those [[alley]]s that wind without constraint, in preference to those dull straight lines which can be measured by one glance of the eye, and the monotony of which is unvaried? Instead of this, the [[modern style]] presents to you a constant change of scene, perfectly in accordance with the desires of a man who loves, as he continues his walk, to have new objects laid open to his view. . . . Limited [[prospect]]s, and neighbouring houses and buildings not worthy of notice, should be concealed, and the [[view]] left open to those objects which strike the eye of the beholder agreeably. . . .

:“The [[plantation]]s and groups of trees near the house should be, if possible, of a deeper green;— they would extend the view and the perspective, and produce the effect of shades in a landscape-picture, where the groups of trees in front are of a darker shade, and seem to remove the perspective from the extremity of the landscape. . . .

:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting views which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind [[fence]]s, and live [[hedge]]s. But [[fence]]s, necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]]. The judicious use of [[hermitage]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], cottages, and rotundas will add to the effect, in [[picturesque]] gardens and [[ferme ornée|ornamented farms]]. If you use these ornaments, place the [[hermitage]] in some retired spot: a small rivulet would be an appropriate and beautiful accompaniment . . .

:“As to tombs and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], I should wish to banish them entirely from gardens. They always awaken melancholy reflections in old people, for they remind them of their approaching end; and a regard for their feelings should, I think, exclude from their places of resort every object which could have such an effect.”

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, “Rural Scenery” (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Landscape and Picturesque Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than [[picturesque]] and landscape gardens. . . .

:“For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of [[landscape gardening|landscape]] and picturesque gardening, the public is much indebted to Mr. A. Parmentier, proprietor of the [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrubbery|shrubs]] that are found in his [[nursery|nurseries]]. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France.”

*Parmentier, Adèle, November 29, 1830, describing her father, André Parmentier (quoted in ''New-York Spectator'')<ref>“The Late Mr. Parmentier,” ''New-York Spectator'' (December 28, 1830): 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ME8ZMRZ3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Mr. Smith.—My mother desires me to fulfil the painful duty of informing you of the terrible loss we have sustained in the death of my dear father, after an illness of seven weeks and three days. His personal qualities and mild character made him the best of husbands and fathers. The establishment under his good management and honest principles, had acquired a reputation which he so well merited, and which was about to enable him to reap the fruits of his labors and industry, when death cruelly took him away from his afflicted family. His last moments were those of a good christian. He was not only resigned to die, but wished for death. He bore with the greatest patience and courage his great sufferings, and spoke to us about all our duties, and expressed the hope that we would die like him a tranquil and calm conscience. He was sensible to his last moment, and wished my dear mother to continue the establishment for the good of his children, which she hopes to do. . . .”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Alexander Jackson]], 1841, describing [[Hyde Park]], the residence of [[David Hosack]] (1841: 22)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Hyde Park]], on the Hudson, the seat of the late [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], has been justly celebrated as one of the finest specimens of the [[modern style]] of [[Landscape Gardening]] in America. Nature has indeed, done much for this place, as the grounds are finely varied, beautifully watered by a lively stream, and the [[view]]s from the neighbourhood of the house itself, including as they do the noble Hudson, and the superb wooded valley which stretches away until bounded at the horizon by the distant summits of the blue Cattskills, are unrivalled in [[picturesque]] beauty. But the efforts of art are not unworthy so rare a locality; and while the native [[woods]], and beautifully undulating grounds are preserved in their original state, the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], roads, [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, and new [[plantation]]s, have been laid out in so tasteful a manner as to heighten the charms of nature. Large and costly [[hothouse|hot-houses]] were erected and elegant entrance lodges at two points on the estate, a fine [[bridge]] over the stream, and numerous [[pavilion]]s and [[seat]]s commanding extensive [[prospect]]s; in short, nothing was spared to render this [[seat]] one of the finest in America. The [[park]], which at one time contained some fine deer, afforded a delightful [[drive]] within itself, as the whole estate numbered about seven hundred acres. The plans for laying out the grounds were furnished by Parmentier, and architects from New York were employed in designing and erecting the buildings. Since the death of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the place has lost something of the high keeping which it formerly evinced, but we still consider it one of the most instructive [[seat]]s in this country.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:2033.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, [[View]] of the David Hosack Estate at [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], New York, from Western Bank of the Hudson River, c. 1832.

File:2034.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, [[View]] of David Hosack Estate, [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], New York, with a [[Sundial]], c. 1832.

File:2035.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, [[View]] of the David Hosack Estate, [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], New York, from the South, c. 1832.

File:2036.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, [[View]] of David Hosack Estate, [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], New York, from the East, c. 1832.

File:2227.jpg|Prosper Desobry, ''Map of Parmentier's Garden, Brooklyn, to be sold at auction on Wednesday, Novr. 13th, 1833, at 12 o'clock at the Merchant's Exchange by Pine & Van Antwerp, 1833.''

File:2046.jpg|Nathaniel Currier, ''[[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], Hudson River'', c. 1835.

File:2166.jpg|Nathaniel Currier, ''Upper Canada College (1831–1891)'', 1835.

File:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[prospect]]-[[arbor]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Parmentier, André]]

Frances Palmer

2021-09-27T13:40:50Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Alternate names=Fanny Palmer
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=June 26, 1812
|Birth Circa=No
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|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
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|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=August 20, 1876
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=Leicester, England
|Keywords=Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground; English style; Lake; Picturesque; Plot/Plat; View/Vista
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr95010133.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500021237
|External link text=Getty ULAN
}}
}}
'''Frances (“Fanny”) Flora Bond Palmer''' (June 26, 1812–August 20, 1876) was one of the few women to work as a professional lithographer in the mid-nineteenth century United States. She created prints in the 1840s that illustrated several important botanical and architectural texts, including William H. Ranlett’s ''The Architect'' (1847). Palmer joined Nathaniel Currier’s lithography firm full-time around 1849 and became one of the company’s most prolific artists.

==History==
[[File:2217.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 1, Mrs. Frances Flora (Bond) Palmer, 185-?.]]
The artist and lithographer Frances Palmer [Fig. 1] emigrated from her birthplace of Leicester, England, to the United States in 1843 with her husband, Edmund Seymour Palmer (1809–1859), their children, and her younger siblings Maria Bond (b. 1815) and Robert Bond Jr. (b. 1821). She became well known as a professional lithographer during the 1840s–1860s while working in New York City. In the early part of her career in New York, Palmer designed and printed illustrations for several important botanical and architectural texts. Sometime around 1849 she joined the staff as a full-time artist at the N. Currier lithography firm (later known as Currier & Ives).

Palmer began her career in Leicester, England. Her first artistic training likely occurred at Miss Linwood’s academy for girls, a school Palmer attended as a child that was run by the “nationally recognized artist” Mary Linwood (1755–1845). Soon after marrying Edmund Palmer in 1832, the twenty-year-old Frances Palmer began to work as a professional artist.<ref>Linwood specialized in creating needlework copies of paintings by artists such as Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Rembrandt van Rijn and framing them under glass to emulate the original oil paintings. Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, ''Fanny Palmer: The Life and Work of a Currier & Ives Artist,'' ed. Diann Benti (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2018), 2, 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> By 1841 Palmer and her husband had opened a lithography business together in Leicester, for which Frances worked primarily as the artist and draftsman and Edmund as the printer. They advertised experience printing a wide range of subjects, including “[[View]]s, architectural and botanical drawings, maps, plans of estates, railway sections, elevations, law forms, invoice heads, tickets, checks, fac similes [''sic''], circulars and writings, of every description, and in every character.”<ref>Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, "Palmer, Frances," ''The Grove Encyclopedia of American'', vol. 4, edited by Joan M. Marter (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RI8BBRS6 view on Zotero]. Quote from advertisement in Thomas Cook’s ''Trade Directory of Leicester'' (1842); qtd. in Rubinstein 2018, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Leicester_cite"></span>The Palmers received a commission to produce illustrations of [[picturesque]] local [[view]]s for a publication by the local scholar Thomas Rossell Potter entitled ''The History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest'' (1842).<ref>T. R. Potter, ''The History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest'' (London: Hamilton, Adams, and Co., 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WHD47PID view on Zotero].</ref> They also published ''Sketches in Leicestershire'' (1842–1843), a portfolio of twenty-seven local [[view]]s, thirteen of which were fully designed and lithographed by Frances ([[#Leicester|view text]]).<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2208.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 2, E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors, n.d.]]
Soon after arriving in New York City in 1843 the Palmers partnered with the established lithographer Edward Jones, but by 1846 they had started their own firm under the name “F. & S. Palmer.” During this period, Frances Palmer also began to show her watercolor landscapes at exhibitions in New York City, including the 1844 annual exhibition at the National Academy of Design.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 23–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero]. See also Mary Bartlett Cowdrey, "Fanny Palmer, an American Lithographer," in ''Prints: Thirteen Illustrated Essays on the Art of the Print'', ed. Carl Zigrosser (New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1962), 217–34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5MMW3M62 view on Zotero].</ref> According to the scholar Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, Palmer experimented with an even wider variety of subjects in New York than she had in England: “Whereas in England Palmer had restricted herself largely to [[picturesque]] local and historic sites, she now drew ships, battle scenes, botanicals, landscapes, architecture, sheet-music covers, cartoons, and magazine illustrations.”<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0921.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 3, Frances Palmer, “English Cottage Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 27, design VIII.]]
Palmer’s architectural prints from this period include an 1844 lithographic depiction of a fashionable gothic villa designed by architect [[Alexander Jackson Davis|A. J. Davis]] that stood on 5th Avenue in New York City [Fig. 2]. [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis’s]] original sepia, ink, and watercolor drawing served as the basis for Palmer’s print, but she added additional figures strolling by the mansion to integrate the architecture into its environment. In 1847 the Palmers also created the illustrations for William H. Ranlett’s two-volume ''The Architect'' based on Ranlett’s drawings [Fig. 3].<span id="Ranlett_cite"></span> Through this project, Frances Palmer became well acquainted with a variety of Victorian architectural styles that she later integrated into her own compositions when creating suburban scenes for Currier & Ives.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 30–31, 46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> Ranlett praised Frances Palmer’s work in the “Advertisement” at the front of the first volume of ''The Architect'', noting that the “most difficult” of the illustrations were “executed on the stones by Mrs. F. Palmer, who stands at the head of the art” ([[#Ranlett|view text]]).

[[File:2212.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 4, Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Old Entrance to Greenwood Cemetery'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 1, 1847.]]
In 1847 the Palmers also published some of Frances’s original landscape views in ''The New York Drawing Book'', a series of two four-page booklets that featured original compositions for art students to copy. Two of the lithographs feature scenes from Brooklyn’s Green-Wood Cemetery. ''Old Entrance to Greenwood Cemetery'' [Fig. 4] depicts a road curving past a [[gateway]] and [[fence]] into a wooded landscape with a [[view]] of boats on the Gowanus Bay visible in the background. ''Sylvan Lake, Greenwood Cemetery'' shows a woman and young child taking in a [[picturesque]] [[view]] of one of the cemetery’s placid, tree-lined [[lake]]s [Fig. 5].
[[File:2213.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 5, Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Sylvan Lake, Greenwood Cemetery'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 2, 1847.]]

[[File:2214.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 6, F. & S. Palmer, “The American Flora. Vol. II“ (frontispiece), 1848, [print from 1855 edition].]]
The Palmers lithographed many of the illustrations for Asa B. Strong’s ''American Flora, or History of Plants and Wildflowers'' (1848), a popular four-volume encyclopedia that advertised itself on the title page as “a book of reference for botanists, physicians, florists, gardeners, students, etc.”<ref>A. B. Strong, ''The American Flora, or History of Plants and Wild Flowers'' (New York: Green & Strong, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4H6QA64Q view on Zotero]. Other lithographs were completed by several different lithographers, including W. M. Moody, E. Whitefield, and F. Michelin. See Rubinstein 2018, 272, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> Frances Palmer’s lithographs include the frontispiece for the second volume [Fig. 6], sixteen lithographs of Strong’s original botanical drawings that appear in the second and third volumes, including the ''Caper Bush'' [Fig. 7], and a portrait of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) that appears in the third volume.<ref>For a full list of the lithographs in Strong’s encyclopedia that were executed by the Palmers, see Rubinstein 2018, 272–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:2215.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 7, F. & S. Palmer, Caper Bush (Plate 42), “The American Flora. Vol. II“, 1848 [print from 1855 edition]].

[[File:2216.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 8, F. (Fanny) Palmer (artist) and Nathaniel Currier (lithographer and publisher), ''View of New York from Weehawken—North River'', 1849.]]
Palmer soon began to publish prints under her own name—no longer “F. & S. Palmer”—and at a new address, indicating that the professional partnership with her husband had come to an end, likely due, at least in part, to financial challenges. By 1849, the well-known New York City lithographer Nathaniel Currier (1813–1888) began to use Palmer’s work regularly as the basis for prints published by his firm, although initially he did not include her name below the images. However, by the end of the year, he printed Palmer’s name (“F. F. Palmer”) on two prints, ''View of New York. From Brooklyn Heights and View of New York. From Weehawken—North River'' [Fig. 8], a rare recognition for the period as most artists working for Currier remained anonymous. With her new full-time position at the N. Currier lithography firm (renamed Currier & Ives in 1857), Palmer became the primary earner for her family.<ref>By the 1850 federal census, Seymour Palmer’s occupation was listed as a tavern keeper and he seems to have abandoned work in the printing trade from this point on. By 1855 Edmund Palmer no longer appeared in the city’s business directories and was described by at least one contemporary acquaintance as “a ne’er-do-well.” Rubinstein 2018, 46, 50, 52, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Penny_cite"></span> In her early days with N. Currier, Palmer sometimes traveled out to Long Island in Currier’s carriage to sketch with pencil background material—farmhouses and barns, [[fence]]s, etc.—to serve as source material for the firm’s large staff.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> While working for N. Currier, she produced approximately two hundred prints depicting a wide variety of subjects, including city and suburban [[view]]s, marine subjects, farm scenes, suburban and country homes, western landscapes, and still lifes, among others. She also took on freelance work with the assistance of male apprentices that she trained and paid to assist her ([[#Penny|view text]]). Palmer worked for Currier & Ives until 1868 and remained in the United States until her death from tuberculosis in 1876.<ref>According to Rubinstein, no prints by Palmer produced after 1868 have been located and confirmed. Rubinstein 2018, 174. For a list of prints by (or attributed to) Palmer published by Currier & Ives, see Appendix 3 and 3A in Rubinstein 2018, 281–338, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Review of Frances Palmer’s and Edmund Palmer’s lithographs, May 13, 1842, published in the ''Leicester Journal'' (quoted in Rubinstein 2018: 16)<ref name="Rubinstein_2018">Rubinstein 2018, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Leicester General News Room and Library—A perspective [[view]] of this ornament to our town, drawn on stone, by Mrs. Palmer, executed in tinted Lithography, by Mr. E. J. [sic] Palmer, has just been published. . . . In this specimen before us, we have proof also that the difficult process of Lithography is skilfully [''sic''] conducted by a resident Lithographer. Of this view, although we pretend not that Mrs. Palmer’s drawing on stone equals in the handling the productions of the long-practiced Barnard, nor that the finer specimens of [Charles Joseph] Hulmandel’s [''sic''] Press do not surpass, in the more delicate effects, those of Mr. Palmer’s; it is impossible to deny that the former is an accomplished Artist, and the latter a skilful [''sic''] director in this beautiful art; and we look forward with pleasure to the promised appearance of their joint efforts in the publication of a series of [[view]]s, in numbers, of the most [[picturesque]] localities in our Town and Country.”

*<div id="Leicester"></div>Review of Frances Palmer’s and Edmund Palmer’s lithographs, July 1, 1842, published in the ''Leicester Journal'' (quoted in Rubinstein 2018: 16)<ref name="Rubinstein_2018"></ref>

:“SKETCHES IN LEICESTERSHIRE—We take the earliest opportunity of recommending this very promising work, the first number of which has just appeared to the notice of our readers. The [[view]]s. . . ''The Hanging Rock; St. Mary’s Church, Leicester, from the S.W.''; and that most [[picturesque]] and interesting of all the heights included in this extensive range of the Charnwood, Beacon Hill. Each is managed with great artistic effect; and the manner in which the lithographer has fulfilled his [''sic''] task is deserving of every commendation. . . The [[view]] of Beacon Hill is in Mrs. Palmer’s most tasteful and successful style, and is distinguished by a boldness and freedom not often exhibited by a female pencil. . . The tint delicately thrown upon the sky moreover, (apparently a soft and tranquil autumnal heaven,) is the very finish required as a contrast to the stern features of the rugged landscape which frowns beneath it. . . We cordially recommend Mrs. Palmer’s work to the notice, not only of all attached to our local scenery, but of all interested (as who in these days is not!) in the general progress and advancement of the graphic art.” [[#Leicester_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Ranlett"></div>Ranlett, William H., describing Frances Palmer’s work (Ranlett 1847 1:1)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect: A Series of Original Designs, for Domestic and Ornametnal Cottages and Villas, Connected with Landscape Gardening, Adapted to the United States…'' (New York: Dewitt & Davenport, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K98PVCSJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The volume contains 60 plates—19 of them tinted in a style of lithography which will commend itself to every judge of art. The most difficult of them being executed on the stones by Mrs. F. PALMER, who stands at the head of the art. . . The plates are from the well-known lithographic press-room of Messrs. PALMER.” [[#Ranlett_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Penny"></div>Penny, Virginia, describing Frances Palmer’s career and working process (Penny 1863: 69)<ref>Virginia Penny, ''The Employments of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman’s Work'' (Boston: Walker, Wise, & Company, 1863), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZWTA35IG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mrs. P., Brooklyn, an English lady, learned to draw when eight years old, and studied lithography with a distinguished artist of London, who executed entirely with his left hand, having lost three fingers on his right when he was a child. She has spent twenty-two years in lithographing—seventeen of them in this county. She is probably the only lady professionally engaged in this business in the United States. She has earned almost constantly, I was told, from $12 to $30 a week. . . Mrs. P. excels in architectural drawing. She thinks one must have the talent of an artist, and great practice with the pencil, to succeed. She has given instruction to several youths, but never to one of her own sex. One must be articled, and pass through a regular course of advancement, to follow it advantageously. To an apprentice, after two or three years’ practice, a small premium is paid. She had one youth to learn of her, who, after four years’ time, received $7 a week from her for his work. She thinks there will be employment to a few well qualified. She has always kept busy.” [[#Penny_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell'', n.d.

Image:2212.jpg|Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Old Entrance to Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 1, 1847.

Image:2213.jpg|Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Sylvan [[Lake]], Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 2, 1847.

Image:2214.jpg|F. & S. Palmer, “The American Flora. Vol. II“ (frontispiece), 1848, [print from 1855 edition].

Image:2215.jpg|F. & S. Palmer, Caper Bush (Plate 42), “The American Flora. Vol. II“, 1848 [print from 1855 edition].

Image:0774.jpg|Frances, Palmer, Ground [[Plot/Plat|plots]] for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0921.jpg|Frances Palmer, “[[English_style|English]] Cottage Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 27, design VIII.

Image:2216.jpg|F. (Fanny) Palmer (artist) and Nathaniel Currier (lithographer and publisher), ''[[View]] of New York from Weehawken—North River'', 1849.

Image:0790.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Design for a Vinery & Green House," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43.

Image:2217.jpg|Mrs. Frances Flora (Bond) Palmer, 185-?. Harriet Endicott Waite research material concerning Currier & Ives, 1923-1956.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://lastingimpressions.winterthur.org/fannypalmer/ “Lasting Impressions: The Artists of Currier & Ives,” Winterthur Museum, Garden & Library]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Palmer, Frances]]

Frances Palmer

2021-09-27T13:40:22Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Alternate names=Fanny Palmer
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=June 26, 1812
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=August 20, 1876
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=Leicester, England
|Keywords=Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground; English style; Lake; Picturesque; Plot/Plat; View/Vista
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr95010133.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}
}}
'''Frances (“Fanny”) Flora Bond Palmer''' (June 26, 1812–August 20, 1876) was one of the few women to work as a professional lithographer in the mid-nineteenth century United States. She created prints in the 1840s that illustrated several important botanical and architectural texts, including William H. Ranlett’s ''The Architect'' (1847). Palmer joined Nathaniel Currier’s lithography firm full-time around 1849 and became one of the company’s most prolific artists.

==History==
[[File:2217.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 1, Mrs. Frances Flora (Bond) Palmer, 185-?.]]
The artist and lithographer Frances Palmer [Fig. 1] emigrated from her birthplace of Leicester, England, to the United States in 1843 with her husband, Edmund Seymour Palmer (1809–1859), their children, and her younger siblings Maria Bond (b. 1815) and Robert Bond Jr. (b. 1821). She became well known as a professional lithographer during the 1840s–1860s while working in New York City. In the early part of her career in New York, Palmer designed and printed illustrations for several important botanical and architectural texts. Sometime around 1849 she joined the staff as a full-time artist at the N. Currier lithography firm (later known as Currier & Ives).

Palmer began her career in Leicester, England. Her first artistic training likely occurred at Miss Linwood’s academy for girls, a school Palmer attended as a child that was run by the “nationally recognized artist” Mary Linwood (1755–1845). Soon after marrying Edmund Palmer in 1832, the twenty-year-old Frances Palmer began to work as a professional artist.<ref>Linwood specialized in creating needlework copies of paintings by artists such as Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Rembrandt van Rijn and framing them under glass to emulate the original oil paintings. Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, ''Fanny Palmer: The Life and Work of a Currier & Ives Artist,'' ed. Diann Benti (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2018), 2, 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> By 1841 Palmer and her husband had opened a lithography business together in Leicester, for which Frances worked primarily as the artist and draftsman and Edmund as the printer. They advertised experience printing a wide range of subjects, including “[[View]]s, architectural and botanical drawings, maps, plans of estates, railway sections, elevations, law forms, invoice heads, tickets, checks, fac similes [''sic''], circulars and writings, of every description, and in every character.”<ref>Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, "Palmer, Frances," ''The Grove Encyclopedia of American'', vol. 4, edited by Joan M. Marter (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RI8BBRS6 view on Zotero]. Quote from advertisement in Thomas Cook’s ''Trade Directory of Leicester'' (1842); qtd. in Rubinstein 2018, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Leicester_cite"></span>The Palmers received a commission to produce illustrations of [[picturesque]] local [[view]]s for a publication by the local scholar Thomas Rossell Potter entitled ''The History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest'' (1842).<ref>T. R. Potter, ''The History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest'' (London: Hamilton, Adams, and Co., 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WHD47PID view on Zotero].</ref> They also published ''Sketches in Leicestershire'' (1842–1843), a portfolio of twenty-seven local [[view]]s, thirteen of which were fully designed and lithographed by Frances ([[#Leicester|view text]]).<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2208.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 2, E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors, n.d.]]
Soon after arriving in New York City in 1843 the Palmers partnered with the established lithographer Edward Jones, but by 1846 they had started their own firm under the name “F. & S. Palmer.” During this period, Frances Palmer also began to show her watercolor landscapes at exhibitions in New York City, including the 1844 annual exhibition at the National Academy of Design.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 23–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero]. See also Mary Bartlett Cowdrey, "Fanny Palmer, an American Lithographer," in ''Prints: Thirteen Illustrated Essays on the Art of the Print'', ed. Carl Zigrosser (New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1962), 217–34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5MMW3M62 view on Zotero].</ref> According to the scholar Charlotte Streifer Rubinstein, Palmer experimented with an even wider variety of subjects in New York than she had in England: “Whereas in England Palmer had restricted herself largely to [[picturesque]] local and historic sites, she now drew ships, battle scenes, botanicals, landscapes, architecture, sheet-music covers, cartoons, and magazine illustrations.”<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0921.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 3, Frances Palmer, “English Cottage Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 27, design VIII.]]
Palmer’s architectural prints from this period include an 1844 lithographic depiction of a fashionable gothic villa designed by architect [[Alexander Jackson Davis|A. J. Davis]] that stood on 5th Avenue in New York City [Fig. 2]. [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis’s]] original sepia, ink, and watercolor drawing served as the basis for Palmer’s print, but she added additional figures strolling by the mansion to integrate the architecture into its environment. In 1847 the Palmers also created the illustrations for William H. Ranlett’s two-volume ''The Architect'' based on Ranlett’s drawings [Fig. 3].<span id="Ranlett_cite"></span> Through this project, Frances Palmer became well acquainted with a variety of Victorian architectural styles that she later integrated into her own compositions when creating suburban scenes for Currier & Ives.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 30–31, 46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> Ranlett praised Frances Palmer’s work in the “Advertisement” at the front of the first volume of ''The Architect'', noting that the “most difficult” of the illustrations were “executed on the stones by Mrs. F. Palmer, who stands at the head of the art” ([[#Ranlett|view text]]).

[[File:2212.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 4, Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Old Entrance to Greenwood Cemetery'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 1, 1847.]]
In 1847 the Palmers also published some of Frances’s original landscape views in ''The New York Drawing Book'', a series of two four-page booklets that featured original compositions for art students to copy. Two of the lithographs feature scenes from Brooklyn’s Green-Wood Cemetery. ''Old Entrance to Greenwood Cemetery'' [Fig. 4] depicts a road curving past a [[gateway]] and [[fence]] into a wooded landscape with a [[view]] of boats on the Gowanus Bay visible in the background. ''Sylvan Lake, Greenwood Cemetery'' shows a woman and young child taking in a [[picturesque]] [[view]] of one of the cemetery’s placid, tree-lined [[lake]]s [Fig. 5].
[[File:2213.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 5, Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Sylvan Lake, Greenwood Cemetery'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 2, 1847.]]

[[File:2214.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 6, F. & S. Palmer, “The American Flora. Vol. II“ (frontispiece), 1848, [print from 1855 edition].]]
The Palmers lithographed many of the illustrations for Asa B. Strong’s ''American Flora, or History of Plants and Wildflowers'' (1848), a popular four-volume encyclopedia that advertised itself on the title page as “a book of reference for botanists, physicians, florists, gardeners, students, etc.”<ref>A. B. Strong, ''The American Flora, or History of Plants and Wild Flowers'' (New York: Green & Strong, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4H6QA64Q view on Zotero]. Other lithographs were completed by several different lithographers, including W. M. Moody, E. Whitefield, and F. Michelin. See Rubinstein 2018, 272, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> Frances Palmer’s lithographs include the frontispiece for the second volume [Fig. 6], sixteen lithographs of Strong’s original botanical drawings that appear in the second and third volumes, including the ''Caper Bush'' [Fig. 7], and a portrait of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) that appears in the third volume.<ref>For a full list of the lithographs in Strong’s encyclopedia that were executed by the Palmers, see Rubinstein 2018, 272–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:2215.jpg|right|thumb|Fig. 7, F. & S. Palmer, Caper Bush (Plate 42), “The American Flora. Vol. II“, 1848 [print from 1855 edition]].

[[File:2216.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 8, F. (Fanny) Palmer (artist) and Nathaniel Currier (lithographer and publisher), ''View of New York from Weehawken—North River'', 1849.]]
Palmer soon began to publish prints under her own name—no longer “F. & S. Palmer”—and at a new address, indicating that the professional partnership with her husband had come to an end, likely due, at least in part, to financial challenges. By 1849, the well-known New York City lithographer Nathaniel Currier (1813–1888) began to use Palmer’s work regularly as the basis for prints published by his firm, although initially he did not include her name below the images. However, by the end of the year, he printed Palmer’s name (“F. F. Palmer”) on two prints, ''View of New York. From Brooklyn Heights and View of New York. From Weehawken—North River'' [Fig. 8], a rare recognition for the period as most artists working for Currier remained anonymous. With her new full-time position at the N. Currier lithography firm (renamed Currier & Ives in 1857), Palmer became the primary earner for her family.<ref>By the 1850 federal census, Seymour Palmer’s occupation was listed as a tavern keeper and he seems to have abandoned work in the printing trade from this point on. By 1855 Edmund Palmer no longer appeared in the city’s business directories and was described by at least one contemporary acquaintance as “a ne’er-do-well.” Rubinstein 2018, 46, 50, 52, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Penny_cite"></span> In her early days with N. Currier, Palmer sometimes traveled out to Long Island in Currier’s carriage to sketch with pencil background material—farmhouses and barns, [[fence]]s, etc.—to serve as source material for the firm’s large staff.<ref>Rubinstein 2018, 90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> While working for N. Currier, she produced approximately two hundred prints depicting a wide variety of subjects, including city and suburban [[view]]s, marine subjects, farm scenes, suburban and country homes, western landscapes, and still lifes, among others. She also took on freelance work with the assistance of male apprentices that she trained and paid to assist her ([[#Penny|view text]]). Palmer worked for Currier & Ives until 1868 and remained in the United States until her death from tuberculosis in 1876.<ref>According to Rubinstein, no prints by Palmer produced after 1868 have been located and confirmed. Rubinstein 2018, 174. For a list of prints by (or attributed to) Palmer published by Currier & Ives, see Appendix 3 and 3A in Rubinstein 2018, 281–338, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Review of Frances Palmer’s and Edmund Palmer’s lithographs, May 13, 1842, published in the ''Leicester Journal'' (quoted in Rubinstein 2018: 16)<ref name="Rubinstein_2018">Rubinstein 2018, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KJ9CVGZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Leicester General News Room and Library—A perspective [[view]] of this ornament to our town, drawn on stone, by Mrs. Palmer, executed in tinted Lithography, by Mr. E. J. [sic] Palmer, has just been published. . . . In this specimen before us, we have proof also that the difficult process of Lithography is skilfully [''sic''] conducted by a resident Lithographer. Of this view, although we pretend not that Mrs. Palmer’s drawing on stone equals in the handling the productions of the long-practiced Barnard, nor that the finer specimens of [Charles Joseph] Hulmandel’s [''sic''] Press do not surpass, in the more delicate effects, those of Mr. Palmer’s; it is impossible to deny that the former is an accomplished Artist, and the latter a skilful [''sic''] director in this beautiful art; and we look forward with pleasure to the promised appearance of their joint efforts in the publication of a series of [[view]]s, in numbers, of the most [[picturesque]] localities in our Town and Country.”

*<div id="Leicester"></div>Review of Frances Palmer’s and Edmund Palmer’s lithographs, July 1, 1842, published in the ''Leicester Journal'' (quoted in Rubinstein 2018: 16)<ref name="Rubinstein_2018"></ref>

:“SKETCHES IN LEICESTERSHIRE—We take the earliest opportunity of recommending this very promising work, the first number of which has just appeared to the notice of our readers. The [[view]]s. . . ''The Hanging Rock; St. Mary’s Church, Leicester, from the S.W.''; and that most [[picturesque]] and interesting of all the heights included in this extensive range of the Charnwood, Beacon Hill. Each is managed with great artistic effect; and the manner in which the lithographer has fulfilled his [''sic''] task is deserving of every commendation. . . The [[view]] of Beacon Hill is in Mrs. Palmer’s most tasteful and successful style, and is distinguished by a boldness and freedom not often exhibited by a female pencil. . . The tint delicately thrown upon the sky moreover, (apparently a soft and tranquil autumnal heaven,) is the very finish required as a contrast to the stern features of the rugged landscape which frowns beneath it. . . We cordially recommend Mrs. Palmer’s work to the notice, not only of all attached to our local scenery, but of all interested (as who in these days is not!) in the general progress and advancement of the graphic art.” [[#Leicester_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Ranlett"></div>Ranlett, William H., describing Frances Palmer’s work (Ranlett 1847 1:1)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect: A Series of Original Designs, for Domestic and Ornametnal Cottages and Villas, Connected with Landscape Gardening, Adapted to the United States…'' (New York: Dewitt & Davenport, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K98PVCSJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The volume contains 60 plates—19 of them tinted in a style of lithography which will commend itself to every judge of art. The most difficult of them being executed on the stones by Mrs. F. PALMER, who stands at the head of the art. . . The plates are from the well-known lithographic press-room of Messrs. PALMER.” [[#Ranlett_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Penny"></div>Penny, Virginia, describing Frances Palmer’s career and working process (Penny 1863: 69)<ref>Virginia Penny, ''The Employments of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman’s Work'' (Boston: Walker, Wise, & Company, 1863), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZWTA35IG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mrs. P., Brooklyn, an English lady, learned to draw when eight years old, and studied lithography with a distinguished artist of London, who executed entirely with his left hand, having lost three fingers on his right when he was a child. She has spent twenty-two years in lithographing—seventeen of them in this county. She is probably the only lady professionally engaged in this business in the United States. She has earned almost constantly, I was told, from $12 to $30 a week. . . Mrs. P. excels in architectural drawing. She thinks one must have the talent of an artist, and great practice with the pencil, to succeed. She has given instruction to several youths, but never to one of her own sex. One must be articled, and pass through a regular course of advancement, to follow it advantageously. To an apprentice, after two or three years’ practice, a small premium is paid. She had one youth to learn of her, who, after four years’ time, received $7 a week from her for his work. She thinks there will be employment to a few well qualified. She has always kept busy.” [[#Penny_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell'', n.d.

Image:2212.jpg|Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Old Entrance to Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 1, 1847.

Image:2213.jpg|Frances Flora Bond Palmer, ''Sylvan [[Lake]], Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]]'', in: ''The New York Drawing Book, Containing a Series of Original Designs and Sketches of American Scenery'', No. 2, 1847.

Image:2214.jpg|F. & S. Palmer, “The American Flora. Vol. II“ (frontispiece), 1848, [print from 1855 edition].

Image:2215.jpg|F. & S. Palmer, Caper Bush (Plate 42), “The American Flora. Vol. II“, 1848 [print from 1855 edition].

Image:0774.jpg|Frances, Palmer, Ground [[Plot/Plat|plots]] for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0921.jpg|Frances Palmer, “[[English_style|English]] Cottage Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 27, design VIII.

Image:2216.jpg|F. (Fanny) Palmer (artist) and Nathaniel Currier (lithographer and publisher), ''[[View]] of New York from Weehawken—North River'', 1849.

Image:0790.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Design for a Vinery & Green House," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43.

Image:2217.jpg|Mrs. Frances Flora (Bond) Palmer, 185-?. Harriet Endicott Waite research material concerning Currier & Ives, 1923-1956.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://lastingimpressions.winterthur.org/fannypalmer/ “Lasting Impressions: The Artists of Currier & Ives,” Winterthur Museum, Garden & Library]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Palmer, Frances]]

Robert Morris

2021-09-27T13:37:44Z

M-westerby:

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'''Robert Morris''' (January 20, 1734–May 8, 1806), a merchant, financier, and land speculator, developed buildings and gardens in and around Philadelphia. He held important political offices before and after the Revolution; was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution; and earned the nickname “Financier of the American Revolution” through his contributions to the Continental Army and fledgling American economy.

==History==
[[File:1983.jpg|thumb|left|frameless|Fig. 1, Jeremiah Paul, ''Robert Morris’ Seat on Schuylkill'', July 20, 1794.]]
At the age of thirteen, Morris emigrated from his native England to Maryland, where his father worked as a tobacco agent.<ref>Charles Rappleye, ''Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 7–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref> He later relocated to Philadelphia, eventually becoming a partner in a mercantile firm specializing in import and export trade with Europe, the West Indies, the Levant, and Africa. Some of the firm’s profits were made through the slave trade.<ref>Rappleye 2010, 9–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref> With his fortunes on the rise, Morris established a country estate known as [[The Hills]] on the [[Schuylkill River]] and gained a reputation for lavish hospitality, hosting such prominent guests as George Washington, whom he met in 1773 and entertained on numerous occasions.<ref>Rappleye 2010, 93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref> British troops demolished Morris’s country estate in November 1777, but otherwise his wealth seemed to increase during the war, leading to persistent accusations of profiteering.<ref>Ryan K. Smith, ''Robert Morris’s Folly: The Architectural and Financial Failures of an American Founder'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 22, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZKNMARKC, view on Zotero]; Rappleye 2010, 202, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero]. </ref> Congress nevertheless appointed Morris superintendent of finance in 1781, a position second only to the President’s in terms of national importance.

Morris purchased millions of acres in various states as speculative investments and acquired several properties in Philadelphia as family residences.<ref>Robert Morris, ''Account of Robert Morris’ Property'' (Philadelphia: King & Baird Printers, 18—), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7U6SFDE3 view on Zotero]; Edward Lawler Jr., “The President’s House in Philadelphia: The Rediscovery of a Lost Landmark,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 126, no. 1 (January 2002): 19, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJIF2I33 view on Zotero]; Barbara A. Chernow, “Robert Morris: Genesee Land Speculator,” ''New York'' 58, no. 2 (April 1977): 197, 200–211, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7BVI5RV view on Zotero]. </ref> In 1781 he bought one of the grandest houses in Philadelphia, centrally located on Market Street near the [[State House Yard]]. Built in the late 1760s, the house had been damaged by fire in 1780 and Morris immediately began renovations, adding innovative modern luxuries, such as a two-story [[bathhouse]], [[hothouse|hothouses]], and an [[icehouse]].<ref>Lawler 2002, 9–18, 20–22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJIF2I33 view on Zotero].</ref> The latter so impressed George Washington that in 1784 he asked Morris for detailed instructions as the basis for an [[icehouse]] at [[Mount Vernon]].<ref>George Washington, ''The Papers of George Washington,'' Confederation Series, 6 vols., ed. William Wright Abbot and Dorothy Twohig (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 1:421, 451–52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G2R8EXJI view on Zotero].</ref> Through the acquisition of several lots adjacent to his Market Street house, Morris created a garden of about half an acre where he hosted an aeronautic experiment in the spring of 1784, gathering spectators to witness the launch of an “Air Balloon made of Paper.”<ref>Francis Hopkinson to Thomas Jefferson, May 12, 1784, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson,'' Main Series, ed. Julian P. Boyd, 41+ vols.(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), 7:246, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9HSMRI7H view on Zotero]; see also Lawler 2002, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJIF2I33 view on Zotero].</ref> Morris cofounded the Society for the Improvement of Roads and Inland Navigation in 1789 and thereafter served as president of several pioneering [[canal]] companies.<ref>Smith 2014, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero]; Ronald E. Shaw, ''Canals For A Nation: The Canal Era in the United States, 1790–1860'' (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 3–6, 20, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BDMA3SVQ view on Zotero]; John Lauritz Larson, ''Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States'' (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 23–25, 30, 32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RFZI3Z8X view on Zotero]; Chernow 1977, 212–20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7BVI5RV view on Zotero]; John F. Bell, “Robert Fulton and the Pennsylvania Canals,” ''Pennsylvania History'' 9 (1942), 191, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRXII2HX view on Zotero].</ref>

Meanwhile, Morris was re-establishing [[The Hills]] as a showplace, creating a monumental [[greenhouse]] complex and extensive gardens known for citrus fruit and other exotic plants [Fig. 1]. A founding member of the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture,<ref>''Minutes of the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture: From Its Institution in February, 1785, to March, 1810'' (Philadelphia: John C. Clark & Son, 1854), 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NABNPUQF view on Zotero].</ref> Morris experimented with the introduction of non-indigenous plant specimens and livestock at [[The Hills]], including “a little pig imported by Mr. Morris from the East Indies” in 1789; a pair of Merino sheep imported from Spain in 1792 (one of which he gave to [[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1795); and “Clover seed, Rye Grass, Beans and Peas . . . imported from Liverpool” in 1793.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson,'' Main Series, ed. John Catanzariti, 41+ vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 28:375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H24SX77T view on Zotero]; Owen Tasker Robbins, “Toward a Preservation of the Grounds of Lemon Hill in Light of Their Past and Present Significance for Philadelphians” (masters thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1987), 137, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero]; Jacob Hiltzheimer, ''Extracts from the Diary of Jacob Hiltzheimer of Philadelphia, 1765–1798,'' ed. Jacob Cox Parsons (Philadelphia: William F. Fell & Co., 1893), 153, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7NU9RN8C view on Zotero].</ref> Morris cultivated prestige at [[The Hills]] along with plants and animals. While in New York in May 1789, he asked his wife, Mary White Morris, to entertain some important new acquaintances embarking for Philadelphia: “I wish the Gentlmn. to see [[the Hills]] & the Ladies too if they are so inclined.” In August, Mary sent him a box of pineapples and other fruits from [[The Hills]], which he distributed to his associates in New York. “The raising of this very fine fruit makes me feel not a little proud,” he confessed.<ref>Smith 2014, 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1790, having persuaded Congress to make Philadelphia the temporary seat of the federal government until a new capital city could be erected on the banks of Potomac River, Morris volunteered his Market Street house to serve as the President’s official residence.<ref>Smith 2014, 10–20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero]; Lawler 2002, 23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJIF2I33 view on Zotero].</ref> Three years later, Morris made the fateful decision to commission the expatriate French engineer [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] to design and build a magnificent new town house in Philadelphia. By 1796 the spiraling cost of [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant’s]] increasingly extravagant plans forced construction to halt, earning the half-finished palace the nickname “Morris’s Folly.”<ref>Smith 2014, 59–127, 164–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref> This expensive misadventure coincided with a mountain of failed land speculations and other entrepreneurial schemes and investments.<ref>Larson 2001, 23–25, 30, 32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RFZI3Z8X view on Zotero]; Chernow 1977, 212–220, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7BVI5RV view on Zotero]; Hiltzheimer 1893, 192–194, 204, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7NU9RN8C view on Zotero].</ref> In defiance of his creditors, Morris holed up at [[The Hills]] from July 1797 to February 1798, before finally surrendering to a prison term of nearly four years.<ref>Smith 2014, 158–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero]; Robbins 1987, 153, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2MIWTC48 view on Zotero].</ref> His extensive landholdings, including [[The Hills]], were sold piece by piece at a great loss in order to settle his debts.<ref>Smith 2014, 181–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4MAMWNRA view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Morris, Robert, June 15, 1784, in a letter to George Washington, describing his residence in Market Street, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Washington 1992: 1:451–52)<ref>Washington 1992, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G2R8EXJI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“My [[icehouse|Ice House]] is about 18 feet deep and 16 square, the bottom is a Coarse Gravell & the Water which drains from the Ice soaks into it as fast as the Ice melts, this prevents the necessity of a Drain which if the bottom was Clay or Stiff Loam would be necessary and for this reason the side of a Hill is preferred generally for digging an [[icehouse|Ice House]], as if needful a drain can easily be cut from the bottom of it, through the side of the Hill to let the Water run out. The [[Wall]]s of my [[icehouse|Ice House]] are built of Stone without Mortar (which is called Dry [[Wall]]) untill within a foot and a half of the Surface of the Earth when Mortar was used from thence to the Surface to make the top more binding and Solid. When this [[Wall]] was brought up even with the Surface of the Earth I stopped there and then dug the foundation for another [[Wall]], two foot back from the first and about two foot deep, this done the foundation was laid so as to enclose the whole of the [[Wall]]s built on the inside of the Hole where the Ice is put and on this foundation is built the [[Wall]]s which appear above ground and in mine they are about ten foot high. On these the Roof is fixed, these [[Wall]]s are very thick, built of Stone and Mortar, afterwards rough Cast on the outside. I nailed a Cieling of Boards under the Roof flat from Wall to Wall, and filled all the Space between that Cieling and the Shingling of the Roof with Straw so that the Heat of the Sun Cannot possibly have any Effect.

:“In the Bottom of the [[icehouse|Ice House]] I placed some Blocks of Wood about two foot long and on these I laid a [[Plat]] form of Common [[Fence]] Rails Close enough to hold the Ice & open enough to let the Water pass through; thus the Ice lays two foot from the Gravel and of Course gives room for the Water to soak away gradually without being in contact with the Ice, which if it was for any time would waste it amazingly. . . .

:“I find it best to fill with Ice which as it is put in should be broke into small pieces and pounded down with heavy Clubs or Battons such as Pavers use, if well beat it will after a while consolidate into one solid mass and require to be cut out with a Chizell or Axe. I tryed Snow one year and lost it in June. The Ice keeps until October or November and I believe if the Hole was larger so as [to h]old more it would keep untill Christmass, the closer it is packed the bet[ter i]t keeps and I believe if the [[Wall]]s were lined with Straw between the Ice [and] Stone it would preserve it much, the melting begins next the [[Wall]]s and Continues round the Edge of the Body of Ice throughout the Season.”

* Grieve, George, describing Robert Morris’s residence in Market Street, Philadelphia, PA, in a note to his translation of Chastellux’s ''Travels in North America,'' 1787 (Chastellux 1787: 1:203)<ref>François Jean Chastellux, Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782,'' 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house the Marquis speaks of, in which Mr. Morris lives, belonged formerly to Mr. Richard Penn; the Financier has made great additions to it, and is the first who has introduced the luxury of [[hot house|hot-houses]] and [[ice house|ice-houses]] on the continent.”

* [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing [[The Hills]], estate of Robert Morris, Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:256–57)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler,'' ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We continued our route, in view of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], and up the river several miles, and took a view of a number of Country-[[seat]]s, one belonging to Mr. R. Morris, the American financier, and who is said to be possessed of the greatest fortune in America. His country-[[seat]] is not yet completed, but it will be superb. It is planned on a large scale, the gardens and [[walk]]s are extensive, and the villa, situated on an [[eminence]], has a commanding [[prospect]] down the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] to the Delaware.”

* Moreau de St.-Méry, Médéric Louis Élie, March 26, 1797 (quoted in Roberts 1947: 240)<ref>Kenneth Roberts, and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I went . . . to visit Robert Morris’s [[greenhouse]] [''serre chaud''] near Philadelphia. It had very beautiful specimens of orange trees, lemon trees, and pineapples.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1983.jpg|Jeremiah Paul, ''Robert Morris’ [[Seat]] on Schuylkill'', July 20, 1794.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://www.ushistory.org/presidentshouse/index.htm President’s House (Philadelphia) website]

[http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/george-washington-to-robert-morris/ The Papers of George Washington]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Morris, Robert]]

Moses Marshall

2021-09-27T13:34:52Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
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|Birth Date=November 30, 1758
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|Death Date=October 1, 1813
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
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|Death Present End=No
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|Roles=Physician
|Keywords=Botanic garden
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2010048600.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
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}}
'''Moses Marshall''' (November 30, 1758–October 1, 1813), a Quaker physician and botanist in Chester County, Pennsylvania, assisted his uncle, [[Is relative of::Humphry Marshall]], with a variety of botanical pursuits, including collecting and identifying American plants and seeds and distributing them to European and American correspondents.

==History==
[[File:2072.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Joseph Swan after Walter Hood Fitch, “Marshallia Caespitosa. Tufted Marshallia,” in ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine'' (1839), vol. 65 [ser. 2, vol. 12], no. 3704.]]
Although Moses Marshall never received a medical degree, his contemporaries invariably referred to him as “Dr. Marshall.” He studied with the physician Nicholas Way in Wilmington, Delaware, from 1776 to 1779, and with Benjamin Rush and William Shippen at the University of Pennsylvania during the winter of 1779–80. After practicing medicine and working as an apothecary for a few years, Marshall joined the household of his father’s elder brother, the botanist and plant dealer [[Humphry Marshall]], in April 1784.<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 96–97, 99–101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V view on Zotero].</ref> Marshall gained extensive knowledge of American plants and developed expertise as a practical botanist while assisting with the [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|botanic garden]] that his uncle was developing at his rural estate thirty miles west of Philadelphia. He further assisted his uncle by managing some of his correspondence with clients in America and Europe and by helping to fill their requests for seeds and plants.<ref>In a letter of May 7, 1788, to John Coakley Lettsom, Marshall described himself as “Residing with, and writing by direction of, my uncle.” See William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), 545–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> Two letter books containing Marshall’s responses to inquiries from clients during the years 1791 and 1793 are preserved at the University of Michigan.<ref>For Marshall’s letter books in the Manuscripts Division, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-2549mar?view=text view website].</ref> According to early biographical accounts,<ref>Anonymous, “Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science,” ''Register of Pennsylvania'' 1 (May 10, 1828): 302, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JXNRSNZ view on Zotero]; William Baldwin, ''Reliquiae Baldwinianae: Selections from the Correspondence of the Late William Baldwin with Occasional Notes, and a Short Biographical Memoir'', ed. William Darlington (Philadelphia: Kimber and Sharpless, 1843), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XZCT2UNV view on Zotero]; Darlington 1849, 546, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> Marshall also contributed to ''Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove'' (1785), his uncle’s catalog of forest trees and shrubs indigenous to the thirteen states, although the book was presumably already well advanced by the time Moses arrived on the scene.<ref>Humphry Marshall reportedly began the ''Arbustum'' in 1780. Samuel Vaughan presented the completed manuscript before the Society for Promoting Agriculture in April 1785. See Darlington 1849, 489, 555, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero]; Harshberger 1899, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="Darlington_cite"></span>According to Marshall’s friend William Darlington, his uncle “greatly extended his operations” as a result of Moses’s assistance ([[#Darlington|view text]]). [[Humphry Marshall]] solicited employment for his nephew among London’s learned societies, informing Sir Joseph Banks in 1786, <span id="Banks_cite"></span>“As my nephew is well versed in the knowledge of Botany, and would gladly be employed in researches in that line . . . if the Royal Society should have a mind to employ any person, on this side the water, for such purposes, he would be willing to serve them” ([[#Banks|view text]]). In 1791 Banks sent Moses a list of plants desired for the [[botanic garden]] at Kew in England, drawn up by the director, William Aiton (1731–1793).<ref>List of plants required for Kew Garden, compiled by William Aiton and forwarded by Sir Joseph Banks to Moses Marshall, March 3, 1791, with note written in the hand of Banks; Papers of Sir Joseph Banks, CY3681/292 (Series 20.43), [http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/banks/series_20/20_43.cfm State Library, New South Wales], accessed 11/27/2015.</ref> In the same year Marshall received another long list of desired plants from the German botanist Johann Jakob Reichard (1743–1782).<ref>Johann Jakob Reichard, May 30, 1791, letter from Belvedere near Weimar, Germany, to Moses Marshall, Scrapbook 5 [Manuscript 77046], Item 1482, Buffington–Marshall papers, MS Coll. 168, [http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/pacscl/ead.html?id=PACSCL_CCHS_CCHSMSColl168 Chester County Historical Society].</ref> Marshall also filled orders from commercial firms in Great Britain, such as Grimwood, Hudson, and Barrit, and <span id="Hamilton_cite"></span>supplied information and plant materials to American gentleman gardeners, such as James M. Walton in Charleston, South Carolina,<ref>James M. Walton, August 22, 1791, to letter from Charleston, South Carolina, to Moses Marshall, Scrapbook 5 [Manuscript 77046], Item 1483, Buffington–Marshall papers, MS Coll. 168, [http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/pacscl/ead.html?id=PACSCL_CCHS_CCHSMSColl168 Chester County Historical Society].</ref> and [[William Hamilton]], whose estate on the outskirts of Philadelphia, [[The Woodlands]], Marshall occasionally visited ([[#Hamilton|view text]]).

Through his correspondents, Marshall gained access to the most recent books on botany. In May 1788, for example, he wrote to the Quaker physician John Coakley Lettsom (1744–1815) in London asking for the latest edition of Carl Linnaeus’s ''Genera Plantarum'' (7th ed., 1778) as well as the ''Supplementum Plantarum'' (1782) of Carl Linnaeus the Younger (1741–1783). <span id="Linnaeus_cite"></span>In exchange, Marshall acquainted Lettsom with an unusual American plant, which he described according to Linnaean taxonomy and illustrated with a drawing of his dissection. He offered to name the plant ''Lettsomia'' in Lettsom’s honor, should it prove to be a new genus, which it did not ([[#Linnaeus |view text]]).<ref>Darlington 1849, 548–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Muhlenberg_1790_cite"></span>Eager to initiate a correspondence with Marshall, the Lutheran clergyman and botanist Gotthilf Henry Ernest Muhlenberg (1753–1815) sent him the latest edition of Linnaeus’s ''Materia Medica'' (6th ed., 1787) in 1790 and offered to loan examples from the “great many botanical writings” in his private library in Lancaster, Pennsylvania ([[#Muhlenberg_1790|view text]]). <span id="Muhlenberg_1792_cite"></span>Two years later, Muhlenberg informed Marshall that the new edition of Linnaeus’s ''Genera Plantarum'' (2 vols., 1789–91) included ''Marshallia'', a previously undescribed plant named in Marshall’s honor ([[#Muhlenberg_1792|view text]]) [Fig. 1].<ref>R. B. Channell, “A Revisional Study of the Genus Marshallia (Compositae),” ''Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University'' 181 (1957): 41–130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X73DWMWV view on Zotero]; Harshberger 1899, 104, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="1784_cite"></span>As early as 1784 Marshall had begun trekking to outlying wilderness areas on his uncle’s business, searching for plants and seeds to propagate in the [[botanic garden]] and to sell to or exchange with European correspondents ([[#1784|view text]]). In a letter of 1785 the elder [[Humphry Marshall|Marshall]] sought Benjamin Franklin’s support for a more ambitious expedition: a fifteen- to eighteen-month tour of the western parts of the United States that he proposed Moses undertake in company with his cousin [[William Bartram]] “in order to make observations . . . upon the Natural productions of those regions.” <span id="Franklin_cite"></span>Their particular focus would be botany, [[Humphry Marshall]] emphasized, as “our western territories . . . abound with varieties of strange trees, shrubs, and plants, no doubt applicable to many valuable purposes in arts or manufactures” ([[#Franklin|view text]]). The expedition was still pending in 1788, when Moses Marshall told Lettsom that he “had a design highly favourable to discoveries in view,—a journey to the Mississippi, westward; but have not yet been at leisure to prosecute it.”<ref>Darlington 1849, 547, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Banks_1790_cite"></span> After returning from a 1,600-mile roundtrip excursion west to Pittsburgh and south to the Alatamaha River in Georgia, Marshall wrote to Sir Joseph Banks in London of his intention of making “a second, and yet more extensive route”([[#Banks_1790|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span>Caspar Wistar immediately thought of Marshall when a group of gentlemen led by [[Thomas Jefferson]] were seeking an explorer in June 1792 to make an expedition up the Missouri River ([[#Jefferson|view text]]). Marshall never seems to have made this long-deferred journey, which ultimately fell to Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.<ref>Harshberger 1899, 105–107, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V view on Zotero].</ref>

Physical hardship and poor remuneration made the botanical business a difficult profession. <span id="Grimwood_cite"></span>In 1793 Marshall concluded a letter to one of his commercial clients in London with the acerbic remark, “Thus you may see to what fatigue, expense, and misfortune, we are subjected, who undertake to supply Europeans with curiosities; and judge how small our recompense” ([[#Grimwood|view text]]). Following Marshall’s appointment as Justice of the Peace of Chester County in April 1796, his engagement in the botanical business ceased. Thereafter, his uncle’s [[botanic garden]] was “almost wholly neglected” and fell into ruin soon after [[Humphry Marshall]]’s death in 1801.<ref>Darlington 1849, 545–46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* <div id="1784"></div>Marshall, Moses, June 27, 1784, in Bedford, PA, letter to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 553)<ref name="Darlington">Darlington 1849, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These four days past, we have been amongst the Pine Mountains, where we have seen plenty of the Cucumber Trees, Rhododendrons, and Mountain Raspberry [''Rubus odoratus'', L.]: and yesterday, about Juniata, we found broad, willow-leaved Oak [''Quercus imbricaria'', Mx.?], and red-berried Elder.

:“In coming along, I have seen many strange plants; but may be chiefly varieties of what we have already. However, I shall gather what seed I can, of any such, or bring the plants.” [[#1784_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Franklin"></div>[[Humphry Marshall|Marshall, Humphry]], December 5, 1785, letter to Benjamin Franklin (Darlington 1849: 522–23)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“I had it in contemplation to mention to thee for thy approbation, or sentiments thereon, a proposal that I had made, last winter, to my cousin, [[William Bartram|WM. BARTRAM]], and nephew, Dr. MOSES MARSHALL, of taking a tour, mostly through the western parts of our United States, in order to make observations, &c, upon the Natural productions of those regions; with a variety of which, hitherto unnoticed, or but imperfectly described, we have reason to believe they abound; which, on consideration, they at that time seemed willing to undertake, and I conceive would be so still, provided they should meet with proper encouragement and support for such a journey; which they judge would be attended with considerable expense, for the transportation of their collections, &c, and for their subsistence during a period of fifteen or eighteen months, or more, which would at least be necessary for the completion of the numerous observations, and objects they would have to make remarks on, and collect. Should such proposals be properly encouraged, I apprehend they would engage to set out early in the spring, and throughout their journey make diligent search and strict observation upon everything within the province of a naturalist; but more especially upon Botany, for the exercise of which there appears, in such a journey, a most extensive field; for, from accounts of our western territories, they are said to abound with varieties of strange trees, shrubs, and plants, no doubt applicable to many valuable purposes in arts or manufactures, and to be replete with various species of earths, stones, salts, inflammable minerals, and metals (the many uses of obtaining a knowledge of which is sufficiently obvious); remarks, experiments, &c, upon every of which they propose making; as also to make collections, and preserve specimens, of everything that may enrich useful science, or amuse the curious naturalist; to the conducement of which, they would willingly receive and observe any reasonable instructions that might facilitate their discoveries, or direct their researches.

:“I have taken the freedom to mention these proposals to thee knowing that thou was always ready and willing to promote any useful knowledge and science, for the use of mankind; and if, on consideration of the premises, thou should approve thereof, thou may communicate them to the members of the Philosophical Society, or any other set of gentlemen, that would be willing or likely to encourage such an undertaking. Perhaps Congress, or some of the members, might promote their going out with the surveyors, when they lay out the several new states.

:“I have ordered my nephew, the Doctor, to present thee with one of my Catalogues of the Forest Trees of our Thirteen United States; which I hope thou'll accept of, for thy perusal.” [[#Franklin_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Banks"></div>[[Humphry Marshall|Marshall, Humphry]], November 14, 1786, in West Bradford, PA, letter to Sir Joseph Banks (Darlington 1849: 560–62)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“I received thy favour, dated April the 5th, 1786, in which thou seems desirous of trying an experiment upon the curing the root of ''Ginseng''; for which purpose thou desires that I would procure thee one or two hundred weight of the fresh root. . . which requisition I have endeavoured to comply with, but have not been able to procure for thee more than about one hundred weight of the fresh root, and that at a considerable expense; having to employ a young man, a nephew of mine [Moses Marshall], that lives with me, to travel about two hundred miles to the westward, through a dismal mountainous part of our country, as the Ginseng is either dug up for sale, or rooted up by the hogs so much, that it begins to grow scarce in the inhabited parts. . .

:“He was likewise obliged to hire a person, at a dollar a day, to assist him in digging said Ginseng, both of them being obliged to encamp in the mountains, strike up a fire and lie by it all night, in the morning take their hoes and knapsacks on their backs, and climb up the sides of the mountains, and dig till towards evening, and then bring what they had dug to their camp, and cook their morsel and eat it. It took him about twenty days, in going and coming home again, digging the roots, and packing up, &c., the expense of carriage being considerable. Therefore, it being procured and carefully put up according to thy direction, I hope that it may arrive safe; and if so, I expect thou'll be willing to pay a reasonable compensation, which would be, at least, an English crown a pound, I should apprehend. But, if thou thinks that too much, be pleased to pay what thou thinks would be a compensation, adequate to the trouble and cost the young doctor hath been at; and I hope, if thou, or any of the members of the Royal Society, should see cause to employ him, or me, in future, that we would endeavour to serve you as reasonable as any other persons; and as my nephew is well versed in the knowledge of Botany, and would gladly be employed in researches in that line, or to explore our western regions in search of minerals, fossils, or inflammables, and objects of History, &c., provided he could meet with proper encouragement, I, therefore, make free to mention something of the kind to thee, that if the Royal Society should have a mind to employ any person, on this side the water, for such purposes, he would be willing to serve them.

:“I have sent thee one of my pamphlets, entitled the ''American Grove'', and expect thou'll present it to the Royal Society, in my name, if thou thinks it worth their notice and acceptance; as also one for thyself, which I hope will be accepted. . .

:“If any more should be wanted, perhaps it might be procured some small matter reasonabler than this sent, my nephew having found, in his route, where it grows pretty plenty.” [[#Banks_cite|back up to History]]

* Eddy, Charles, July 18, 1787, in London, letter to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Harshberger 1919: 279)<ref>John W. Harshberger, “Additional Letters of Humphry Marshall, Botanist and Nurseryman,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 53 (1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero]</ref>

:“I have an idea if thy nephew could spare the time to come to this country even for a short time he might find a great advantage in observing which plants are the most valuable & scarce here—am told that when the Scaret Azalea was first introduced here a single plant was sold for £40 to a nurseryman for propagation.”

* Wistar, Caspar, October 21, 1787, letter to Humphry and Moses Marshall (Darlington 1849: 568–69)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“With this I send a Treatise on the effects of ''Foxglove'', which I mentioned to friend H. M. when he was last in town. Dr. M. will he pleased to find that he is in possession of a plant of such efficacy, and perhaps will cultivate a greater quantity of it. As the book is in great demand, I wish he would return it by the first opportunity that offers, after he has read it.

:“If you have any of the plant to spare, I will be much obliged to you for a few leaves of it, and also a few seeds, with the book, when it is returned.”

* <div id="Linnaeus"></div>Marshall, Moses, May 7, 1788, in Bradford, PA, letter to John Coakley Lettsom (Darlington 1849: 545–48)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“In a corner of the box, are a few small plants, which I believe are yet undescribed, viz., a species of ''Sedum''; a species of ''Portulaca'', the root perennial, the stem short, thickly set with cylindrical succulent leaves standing somewhat erect; from the centre shoots forth a very slender, naked, reddish stem, four or five times the length of the leaves, branching at top, and supporting reddish flowers, which expand about noon, and continue open about three hours. Also a species of ''Veronica'', and a small ''Evergreen'' from the mountains, the characters of which I have attempted drawing though from the dissection of but a single flower: . . . [Linnaean description follows]

:“To this plant, should it prove to be a new genus, I had some time since designed the appellation of ''Lettsomia'', with this provision, that it might not be unpleasing to thee, and that, in the interim, I should not be able to discover a plant more exalted, conspicuous, and worthy.

:“I have, indeed, had a design highly favourable to discoveries in view,—a journey to the Mississippi, westward; but have not yet been at leisure to prosecute it. I have, therefore, at present, but this humble offering to make.

:“The autumn will be more favourable for sending of plants, &c, at which time we shall endeavour to find something to furnish thy garden, or cabinet. In the mean time, I should wish thee to send LINNAEUS’S ''Genera'' and ''Supplementum Plantarum'', the latest and best edition. Also, a surgeon's pouch, or case of pocket instruments. . . . .

:“Residing with, and writing by direction of, my uncle, [[Humphry Marshall|HUMPHRY MARSHALL]].” [[#Linnaeus _cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Muhlenberg_1790"></div> Muhlenberg, Rev. Henry, January 18, 1790, in Lancaster, PA, letter to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 575–76)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“As I know that your nephew has studied physic, I make bold to send him the late edition of LINNAEI ''Materia Medica'', and hope the present will be not unacceptable. I have a great many botanical writings, and shall be happy if I can serve you or him in botanical researches, through a loan of them. Pray remember my best respects to him; and tell him how gladly I would embrace an opportunity of a correspondence, which certainly would be an advantage to our botanical studies. . . .

:“I shall pass by your house, the latter end of May, on my way to Philadelphia; and then hope to see you, your nephew, and your [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden|garden]].” [[#Muhlenberg_1790_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Banks_1790"></div>Marshall, Moses, October 30, 1790, letter to Sir Joseph Banks (Darlington 1849: 563–64)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“Your order of April last, addressed to my uncle, was duly received; and in compliance therewith I send a box of plants. . .

:“In May last, I sat [''sic''] out upon a botanic tour, by way of Juniata to Pittsburg, thence southward, up the Monongahela, upon Green Briar River, over New River to Holston, Nolichucky, &c. Then crossing the high and great chain of mountains, came upon the head waters of Santee, in South Carolina; thence by Ninety-six to Augusta, and to Savannah town, and continuing southwest to the river Alatamaha, in Georgia. I here found the ''Franklinia'' or ''Gordonia sessilis'', better called: i.e. ''floribus sessilibus''.

:“I then returned to Charleston—making a route of about 1600 miles; and thence by water to Philadelphia—In this route, by reason of the unfavourable season of the year, I was unable to procure scarce anything but specimens. Of these, a few perhaps are new; but several are spoiled with dampness, &c. I designed forwarding the most curious; but through hurry left them at home; that is, thirty miles west of Philadelphia, from whence I now write. However, they shall be forwarded by another opportunity.

:“Notwithstanding the great fatigue, the danger, and expense in travelling, I have in contemplation a second, and yet more extensive route.” [[#Banks_1790_cite|back up to History]]

* Marshall, Moses, November 10, 1791, letter to Sir Joseph Banks (Darlington 1849: 565)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“My attention has been diverted considerably, this summer, from botanical pursuits. I have, therefore, no specimens collected, having observed nothing new, except the small one inclosed.

:“The ''leaf'' you enclosed, desiring a specimen, is, I believe, a species of ''Ophrys'', say ''hyemalis''. I could not procure a flowering stem.

:“''Astragalus Carolienisis'' I am not possessed of. The ''Podophyllum diphyllum'' [''Jeffersonia''] grows in great plenty, about two hundred and fifty miles to the westward, and not nigher, I believe. . . .

:“If there are any particular objects you wish to be furnished with, or region of America you wish to be explored, I shall probably be at leisure one other summer.

* <div id="Muhlenberg_1792"></div>Muhlenberg, Rev. Henry, April 9, 1792, in Lancaster, PA, letter from to Moses Marshall (Darlington 1849: 576–77)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“I beg leave to inform you, that the new edition of the ''Genera'' LINNAEI is safely arrived. The first volume arrived some time ago; the second very lately. The first is only bound in paper. I am happy to see that the editor, my friend D. SCHREBER, has done what I required from him. He has given your name to a hitherto undescribed plant, that belongs, to the ''Syngenesia'', ''Polygamia oequalis'', which he names ''Marshallia''. . .

:“If you still incline to have them, pray let me know where to send them.

:“I intend. . . to be down your way this day a fortnight, on a journey to Philadelphia; and hope then to see you, and spend a few hours or more with you.

:“If you could spare me a plant of what [[Humphry Marshall|your uncle]] calls ''Sedum verticillatum'', I would be very glad to have it in my garden. It is a fine little plant.” [[#Muhlenberg_1792_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Jefferson"></div>Wistar, Caspar, June 20, 1792, letter to Moses Marshall (Darlington 1849: 570)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“By a conversation with thy uncle, I find that thee is already acquainted with the wishes of some gentlemen here, to have our continent explored in a western direction. My reason for writing, at present, is to inform thee of the present state of the business.

:“[[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. JEFFERSON]] and several other gentlemen are much interested, and think they can procure a subscription sufficient to insure one thousand guineas, as a compensation to any one who undertakes the journey, and can bring satisfactory proofs of having passed across to the South Sea.

:“They wish the journey to be prosecuted up the Missouri, as the easiest, and perhaps most interesting track. A Spanish gentleman who is now here, and lives near the mouth of the Missouri, says that a caravan of traders go off every year up the Missouri, and penetrate fifteen hundred miles up it, to the Mahaw indians, who are very friendly indeed. These traders go off from the mississippi about the first of August, so that any one who thinks of it this year, ought to lose no time.

:“If thee has any inclination, I think it would be very proper to come to town immediately, and converse with [[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. JEFFERSON]], who seems principally interested.” [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Grimwood"></div>Marshall, Moses, December 11, 1793, letter to Grimwood, Hudson, and Barret (Darlington 1849: 580–82)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“Yours of the 18th June, I duly received; and in compliance therewith, have herewith sent. . . one box plants, and one small box of seeds. . .

:“We. . . [during Yellow Fever outbreak] became careless in procuring some things, especially those at a distance, till too late; as the ''Juniperus'' and ''Rhododendron'' seeds. The ''Sarracenia purpurea'', ''Helonias asphodeloides'', and ''Cypripedium acaule'', natives of New Jersey, at sixty miles distance, the route through Philadelphia, were not procured from the above cause; though these I still designed to get: yet, the day on which I had purposed setting out on that errand, there fell a snow eighteen inches in depth. Thus, you see, though the intention to serve you was good, yet it has been in part diverted and defeated, by intervening casualties.

:“The ''Magnolia auriculata'' cannot be had, I believe, without going to the place of its native growth; which is (at least, what I have seen,) in South Carolina, about two hundred miles from the sea-coast. I have but one plant; and BARTRAM two or three, which he does not incline to part with. There are some, that M. MICHAUX, a French botanist, procured, and sent from Charleston, a few years since. But he has since been in Canada, and I believe is now in Kentucky.

:“Of the ''Magnolia grandiflora'', I have two fine plants, too large to send abroad. I am in nearly the same situation with respect to ''Stuartia'' and ''Fothergilla''. There is none to be had nearer than Carolina; where also grows the ''Sarracenia flava''.

:“With respect to new things, when I consider that a KALM and a CLAYTON have been here, I have little hopes of making discoveries: yet I find there are many little plants that escaped their view. In a circuitous route of about seven hundred miles, which I took this summer, I have observed several small herbaceous, and two shrubby plants, which I believe are new. One of the shrubs is, perhaps, a ''Spiraea'': the other, the Oily Nut [''Pyrularia'', Mx., ''Hamiltonia oleifera'', Muhl.], of which I formerly sent a specimen to Sir JOSEPH BANKS. It grows to the height of six or eight feet; the flowers are small, and make little appearance; but the fruit is perfectly oily. . . .

:“As I have discovered this to grow at the distance of only two hundred and fifty miles, if those I now have should not shoot, in the spring, I intend setting out for a new supply. Thus you may see to what fatigue, expense, and misfortune, we are subjected, who undertake to supply Europeans with curiosities; and judge how small our recompense.” [[#Grimwood_cite|back up to History]]

* Parke, Thomas, October 19, 1796, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to [[Humphry Marshall|Humphry]] and Moses Marshall (Darlington 1849: 532)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“I have received a letter from ROBERT BARCLAY, which contains the following paragraph:—

:“'Pray desire [[Humphry Marshall|H.]] and M. Marshall to send me a box of plants for my friend T. KITT, of Norwich, who is well versed in plants, and will be pleased with a nice collection, mixed as usual with herbaceous; remembering to add several ''Kalmias'', ''Azaleas'', &c., and everything new or curious.'"

* [[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], November 23, 1796, in [[The Woodlands]], letter to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 578)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“When you were last here it was so late, and you were of course so much hurried, as to prevent your deriving any satisfaction in viewing my exotics. I hope when you come next to Philadelphia, that you will allot one whole day, at least, for [[The Woodlands|the ''Woodlands'']]. . .

:“Your nephew [Moses Marshall] did me the favour of calling, the other day; but he, too, was in a hurry, and had little opportunity of satisfying his curiosity. I flatter myself, however, that during his short stay he saw enough to induce him to repeat his visit. The sooner this happens, the more agreeable it will be to me.

:“When I was at your house, a year ago, I observed several matters in the gardening way, different from any in my possession. Being desirous to make my collection as general as possible, I beg to know if you have, by layers, or any other mode, sufficiently increased any of the following kinds so as to be able, with convenience, to spare a plant of each of them, viz.. . . two kinds of a genus supposed, by Dr. MARSHALL, to be between ''Uvularia'' and ''Convallaria'' [probably the ''Streptopus'', of MICHAUX, which the MARSHALLS proposed to call ''Bartonia''].”

* <div id="Hamilton"></div>[[Hamilton, William]], May 3, 1799, in [[The Woodlands]], letter to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 579–80)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“I have not heard of Dr. MARSHALL'S having been in this neighbourhood since I was last at ''Bradford''. From the pressing invitation I gave him, I am willing to hope that, in case of his coming to town, he will not forget to give me a call. I beg you will present him with my best respects, and request of him to give me a line of information, as to the ''Menziesia ferruginea'', particularly of its ''vulgar name'', if it has one, where it grows, if he knows the name of any person in its neighbourhood, who is acquainted with it, so, as to direct or show it to any one who may go to look after it.

:“I intend, next month, to go to Lancaster; and if convenient to me, when there, to spare my George, I have thoughts of sending him to Redstone, for the ''Menziesia'', and ''Podophyllum diphiyllum''. If Dr. MARSHALL knows of any curious and uncommon plants, growing in the neighbourhood with those I have mentioned, I will be obliged to him to give me any intelligence by which he may suppose they can be found: or, if he knows any person or persons at Redstone, or Fort Pitt, who are curious in plants, of whom any questions on the subject may be asked, he cannot do me a greater service than by giving me their names and place of abode.” [[#Hamilton_cite|back up to History]]

* Mease, Dr. James, February 23, 1803, letter to Moses Marshall (quoted in Gutowski 1988: 153)<ref>Chester County Historical Society, Darlington Manuscript, 861; quoted in Robert R. Gutowski, “Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden: Living Collections 1773–1813” (master's thesis, University of Delaware, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FEKTNCPT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Dr. Barton has just published his Elements of Botany. It is an excellent work, and will do him credit. He says the oil-nut 'is a new Pentandrous genus of plants, allied to Nerium. It is a native of Pennsylvania; Virginia, and other parts of the U. States.' You shall not be deprived of the merit of the discovery of this genus: that is to say, provided you are desirous of having the merit attached to your name. . . . I must notice it; in my work. Say at what time you discovered iti and where. If I were not so engaged every day in correcting a proof sheet, I would go to Pittsburgh, with my friend Rafinesque, and describe the plant, this summer.”

* Anonymous, May 10, 1828, history of [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden]], (“Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science,” 1828: 302–303)<ref>Anonymous, May 10, 1828, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JXNRSNZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After the decease of Mr. [[Humphry Marshall|Humphrey [''sic''] Marshall]], in the year 1801, we believe that no improvements were made in the garden, and since the death of Doctor Moses Marshall, in 1813, the Botany of the place seems to have been entirely neglected. . .

:“In 1785, he published the ''Arbustum Americanum'', or catalogue of American Forest Trees and Shrubs, in which he was assisted by his nephew, the late Doctor Moses Marshall, who was a botanist of considerable merit, and, at the request of his uncle, had travelled through many of the States, in search of American plants.”

* Darlington, William, 1843, on the impact of Moses Marshall and the [[Marshallton Botanic Garden]] (1843: 8–9)<ref>Darlington 1843, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XZCT2UNV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[William] BALDWIN had become intimate with the late Dr. MOSES MARSHALL,—nephew and heir of [[Humphry Marshall|HUMPHRY MARSHALL]], the well-known author of the ''Arbustum Americanum'', and founder of the [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden|Botanic Garden at Marshallton]]. This gentleman was a respectable Botanist, and had materially assisted his uncle,—both in the establishment of his Garden, and in the preparation of his work on American Forest Trees and Shrubs. In the society of Dr. MARSHALL, BALDWIN had his taste for the study of the vegetable creation first awakened; and the means of gratifying it were amply afforded by the rich collection of indigenous plants, then growing in the [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden|Botanic Garden]]. This circumstance undoubtedly gave a decided bias to his future pursuits; and illustrates well the happy influence of such institutions, and opportunities, in developing the latent powers and aptitudes of ingenuous Youth.”

* <div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1849, on Moses Marshall (1849: 438, 546)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“For several years prior to the establishment of the [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden|Marshallton Garden]], [[Humphry Marshall|Humphry]] had been much engaged in collecting native plants and seeds, and shipping them to Europe; but after that event, being aided by his nephew, Dr. Moses Marshall, he greatly extended his operations, and directed his attention with enhanced zeal and energy to the business of exploring, and making known abroad, the vegetable treasures of these United States. The present generation of botanists have but an imperfect idea of the services rendered to the science, by the skill and laborious industry of those faithful pioneers; but the letters here given, will show that they contributed largely to the knowledge of American plants.

:“After practising Medicine a short time, he [Moses Marshall] seems to have become an inmate in the family of his uncle [[Humphry Marshall|HUMPHRY]], devoting his time and services, exclusively, as an aid to his uncle, in the business of collecting and shipping plants and seeds to Europe. He made several long exploring journeys, in that pursuit, through the wilds of the West and Southwest. He was a good practical botanist, well acquainted with most of our indigenous plants, and rendered valuable assistance to his uncle, in preparing the ''Arbustum Americanum''. . . The editor had the happiness to know him well, and passed many pleasant, instructive hours with him, investigating the plants in the [[Humphry Marshall's Botanic Garden|Marshallton Botanic Garden]]. Dr. MARSHALL discontinued the business of sending plants and seeds to Europe, soon after his uncle's death, and the garden, in consequence, has ever since been almost wholly neglected.” [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2072.jpg|Joseph Swan after Walter Hood Fitch, "Marshallia Caespitosa. Tufted Marshallia,” in ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine'' (1839), vol. 65 [ser. 2, vol. 12], no. 3704.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://www.chestercohistorical.org/buffington-marshall-papers Buffington-Marshall Papers, Chester County Historical Society]

[http://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/usda-history-collection/finding-aid/usda-series-x/collection--marshall- Humphry Marshall Papers, Special Collections, United States Department of Agriculture]

[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-2549mar?view=text Humphry and Moses Marshall Papers, 1721–1863, Manuscripts Division, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Marshall, Moses]]

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#mw-imagepage-section-filehistory, .mw-imagepage-section-metadata {
overflow: auto;
}

/*End CSS for Chameleon Skin*/

#top-wrap {
background: transparent;
/*background-image: url(http://vm-healdddev-casva.nga.gov/mediawiki/skins/erudite/assets/images/Mills_Plan_Background_Banner.png); */
/*background-image: url(http://vm-healdddev-casva.nga.gov/mediawiki/images/6/6f/0550.jpg);*/
background-position: center center !important;
background-size: cover !important;
background-repeat: no-repeat !important;
}

#top-wrap h1 {
font-size: 1.5em;
letter-spacing: 2px;
}

#tagline {
padding-top: 0.85%;
}

input#s {
width: 0;
height: 3em;
cursor: pointer;
color: #000000;
}

input#s::placeholder {
color: #000000;
}

#s {
width: 0px;
height: 3em;
transition: all .3s ease-in-out;
/*background-image: url(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/OOjs_UI_icon_search-ltr.svg);*/
background-repeat: no-repeat;
background-color: transparent;
background-position: 3px 4px;
padding-left: 34px;
vertical-align: text-bottom;
border-radius: 6px;
border-color: #fff;
}

/*Input and search form margin and transition*/

#s:focus {
width: 60%;
-webkit-transition: all .3s ease-in-out;
font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif;
letter-spacing: 1.25px;
color: #000000;
outline: none;
font-size: 13px;
height: 31px;
border-bottom: solid thin #000000;
}

#searchform {
/*margin-top: -3.1em;*/
}

h1{
font-family: Georgia, serif;
letter-spacing: 0.75px;
}

h2{
font-family:'Open Sans', sans-serif;
font-size: 28px;
font-weight: 400;
letter-spacing: 1px;
}

h3 {
font-family: Georgia, serif;
letter-spacing: 0.5px;
}

hr {
display: block;
}

p, dd{
font-family: serif;
word-spacing: 0.75px;
line-height: 28px;
color: #222222;
/*font-size: calc(14.5px + 0.3vw);*/
}

.mw-content-ltr ul {
line-height: 30px;
}

.mw-content-ltr ol {
box-sizing: border-box;
margin: 1.3em 0 0 1.2em;
}

#container {
height: auto;
box-sizing: border-box;
background-color: #FFFFFF;
padding: 0px 7px 7px 7px;
margin-bottom: 10em;
}

#menu {
background: #FFFFFF;
box-sizing: border-box;
padding: 2px;
margin-top: 0;
margin-bottom: 15px;
border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
box-shadow: -1px 1px 10px #ccc;
}

#menu li {
font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif;
font-weight: 300;
letter-spacing: 2px;
font-size: 0.75em;
line-height: 28px;
}

#tagline a {
font-family:'Open Sans', sans-serif;
font-size: 0.8em;
margin: 0;
}

/*Prettifying links in body content*/

.mw-content-ltr p > a:hover {
background-color: #DEF;
transition: background-color 200ms ease-in-out;
text-decoration: underline;
}

dd > a:hover {
background-color: #DEF;
transition: background-color 200ms ease-in-out;
text-decoration: underline;
}

a:visited {
/* INVALID color: none; */
}

ul#menu a {
text-decoration: none;
position: relative;
color: #000000;
font-weight: 600;
}

ul#menu li > a:after {
content: '';
position: absolute;
bottom: 0;
left: 0;
width: 0%;
border-bottom: 1px solid #C6CACF;
transition: 0.4s;
}

ul#menu li > a:hover:after {
width: 100%;
}

#bodyContent {
-webkit-animation-name: fadeIn;
-webkit-animation-duration: 0.8s;
box-sizing: border-box;
/*padding: 3% 2%;*/
margin: 0 auto;
/*width: 70%;*/
min-height:500px;
}

#bodyContent > h1 {
letter-spacing: 2px;
}

#bodyContent p, #bodyContent dd, #bodyContent dl {
line-height: 29px;
font-family: Georgia, serif;
font-size: 17px;
margin-bottom: 1.25em;
}

/* Main page fixes */
#interwiki-completelist {
font-weight: bold;
}

body.page-Main_Page #ca-delete {
display: none !important;
}

body.page-Main_Page #mp-topbanner {
clear: both;
}

#catlinks {
background: transparent;
}

#mw-normal-catlinks {
text-align: center;
}

#catlinks a {
font-size: 17px;
color: #5e5e5e;
font-family: sans-serif;
font-weight: 300;
width: 100%;
padding: 0;
margin:0;
}

.catlinks li:first-child {
padding-left: 0.5em;
}

#footer ul {
list-style: none;
}

/* Edit window toolbar */
#toolbar {
height: 22px;
margin-bottom: 6px;
}

/* Margins for <ol> and <ul> */
#content ol, #content ul,
#mw_content ol, #mw_content ul {
margin-bottom: 0.5em;
}

/* Make the list of references smaller */
ol.references {
font-size: 100%;
line-height: 25px;
margin: 1em 0em 0em 1.2em;
}

.references-small {
font-size: 90%;
}

/* VALIDATOR NOTICE: the following is correct, but the W3C validator doesn't accept it */
/* -moz-* is a vendor-specific extension (CSS 2.1 4.1.2.1) */
/* column-count is from the CSS3 module "CSS Multi-column Layout" */
/* Please ignore any validator errors caused by these two lines */
.references-2column {
font-size: 90%;
-moz-column-count: 2;
-webkit-column-count: 2;
column-count: 2;
}

/* Highlight clicked reference in blue to help navigation */
ol.references > li:target,
sup.reference:target,
cite:target {
background-color: #DEF;
}

/*ol.references > li:target::before {
display: block;
height: 5px;
margin-top: -5px;
} */

/* Ensure refs in table headers and the like aren't bold or italic */
sup.reference {
font-weight: normal;
font-style: normal;
}

/* Styling for citations */
cite {
font-style: normal;
word-wrap: break-word;
}

/* Two columns for category pages */
.mw-category {
column-count: 2;
}

/* For linked citation numbers and document IDs, where
the number need not be shown on a screen or a handheld,
but should be included in the printed version
*/
@media screen, handheld, projection {
cite *.printonly {
display: none;
}
}

/* wikitable/prettytable class for skinning normal tables */
table.wikitable,
table.prettytable {
margin: 1em 1em 1em 0;
background: #f9f9f9;
border: 1px #aaa solid;
border-collapse: collapse;
}
.wikitable th, .wikitable td,
.prettytable th, .prettytable td {
border: 1px #aaa solid;
padding: 0.2em;
}
.wikitable th,
.prettytable th {
background: #f2f2f2;
text-align: center;
}
.wikitable caption,
.prettytable caption {
font-weight: bold;
}

/* Default skin for navigation boxes */
table.navbox { /* Navbox container style */
border: 1px solid #aaa;
width: 100%;
margin: auto;
clear: both;
font-size: 88%;
text-align: center;
padding: 1px;
}
table.navbox + table.navbox { /* Single pixel border between adjacent navboxes */
margin-top: -1px; /* (doesn't work for IE6, but that's okay) */
}
.navbox-title,
.navbox-abovebelow,
table.navbox th {
text-align: center; /* Title and above/below styles */
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;
}
.navbox-group { /* Group style */
white-space: nowrap;
text-align: right;
font-weight: bold;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;
}
.navbox, .navbox-subgroup {
background: #fdfdfd; /* Background color */
}
.navbox-list {
border-color: #fdfdfd; /* Must match background color */
}
.navbox-title,
table.navbox th {
background: #ccccff; /* Level 1 color */
}
.navbox-abovebelow,
.navbox-group,
.navbox-subgroup .navbox-title {
background: #ddddff; /* Level 2 color */
}
.navbox-subgroup .navbox-group, .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow {
background: #e6e6ff; /* Level 3 color */
}
.navbox-even {
background: #f7f7f7; /* Even row striping */
}
.navbox-odd {
background: transparent; /* Odd row striping */
}

.collapseButton { /* 'show'/'hide' buttons created dynamically */
float: right; /* by the CollapsibleTables javascript in */
font-weight: normal; /* [[MediaWiki:Common.js]]are styled here */
text-align: right; /* so they can be customised. */
width: auto;
}
.navbox .collapseButton { /* In navboxes, the show/hide button balances */
width: 6em; /* the vde links from [[Template:Tnavbar]], */
} /* so they need to be the same width. */

/* Infobox template style */
.infobox {
border: 1px solid #aaa;
background-color: #f9f9f9;
color: black;
margin: 0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;
padding: 0.2em;
float: right;
clear: right;
}
.infobox td,
.infobox th {
vertical-align: top;
}
.infobox caption {
font-size: larger;
}
.infobox.bordered {
border-collapse: collapse;
}
.infobox.bordered td,
.infobox.bordered th {
border: 1px solid #aaa;
}
.infobox.bordered .borderless td,
.infobox.bordered .borderless th {
border: 0;
}

.infobox.sisterproject {
width: 20em;
font-size: 90%;
}

.infobox.standard-talk {
border: 1px solid #c0c090;
background-color: #f8eaba;
}
.infobox.standard-talk.bordered td,
.infobox.standard-talk.bordered th {
border: 1px solid #c0c090;
}

/* styles for bordered infobox with merged rows */
.infobox.bordered .mergedtoprow td,
.infobox.bordered .mergedtoprow th {
border: 0;
border-top: 1px solid #aaa;
border-right: 1px solid #aaa;
}

.infobox.bordered .mergedrow td,
.infobox.bordered .mergedrow th {
border: 0;
border-right: 1px solid #aaa;
}

/* Styles for geography infoboxes, eg countries,
country subdivisions, cities, etc. */
.infobox.geography {
text-align: left;
border-collapse: collapse;
line-height: 1.2em;
font-size: 90%;
}

.infobox.geography td,
.infobox.geography th {
border-top: solid 1px #aaa;
padding: 0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em;
}
.infobox.geography .mergedtoprow td,
.infobox.geography .mergedtoprow th {
border-top: solid 1px #aaa;
padding: 0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;
}

.infobox.geography .mergedrow td,
.infobox.geography .mergedrow th {
border: 0;
padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;
}

.infobox.geography .mergedbottomrow td,
.infobox.geography .mergedbottomrow th {
border-top: 0;
border-bottom: solid 1px #aaa;
padding: 0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em;
}

.infobox.geography .maptable td,
.infobox.geography .maptable th {
border: 0;
padding: 0;
}

/* Makes redirects appear in italics in categories and on [[Special:Allpages]] */
.redirect-in-category, .allpagesredirect {
font-style: italic;
}

/* Icons for medialist templates [[Template:Listen]],
[[Template:Multi-listen_start]], [[Template:Video]],
[[Template:Multi-video_start]]
*/
div.listenlist {
background:
/* url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Gnome-speakernotes.png/30px-Gnome-speakernotes.png");*/
padding-left: 40px;
}

/* Style rules for media list templates */
div.medialist {
min-height: 50px;
margin: 1em;
background-position: top left;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}
div.medialist ul {
list-style-type: none;
list-style-image: none;
margin: 0;
}
div.medialist ul li {
padding-bottom: 0.5em;
}
div.medialist ul li li {
font-size: 91%;
padding-bottom: 0;
}

/* Change the external link icon to an Adobe icon for all PDF files
in browsers that support these CSS selectors, like Mozilla and Opera */
#bodyContent a[href$=".pdf"].external,
#bodyContent a[href*=".pdf?"].external,
#bodyContent a[href*=".pdf#"].external,
#bodyContent a[href$=".PDF"].external,
#bodyContent a[href*=".PDF?"].external,
#bodyContent a[href*=".PDF#"].external,
#mw_content a[href$=".pdf"].external,
#mw_content a[href*=".pdf?"].external,
#mw_content a[href*=".pdf#"].external,
#mw_content a[href$=".PDF"].external,
#mw_content a[href*=".PDF?"].external,
#mw_content a[href*=".PDF#"].external {
background:
/*url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif/15px-Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif")*/
center right no-repeat;
padding-right: 16px;
}

/* Change the external link icon to an Adobe icon anywhere the PDFlink class
is used (notably Template:PDFlink). This works in IE, unlike the above. */
#bodyContent span.PDFlink a,
#mw_content span.PDFlink a {
background:
/*url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif/15px-Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif")*/
center right no-repeat;
padding-right: 17px;
}

/* Remove link styling. Already defined in monobook
and modern, but not defined in the other skins. Bug 18708 */
#bodyContent .plainlinks a {
background: none !important;
padding: 0 !important;
}

/* Content in columns with CSS instead of tables [[Template:Columns]] */
div.columns-2 div.column {
float: left;
width: 50%;
min-width: 300px;
}
div.columns-3 div.column {
float: left;
width: 33.3%;
min-width: 200px;
}
div.columns-4 div.column {
float: left;
width: 25%;
min-width: 150px;
}
div.columns-5 div.column {
float: left;
width: 20%;
min-width: 120px;
}

/* Make sure that "external references" from templates like [[Template:Ref]]
do not get URL expansion, not even when printed. The anchor itself has
class "external autonumber" and the url expansion is inserted when printing
(see [http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/commonPrint.css]) using the
":after" pseudo-element.
*/
.nourlexpansion a.external.text:after,
.nourlexpansion a.external.autonumber:after {
display: none !important;
}

/* The legacy implementation of this was with "plainlinksneverexpand", which
also simulated "plainlinks". "plainlinksneverexpand" is deprecated and
should be replaced with "plainlinks nourlexpansion". When this has been
done, the rules below can be removed.
*/
.plainlinksneverexpand a {
background: none !important;
padding: 0 !important;
}
.plainlinksneverexpand a.external.text:after,
.plainlinksneverexpand a.external.autonumber:after {
display: none !important;
}

/* Messagebox templates */
.messagebox {
border: 1px solid #aaa;
background-color: #f9f9f9;
width: 80%;
margin: 0 auto 1em auto;
padding: .2em;
}
.messagebox.merge {
border: 1px solid #c0b8cc;
background-color: #f0e5ff;
text-align: center;
}
.messagebox.cleanup {
border: 1px solid #9f9fff;
background-color: #efefff;
text-align: center;
}
.messagebox.standard-talk {
border: 1px solid #c0c090;
background-color: #f8eaba;
margin: 4px auto;
}
/* For old WikiProject banners inside banner shells. */
.mbox-inside .standard-talk,
.messagebox.nested-talk {
border: 1px solid #c0c090;
background-color: #f8eaba;
width: 100%;
margin: 2px 0;
padding: 2px;
}
.messagebox.small {
width: 238px;
font-size: 85%;
float: right;
clear: both;
margin: 0 0 1em 1em;
line-height: 1.25em;
}
.messagebox.small-talk {
width: 238px;
font-size: 85%;
float: right;
clear: both;
margin: 0 0 1em 1em;
line-height: 1.25em;
background: #F8EABA;
}

/* Cell sizes for ambox/tmbox/imbox/cmbox/ombox/fmbox/dmbox message boxes */
th.mbox-text, td.mbox-text { /* The message body cell(s) */
border: none;
padding: 0.25em 0.9em; /* 0.9em left/right */
width: 100%; /* Make all mboxes the same width regardless of text length */
}
td.mbox-image { /* The left image cell */
border: none;
padding: 2px 0 2px 0.9em; /* 0.9em left, 0px right */
text-align: center;
}
td.mbox-imageright { /* The right image cell */
border: none;
padding: 2px 0.9em 2px 0; /* 0px left, 0.9em right */
text-align: center;
}
td.mbox-empty-cell { /* An empty narrow cell */
border: none;
padding: 0px;
width: 1px;
}

/* Article message box styles */
table.ambox {
margin: 0px 10%; /* 10% = Will not overlap with other elements */
border: 1px solid #aaa;
border-left: 10px solid #1e90ff; /* Default "notice" blue */
background: #fbfbfb;
}
table.ambox + table.ambox { /* Single border between stacked boxes. */
margin-top: -1px;
}
.ambox th.mbox-text,
.ambox td.mbox-text { /* The message body cell(s) */
padding: 0.25em 0.5em; /* 0.5em left/right */
}
.ambox td.mbox-image { /* The left image cell */
padding: 2px 0 2px 0.5em; /* 0.5em left, 0px right */
}
.ambox td.mbox-imageright { /* The right image cell */
padding: 2px 0.5em 2px 0; /* 0px left, 0.5em right */
}

table.ambox-notice {
border-left: 10px solid #1e90ff; /* Blue */
}
table.ambox-speedy {
border-left: 10px solid #b22222; /* Red */
background: #fee; /* Pink */
}
table.ambox-delete {
border-left: 10px solid #b22222; /* Red */
}
table.ambox-content {
border-left: 10px solid #f28500; /* Orange */
}
table.ambox-style {
border-left: 10px solid #f4c430; /* Yellow */
}
table.ambox-move {
border-left: 10px solid #9932cc; /* Purple */
}
table.ambox-protection {
border-left: 10px solid #bba; /* Gray-gold */
}

/* Image message box styles */
table.imbox {
margin: 4px 10%;
border-collapse: collapse;
border: 3px solid #1e90ff; /* Default "notice" blue */
background: #fbfbfb;
}
.imbox .mbox-text .imbox { /* For imboxes inside imbox-text cells. */
margin: 0 -0.5em; /* 0.9 - 0.5 = 0.4em left/right. */
}
.mbox-inside .imbox { /* For imboxes inside other templates. */
margin: 4px;
}

table.imbox-notice {
border: 3px solid #1e90ff; /* Blue */
}
table.imbox-speedy {
border: 3px solid #b22222; /* Red */
background: #fee; /* Pink */
}
table.imbox-delete {
border: 3px solid #b22222; /* Red */
}
table.imbox-content {
border: 3px solid #f28500; /* Orange */
}
table.imbox-style {
border: 3px solid #f4c430; /* Yellow */
}
table.imbox-move {
border: 3px solid #9932cc; /* Purple */
}
table.imbox-protection {
border: 3px solid #bba; /* Gray-gold */
}
table.imbox-license {
border: 3px solid #88a; /* Dark gray */
background: #f7f8ff; /* Light gray */
}
table.imbox-featured {
border: 3px solid #cba135; /* Brown-gold */
}

/* Category message box styles */
table.cmbox {
margin: 3px 10%;
border-collapse: collapse;
border: 1px solid #aaa;
background: #DFE8FF; /* Default "notice" blue */
}

table.cmbox-notice {
background: #D8E8FF; /* Blue */
}
table.cmbox-speedy {
margin-top: 4px;
margin-bottom: 4px;
border: 4px solid #b22222; /* Red */
background: #FFDBDB; /* Pink */
}
table.cmbox-delete {
background: #FFDBDB; /* Red */
}
table.cmbox-content {
background: #FFE7CE; /* Orange */
}
table.cmbox-style {
background: #FFF9DB; /* Yellow */
}
table.cmbox-move {
background: #E4D8FF; /* Purple */
}
table.cmbox-protection {
background: #EFEFE1; /* Gray-gold */
}

/* Other pages message box styles */
table.ombox {
margin: 4px 10%;
border-collapse: collapse;
border: 1px solid #aaa; /* Default "notice" gray */
background: #f9f9f9;
}

table.ombox-notice {
border: 1px solid #aaa; /* Gray */
}
table.ombox-speedy {
border: 2px solid #b22222; /* Red */
background: #fee; /* Pink */
}
table.ombox-delete {
border: 2px solid #b22222; /* Red */
}
table.ombox-content {
border: 1px solid #f28500; /* Orange */
}
table.ombox-style {
border: 1px solid #f4c430; /* Yellow */
}
table.ombox-move {
border: 1px solid #9932cc; /* Purple */
}
table.ombox-protection {
border: 2px solid #bba; /* Gray-gold */
}

/* Talk page message box styles */
table.tmbox {
margin: 4px 10%;
border-collapse: collapse;
border: 1px solid #c0c090; /* Default "notice" gray-brown */
background: #f8eaba;
}
.mediawiki .mbox-inside .tmbox { /* For tmboxes inside other templates. The "mediawiki" */
margin: 2px 0; /* class ensures that this declaration overrides other */
width: 100%; /* For Safari and Opera */ /* styles (including mbox-small above) */
}
.mbox-inside .tmbox.mbox-small { /* "small" tmboxes should not be small when */
line-height: 1.5em; /* also "nested", so reset styles that are */
font-size: 100%; /* set in "mbox-small" above. */
}

table.tmbox-speedy {
border: 2px solid #b22222; /* Red */
background: #fee; /* Pink */
}
table.tmbox-delete {
border: 2px solid #b22222; /* Red */
}
table.tmbox-content {
border: 2px solid #f28500; /* Orange */
}
table.tmbox-style {
border: 2px solid #f4c430; /* Yellow */
}
table.tmbox-move {
border: 2px solid #9932cc; /* Purple */
}
table.tmbox-protection,
table.tmbox-notice {
border: 1px solid #c0c090; /* Gray-brown */
}

/* Disambig and set index box styles */
table.dmbox {
clear: both;
margin: 0.9em 1em;
border-top: 1px solid #ccc;
border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
background: transparent;
}

/* Footer and header message box styles */
table.fmbox {
clear: both;
margin: 0.2em 0;
width: 100%;
border: 1px solid #aaa;
background: #f9f9f9; /* Default "system" gray */
}
table.fmbox-system {
background: #f9f9f9;
}
table.fmbox-warning {
border: 1px solid #bb7070; /* Dark pink */
background: #ffdbdb; /* Pink */
}
table.fmbox-editnotice {
background: transparent;
}
/* Div based "warning" style fmbox messages. */
div.mw-warning-with-logexcerpt,
div.mw-lag-warn-high,
div.mw-cascadeprotectedwarning {
clear: both;
margin: 0.2em 0;
border: 1px solid #bb7070;
background: #ffdbdb;
padding: 0.25em 0.9em;
}
/* Div based "system" style fmbox messages. Used in
[[MediaWiki:Noarticletext]] and [[MediaWiki:Readonly lag]]. */
div.mw-lag-warn-normal,
div.noarticletext,
div.fmbox-system {
clear: both;
margin: 0.2em 0;
border: 1px solid #aaa;
background: #f9f9f9;
padding: 0.25em 0.9em;
}

/* These mbox-small classes must be placed after all other
ambox/tmbox/ombox etc classes. "body.mediawiki" is so
they override "table.ambox + table.ambox" above. */
body.mediawiki table.mbox-small { /* For the "small=yes" option. */
clear: right;
float: right;
margin: 4px 0 4px 1em;
width: 238px;
font-size: 88%;
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Humphry Marshall

2021-09-21T19:41:20Z

M-westerby:

{{Person
|Birth Present=No
|Birth Date=October 10, 1722
|Birth Circa=No
|Birth Concurrence=Exact
|Birth Questionable=No
|Birth HasEndDate=No
|Birth Present End=No
|Birth Circa End=No
|Birth Questionable End=No
|Death Present=No
|Death Date=November 5, 1801
|Death Circa=No
|Death Concurrence=Exact
|Death Questionable=No
|Death HasEndDate=No
|Death Present End=No
|Death Circa End=No
|Death Questionable End=No
|Birth Location=Marshallton, PA
|Keywords=Bed; Border; Botanic garden; Conservatory; Greenhouse; Hothouse; Plantation; Square; Walk; Wilderness
|Other resources={{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n85305899.html
|External link text=Library of Congress Authority File
}}{{ExternalLink
|External link URL=http://www.anb.org/articles/13/13-01052.html
|External link text=American National Biography Online
}}
}}
'''Humphry Marshall''' (October 10, 1722–November 5, 1801), an American botanist and international exporter of plants, established a [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|botanic garden]] at his home in rural Pennsylvania and wrote ''Arbustum Americanum'' (1785), a catalogue of indigenous American trees and shrubs.

==History==
[[File:2075.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Humphry Marshall, ''Arbustrum [''sic''] Americanum'' (1785), title page.]]
Through independent study and exploration, Humphry Marshall overcame his rudimentary childhood education to become a pioneering authority on American botany. His parents were English Quaker immigrants who established a farm near the west branch of the Brandywine creek in Chester County, Pennsylvania. Marshall spent his early life in agricultural labor and as an apprentice to a stone mason, before assuming responsibility for the family farm around 1848.<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), 485–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="ornamental_cite"></span> Thereafter, according to William Darlington, Marshall began “indulging his taste, and employing his leisure time in collecting and cultivating useful ornamental plants” ([[#ornamental|view text]]).<ref>“The Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science,” ''Register of Pennsylvania'' 1 (1828): 302, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JXNRSNZ view on Zotero].</ref> Marshall’s study of plants was aided by books on botany and material medica, such as John Gerard’s ''The Herball, or, Generall Historie of Plantes'' (1633) and John Quincy’s ''Lexicon Physico-medicum'' (probably 6th ed., 1743).<ref>Darlington 1849, 488, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero]; John Quincy, ''Lexicon Physico-Medicum: Or, A New Medicinal Dictionary'', 6th ed. (London: T. Longman, 1743), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2AVPZP3T view on Zotero]. John Gerard, ''The Herball, Or, Generall Historie of Plantes'', 3rd ed. (London: Adam Islip, Joyce Norton, and Richard Whitaker, 1636), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/39GUKA97 view on Zotero].</ref> On foraging trips, Marshall gathered plants and seeds for the small [[botanic garden]] he developed on his father’s property. He was also “in the practice of Collecting a few Seeds” for his cousin [[John Bartram]] in Philadelphia.<ref>Humphry Marshall to Benjamin Franklin, November 27, 1771, ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', ed. William B. Willcox, 47 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 18:255–56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZC3QI4R view on Zotero].</ref> Fellow Chester County Quakers who ventured into distant areas contributed to the diversification of Marshall’s garden. While managing a trading store in Pittsburgh, James Kenny collected botanical specimens in company with [[John Bartram|Bartram]] and sent seeds back to Marshall in November 1762.<ref>James Kenny, “Journal of James Kenny, 1761–1763 (con.),” ed. John W. Jordan, ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 37 (April 1913): 174, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WP3KM6J5 view on Zotero]; see also (January 1913): 46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKQAF77E view on Zotero] and “James Kenny’s ‘Journey to Ye Westward,’ 1758–1759,” ed. John W. Jordan, ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 37 (October, 1913): 420, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WIUF9MKS view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Millikan_cite"></span> After moving from Chester County to North Carolina, the Irish Quaker William Millikan (c.1710/15–1795) sent Marshall pine cones and flowers in June 1765 ([[#Millikan|view text]]). <span id="greenhouse_cite"></span>He erected a [[greenhouse]] in 1764 and made other improvements after inheriting a large section of his father’s estate in 1767 ([[#greenhouse|view text]]).

It was also in 1767 that Marshall began a lively transatlantic correspondence with the English Quaker physician and plant collector John Fothergill (1712–1780), who was then laying out an American garden at his country house, Upton.<ref>Darlington 1849, 495, 497–99, 501, 513–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> In the course of an eight-year correspondence, Marshall sent at least ten boxes of seeds and plants to Fothergill.<ref>Louise Conway Belden, “Humphry Marshall’s Trade in Plants of the New World for Gardens and Forests of the Old World,” ''Winterthur Portfolio'' 2 (1965): 109–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> In return, Fothergill sent Marshall books on botany<ref>Darlington 1849, 495, 497–98, 499–500, 504, 505, 509, 511, 512, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero]; Belden 1965, 110, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> and a number of scientific instruments, including a microscope, a thermometer, a reflecting telescope, and “a small pocket-glass for viewing flowers” <span id="glass_cite"></span> ([[#glass|view text]]).<ref>Benjamin Franklin, ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', ed. William B. Willcox, 47 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973) 17:110, 150–52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C75RBUW5 view on Zotero]; Franklin 1974, 18:82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZC3QI4R view on Zotero]; Darlington 1849, 497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1772 Fothergill reported that, with Marshall’s assistance, he had assembled an exceptional collection of American plants, “some never seen in England before,” so that “It is acknowledged by the ablest botanists . . . that there is not a richer bit of ground in curious American plants, in Great Britain: and for many of the most curious, I am obliged to thy diligence and care” <span id="Fothergill_1772_cite"></span> ([[#Fothergill_1772|view text]]).

Fothergill encouraged Marshall’s plan of exporting plants to Great Britain, assuring him in October 1768, “I doubt not but many of our gardeners would be glad to purchase such boxes, containing assortments of new and curious plants, at a considerable price, and sufficient to pay for the care and pains in raising them” <span id="Fothergill_1768_cite"></span>([[#Fothergill_1768|view text]]). Benjamin Franklin was less optimistic, <span id="gentelman_cite"></span> however ([[#gentelman|view text]]), when Marshall wrote in November 1771 to ask that he “promote a corrispon[dence] between me and Some of the Seeds men or Nursery Men in and about London or any Country Gentlemen that is Curious in Making Collections of our American Vegetables or Simples” <span id="Franklin_cite"></span>([[#Franklin|view text]]). Thomas Parke, a Philadelphia Quaker pursuing his medical training in Britain, was equally discouraging, writing to Marshall in July 1772: “I have taken some pains to oblige thee, in endeavouring to recommend thee to some seedsmen, &c., in England; but fear I have had but poor success” <span id="Parke_cite"></span> ([[#Parke|view text]]).

[[File:2079.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, George Samuel after Thomas Medland, ''A South View of a Villa at Grove Hill, Camberwell, Surry'', 1792.]]
Undeterred, Marshall laid out an extensive [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|botanic garden]] in 1773 on property he had purchased the previous year near his father’s farm. He continued to add to his garden during the Revolutionary War, acquiring in May 1777, for example, a flowering shrub and other North Carolina plants from Moses Mendenhall (1743–1805), a fellow Quaker with Chester County connections.<ref>Belden 1965, 108, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> Thomas Bond (1712–1784), a Quaker physician in Philadelphia who had studied under the French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836) at the Royal [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in Paris,<ref>Edmund Berkeley, “Benjamin Franklin and a ‘Dear Ould Friend,’” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 137 (September 1993): 402, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QEKX3XD3 view on Zotero]; Darlington 1849, 316–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> recruited Marshall’s assistance with a series of mutually beneficial botanical exchanges with the French <span id="Bond_cite"></span>([[#Bond|view text]]).<ref>Darlington 1849, 537–39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> Requests for American trees and plants came from the royal garden in Paris and from Louis de Noailles (1713–1793), who operated an experimental garden at Saint-Germain-en-Laye <span id="Noailles_cite"></span> ([[#Noailles|view text]]). <span id="king_cite"></span> Louis XVI reportedly “examined every article” in a box from Marshall that reached Paris in 1781 ([[#king|view text]]). Orders from several other French clients followed, including a request for nearly two hundred plants in April 1789 from Jacques-Louis Descemet (1761–1839), nurseryman and florist to the King’s brother.<ref>Belden 1965, 123, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero]; Buffington-Marshall Papers, Scrapbook 4 [Manuscript 77045], item 1453, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ2ACX8 view on Zotero].</ref>

Demand for America’s flowering shrubs and useful trees increased throughout Europe following the Revolutionary War. Aided by his nephew [[Moses Marshall]], who joined his household in April 1784, Marshall provided seeds and plants to clients in England, Scotland, France, Italy, Brussels, Holland, and Germany.<ref>For Marshall’s correspondents, see the list compiled from letters preserved in the Historic Society of Pennsylvania in John W. Harshberger, “Additional Letters of Humphry Marshall, Botanist and Nurseryman,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 53 (July 1929): 271–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero], and the finding aids for the Humphry and Moses Marshall Papers in the William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-2549mar?view=text view website] and the Buffington-Marshall Papers (Scrapbook 4 [Manuscript 77045]), Chester County Historical Society, [http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/pacscl/ead.html?id=PACSCL_CCHS_CCHSMSColl168 view website]. See also Francis W. Pennell, “Humphry Marshall, Botanist,” ''Bulletin of Friends’ Historical Association'' 24 (Autumn 1935), 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EEJ26WSU view on Zotero]; Belden 1965, 114–15, 123–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1783 Marshall sent two boxes of American plants to the Italian physicist Abbé Felice Fontana (1730–1805), who was building the natural history collections of the Royal Museum of Physics and Natural History in Florence <span id="Fontana_cite"></span> ([[#Fontana|view text]]).<ref>Darlington 1849, 550–52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> Through the agency of Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society in London, the contents of several boxes from Marshall were planted in the Royal [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] at Kew <span id="Banks_cite"></span> ([[#Banks|view text]]).<ref>Darlington 1849, 560–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero]; Belden 1965, 115, 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> A single order from the London firm of Grimwood, Hudson, and Barret in 1787 called for 1,300 plants.<ref>Belden 1965 107,119–22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> Marshall’s shipments sustained the transatlantic vogue for creating discrete garden areas dedicated to American plants. The English Quaker physician John Coakley Lettsom (1744–1815), who had purchased the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]] plants of his deceased colleague John Fothergill, desired Marshall’s help in developing an American garden at his suburban London villa, Grove Hill <span id="Lettsom_cite"></span> ([[#Lettsom|view text]]) [Fig. 2]. Like Fothergill, Lettsom provided Marshall with books on botany, such as Thomas Walter’s ''Flora Caroliniana'' (1788), and assisted him with scientific instruments.<ref>Thomas Walter, ''Flora Caroliniana'' (London: J. Fraser, 1788), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GM66U4TR view on Zotero]; Darlington 1849, 530, 543, 549, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2077.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Thomas S. Sinclair after John T. French, “Prunus Americana,” in Thomas Nuttall, ''The North American Sylva'' (1849), vol. 2., pl. 48.]]
Marshall also provided seeds and plants to Pennsylvania neighbors.<ref>In addition to the following examples, see Harshberger 1929, 271–72, 275, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero].</ref> The clergyman and botanist Henry Muhlenberg (1753–1815), who was creating an herbarium in Lancaster, offered seeds imported from Germany in exchange for the shrubs and roots Marshall sent him in 1789 <span id="Muhlenberg_cite"></span> ([[#Muhlenberg|view text]]).<ref>James A. Mears, “Some Sources of the Herbarium of Henry Muhlenberg (1753–1815),” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 122 (June 1978): 155–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3D93XEPA view on Zotero]; Matthias Schönhofer, ''Letters from an American Botanist: The Correspondences of Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Mühlenberg (1753–1815)'' (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2014), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RKAC9I6K view on Zotero].</ref> Marshall provided maple and poplar trees to Frederick Eugene Francois, Baron de Beelen-Bertholff (1729–1805), former envoy from the Austrian Netherlands, who was laying out extensive gardens at his estate in Chester County.<ref>Robert R. Gutowski, “Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden: Living Collections 1773–1813” (master’s thesis, University of Delaware, 1988), 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FEKTNCPT view on Zotero].</ref> [[William Hamilton]] sent Marshall long lists of plants he desired for his estate [[The Woodlands]] on the outskirts of Philadelphia, and frequently urged Marshall to visit him there <span id="Hamilton_cite"></span> ([[#Hamilton|view text]]).<ref>Darlington 1849, 528–29, 577–80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> While laying out the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia in 1785, the wealthy British merchant [[Samuel Vaughan]] turned to Marshall for his “advice and assistance” in collecting “a specimen of every tree in America that will grown in this state” <span id="Vaughan_cite"></span> ([[#Vaughan|view text]]).

[[File:2078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, James Trenchard after [[William Bartram]], ''Franklinia Alatamaha'', c. 1786.]]
The boom in Marshall’s botanical business owed much to his publication in 1785 of ''Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove, or, An Alphabetical Catalogue of Forest Trees and Shrubs'', the first American imprint on native trees and shrubs by an American author [Fig. 1].<ref>Humphry Marshall, ''Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove, Or, An Alphabetical Catalogue of Forest Trees and Shrubs'' (Philadelphia: Joseph Crukshank, 1785), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJU57ISS view on Zotero].</ref> The book employed Linnaean taxonomic nomenclature and featured the earliest scientific descriptions of several plants thereafter denoted by the suffix “''Marsh''.”, among them ''Taxus canadensis Marsh.'' (ground hemlock) and ''Prunus Americana Marsh.'' (American plum) [Fig. 3], and ''Franklinia Alatamaha'' [Fig. 4]. Convinced of the book’s importance, [[Samuel Vaughan]] had overseen and largely funded its publication <span id="Vaughan_Arbustum_cite"></span> ([[#Vaughan_Arbustum|view text]]). Although American sales were slow, the ''Arbustum'' sold well in England. German and French translations were published in 1788, the latter by Charles Lezermes, an assistant in the nurseries of the King of France.<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Fougeroux de Bondaroy (1732–1789) and His Projected Revision of Duhamel Du Monceau’s ‘Traité’ (1755) on Trees and Shrubs: I. An Analytical Guide to Persons, Gardens, and Works Mentioned in the Manuscripts,” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 103 (December 1959): 814, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6JPE8DEU view on Zotero]; Frans A. Stafleu, “Review: ''Arbustum Americanum'',” ''Taxon'' 17 (August 1968), 427–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USJZURVF view on Zotero]; Harshberger 1929, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero]; Pennell 1935, 81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EEJ26WSU view on Zotero]; Belden 1965, 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> The Moravian minister and botanist Samuel Kramsch (1758–1824) claimed that several of his botanical colleagues, including Jacob van Vleck (1751–1831) and Christian Frederick Kampf (1708–1808), each owned a copy of Marshall’s ''Arbustum'', and that he used it as a textbook during the years 1786 to 1788 while a teacher at Nazareth Hall, where his young pupils included the future botanists Lewis David von Schweinitz (1780–1834) and Christian Frederick Denke (1775–1838) <span id="Kramsch_cite"></span>([[#Kramsch|view text]]).<ref>Levin Theodore Reichel, ''A History of Nazareth Hall, from 1755 to 1855; and of the Reunions of Its Former Pupils, in 1854 and 1855'' (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1855), 45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JSWSGGS8 view on Zotero]; Francis W. Pennell, “The Botanist Schweinitz and His Herbarium,” ''Bartonia'' 16 (1934): 1–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JHR5UFIN view on Zotero]; James R. Troyer, “Early American Moravian Botanists in North Carolina and Elsewhere,” ''Journal of the North Carolina Academy of Science'' 125 (2009): 1–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAB8SVN4 view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to contributing to knowledge of American flora, Marshall intended ''Arbustum Americanum'' to serve as a commercial catalogue. With an eye to overseas customers, he noted in his introduction: “The ''foreigner'', curious in American collections, will be hereby better enabled to make a selection suitable to his own particular fancy.” The book concluded with a full-page advertisement offering Marshall’s “BOXES of SEEDS, and growing PLANTS, of the FOREST TREES, FLOWERING SHRUBS, &c. of the American United States” <span id="1785_cite"></span>([[#1785|view text]]). Marshall gave copies of the ''Arbustum'' to several men of science, including Benjamin Franklin <span id="Franklin_Arbustum_cite"></span>([[#Franklin_Arbustum|view text]]) and Sir Joseph Banks <span id="Banks_Arbustum_cite"></span> ([[#Banks_Arbustum|view text]]), and sent copies to foreign businessmen, such as the nursery and seedsman Richard Burnett (fl. 1774–1803) in Richmond, Dublin <ref>Humphry Marshall to Richard Burnett ["Richard B.”], December 8, 1788; see also Richard Burnett, letter to Moses Marshall, February 11, 1793, with order for plants and seeds, items 144 and 1509, Scrapbook 5 [Manuscript 77046], Buffington–Marshall papers MS Coll.168, Chester County Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ2ACX8 view on Zotero]. Burnett specialized in bulbs (“flower roots”) from Holland, kitchen garden, flower, and grass seeds,” and fruit trees at his gardens “opposite the waterfall” in Richmond; see his advertisements in ''Saunders’s News-Letter'' (Dublin), 1774–99. Burnett is listed as a subscriber to William Speechly’s ''A Treatise on the Culture of the Vine: Exhibiting New and Advantageous Methods of Propagating, Cultivating, and Training That Plant, So as to Render It Abundantly Fruitful. Together with New Hints on the Formation of Vineyards in England'' (York, England: G. Peacock, 1790), xvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2J8G2NJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> and the London merchant Charles Eddy.<ref>Harshberger 1929, 282; see also 274–75 for additional business correspondents in England, Germany, France, and Holland, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero].</ref>

Marshall’s contributions to American horticulture and botany were recognized during his lifetime by honorary membership in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture (1785) and election to the American Philosophical Society (1786).<ref>Samuel Vaughan to Humphry Marshall, April 30, 1785, Darlington 1849, 555; see also 289, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1848 a public [[park]] located a few miles from his house in the village of Marshallton was named Marshall Square Park in his honor <span id="Marshall_Square_cite"></span> ([[#Marshall_Square |view text]]).<ref> A local nurseryman, Paschall Morris, was allowed to grow ornamental plants on the property, and the Chester County botanist Josiah Hoopes, proprietor of one of the nation’s largest nurseries, landscaped the grounds, designed the benches and fountains, and established a small arboretum there. See James Jones, ''Made in West Chester: The History of Industry in West Chester, Pennsylvania, 1867 to 1945'' (West Chester, PA: Taggart Printing, 2003), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FQS4XZRM view on Zotero]; Catherine Quillman, “West Chester: Home for Botanists and Gardeners,” ''West Chester Patch'' (September 8, 2011), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XZIGN6IP view on Zotero].</ref> In 1913 the Chester County Historical Society held a program of “Exercises in Memory of Humphry Marshall and William Darlington” in the “beautful grove which his [Marshall’s] hands planted.” <ref>Irwin C. Williams, John Russell Hayes, and John W. Harshburger, ''Exercises in Memory of Humphry Marshall and William Darlington, at Marshallton, Pa.'' (West Chester, PA: F. S. Hickman, 1913), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIVIV2PB view on Zotero].</ref> On that occasion a memorial stone was erected in front of the main entrance to the property, with an inscription reading in part, ''The Home and [[Arboretum]] of Humphry Marshall, Early American Botanist''.<ref>John W. Harshberger, “The Old Gardens of Pennsylvania, II.—Humphry Marshall’s,” ''Garden Magazine'' 32 (1920): 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS6WFTZI view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Millikan"></div>Millikan, William, June 10, 1765, letter from New Marlborough, NC, to Humphry Marshall (Ridlon 1907: 636)<ref>Gideon Tibbetts Ridlon, ''History of the Families Millingas and Millanges of Saxony and Normandy'' (Lewiston, ME: The author, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9W8PHBAX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the pine Cones if any Comes to Perfection I shall I believe take Care to send some Or buy Other Seed or plant that I Can procure. As to the Carolina pines I remain at a Loss about it yet,—there is a flower that Resembles the Garding pink but I am Doubtfull Whether it is the Right.” [[#Millikan_cite|back up to History]]

*Fothergill, John, March 2, 1767, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 495)<ref>Darlington 1849, 495 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received thy kind letter, as well as the box of seeds, and the duplicate it contained. I think myself much indebted to thee, and shall endeavour, as occasions may offer, to show that I am not insensible of thy kindness, nor ungrateful. I knew not whether anything would be more acceptable to a botanist, than [Philip] MILLER’S ''Gardeners Dictionary'', which I hope thou will receive with this; and if thou art possessed of one before, dispose of it, and accept the produce as an acknowledgment for thy kindness.

:“As it may suit thy other concerns, I should be glad if thou would proceed to collect the seeds of other American shrubs and plants, as they fall in thy way; and if thou meets with any curious plant or shrub, transplant it at a proper time into thy garden, let it grow there a year or two; it may then be taken up in autumn, its roots wrapped in a little moss, and laid in a coarse box, just made close enough to keep out mice, but not to exclude the air.

:“If thou knows of any plant possessed of particular virtues, and that is known by experience to be useful in the cure of diseases, this I should be glad to have in particular, both the parts used, and seeds of the same.”

*Fothergill, John, May 18, 1767, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 497)<ref name="Darlington">Darlington 1849, 497 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Thou will see by the inclosed, that it was wrote a considerable time ago, to acknowledge the favour of thy collection of seeds. I was at that time prevented from sending it, and the more discouraged, as I could not get MILLER’S ''Gardener’s Dictionary'', which is still out of print. I have sent, however, an abridgment of this work, not long since published, which I hope will prove acceptable; though this is not intended as a compensation for thy trouble, but merely as an acknowledgment.

:“If thou will continue thy farther care in collecting American seeds, and inform me in what manner I can, with most advantage to thyself, compensate thy care and labour, it will be an additional satisfaction.”

*Fothergill, John, October 29, 1768, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 497–98)<ref name="Darlington"></ref> <div id="Fothergill_1768"></div>

:“I am greatly obliged to thee for several parcels of curious seeds, birds, and insects. I. . . have been searching, in vain, for. . . the list of books thou mentioned as being acceptable to thee.

:“I have sent by our friend, John Hunt, who is returning to Pennsylvania, a small pocket-glass for viewing flowers, and ten guineas in consideration of thy time and trouble, in collecting these things for me. . . .

:“As it may fall in thy way, I should be glad thou would continue thy care in collecting for me such seeds and plants as I have not hitherto received from thee; and I think it would be worth while to sow a part of all the seeds thou gathers, in thy own garden, or some little convenient spot provided for the purpose. There are many curious seeds that lose the property of vegetation by a sea-voyage. The plants thus raised by seed at home, might be removed from the [[bed]] they were sown on, the second autumn, or spring following, into boxes of earth, and sent to us in the spring, so as to arrive here in the third or fourth month, and would then succeed very well.

:“I doubt not but many of our gardeners would be glad to purchase such boxes, containing assortments of new and curious plants, at a considerable price, and sufficient to pay for the care and pains in raising them.

:“There is a curious water plant, the Colocasia, that grows in some deep waters in the Jerseys, perhaps in your province likewise. . . I should be glad thou would endeavour to send some both ways [wrapped in moss and put in tub of mud]; and the ripe seeds likewise, put into a wide-mouthed bottle filled with mud, and covered over with leather.

:“There is a kind of Dogwood, whose calyx is its greatest beauty; it chiefly grows in Virginia, whether with you I know not. I want a few plants of it.” [[#Fothergill_1768_cite|back up to History]]

*Fothergill, John, January 25, 1769, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 499–500)<ref>Darlington 1849, 499-500 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Before this time I hope thou hast received a pretty long letter by our friend JOHN HUNT, to whose care I also committed ten guineas, and a small glass for viewing the flowers of plants.

:“I have just received thy last collection of seeds, and the box of plants that accompanied it; both were very acceptable, and the plants came in as good condition as possible.

:“By this opportunity I have sent two glasses of the value thou desires; and if these are not satisfactory, either in size or shape, please to dispose of them, and give me proper dimensions, and I will take care that they shall be sent. In respect to the seeds and plants to be sent in future, please to keep this general order in view, viz.: To send me any new plant that occurs to thee, that thou hast not sent to me before; and of the more curious flowering plants or shrubs, I shall always be glad to receive duplicates of the plants, when occasion offers. The ''Magnolias'', ''Kalmias'', ''Rhododendrons'', &c, are always acceptable. . .

:“Please to remember to raise a few of all the curious plants whose seeds occur to thee, and send here, and some of the seeds likewise, together with any account thou can collect of their real virtues and uses.

:“I believe [[William Bartram|JOHN BARTRAM’S son]] had directions from me, through our late friend, [[Peter Collinson|P. COLLINSON]], to make me a collection of ''drawings'', together with an account of all your ''land Tortoises''. If, therefore, anything upon this subject occurs to thee, or thou meets with any new kind, please to send them to him.

:“It is very admirable that you abound with many plants, many animals, altogether unknown in other parts of the globe, not dissimilar in temperature. ''Golden rods'', ''Asters'', ''Lychnoideas'', ''Sunflowers'', you have more than all the world besides. ''Tortoises'', I think, likewise, and some other animals, are peculiarly abundant with you.”

*Fothergill, John, March 15, 1770, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 501–2)<ref>Darlington 1849, 501-502 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Dr. FRANKLIN will send all the instruments thou requests, for which I shall pay him, cheerfully. Some of the books thou desires are, at present, out of print; but I shall get and send the rest as soon as I can. . .

:“I doubt not but you have many curious herbaceous plants yet unnoticed: struck with the greater objects of shrubs and trees, these humbler ones have been overlooked. Get a complete collection of these into some corner of thy garden, and send us a few roots, as thou art able to propagate them. There are few trees in your parts, and not many shrubs, which we have not in our gardens. We have many ''herbaceous'' plants, likewise; but I dare say, a very small number of those that are natives of your parts of America. Look carefully after some ''Ferns'' for me; as also ''bulbous'' plants, as they flower early, for the most part: and all sweet-scented or showy flowers, or such as are of known efficacy in the cure of some diseases.

:“Thy account of the long-lived ''Tortoise'' is very agreeable; and I am much obliged to thy correspondent, [[William Bartram|BARTRAM]], for some curious drawings. He has a very good hand; and I shall be glad to receive from him all his works, and satisfy him for his trouble, when he informs me how much I am indebted to him.”

*Franklin, Benjamin, March 18, 1770, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (1973: 17:110)<ref name ="Franklin_1973">Franklin 1973, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C75RBUW5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Immediately on the Receipt of your Letter, I ordered a Reflecting Telescope for you which was made accordingly. Dr. Fothergill had since desired me to add a Microscope and Thermometer, and will pay for the whole. . .

:“I thank you for the Seeds, with which I have oblig’d some curious Friends.”

*Fothergill, John, February 11, 1771, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 504)<ref>Darlington 1849, 504 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As I have now got most of the common American plants in plenty, I would not give thee the trouble of sending more seeds or plants, of the kinds I have received from thee, except such as I may hereafter desire to make up for my defects. Any new kinds, either plants or seeds, will be very acceptable.”

*Franklin, Benjamin, April 22, 1771, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (1974: 18:82)<ref name="Franklin">Franklin 1974, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2ZC3QI4R view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I am much obliged by your kind present of curious seeds. They were welcome gifts to some of my friends.”

*Fothergill, John, April 23, 1771, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 505–6)<ref>Darlington 1849, 505-6 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the insect box I have put up a little tract, tending to show in what manner ''plants'' may be best conveyed to Europe, and ''insects'' collected. There is, likewise, a small Botanical Dictionary, and an introduction to a translation of some of LINNAEUS’S works, which I thought would not be wholly useless to thee, or unacceptable.

:“If thou wants any further helps, that I can give thee, let me know, and I shall supply them as far as I can.

:“I am not yet in possession of a living root of your great Water Lily, or ''Colocasia''. I could wish to have a large one taken up in autumn, well wrapped up in moss, and sent as early as may be convenient, or else soon in the spring. . . .

:“I am now in possession of the common North American plants; but there are new discoveries made every day. Early spring flowers of any kind, or plants or shrubs that are either useful or curious in their appearance, will be acceptable; and I shall not value the things I receive merely by their quantity, but their worth, when viewed in the light I have described. A curious ''Fern'' is as acceptable to me as the most showy plant. . . .

:“I am economist enough to save the covers of my letters, instead of throwing them into the fire. I give them to my gardener to wrap his seeds in; some of them I have thrust into the empty box, for the like purpose.

:“If I should omit sending thee the future translations of LINNAEUS’S work, put me in mind of it.”

*<div id="Franklin"></div>Marshall, Humphry, November 27, 1771, letter to Benjamin Franklin (1974: 18:255–56)<ref name="Franklin"></ref>

:“I have also Sent thee a small Box of Seeds that I had Left after packing a few for Dr. Fothergill but I was in So much hast that I omitted Drawing a list of them. They are Chiefly Lapt up in paper and the Name wrote on With my pencil. My Book of observation on the Sun is Like Wise in the Box. And as thou Signifies it Would be some Pleasure to thee to Serve me in Some Small matters I Should take it kind of thee and as a favour if itt Should lay in thy Way to promote a corrispon[dence] between me and Some of the Seeds men or Nursery men in and about London or any Country Gentlemen that is Curious in Making Collections of our American Vegetables or Simples as I am Pretty Well acquainted With the most Sorts that Grows in our Parts of the Country having been in the practice of Collecting a few Seeds for this many years for my Cousin John Bartram, and Within this four or five Years have Sent Some Boxes of plants and Seeds to Dr. Fothergill; I think I Could afford to Collect Boxes of Young plants of the most of our Common trees and Shrubs as Well as Seeds at a little Lower rate than they are Commonly Done for, if thou Should meet With any Such Gentlemen that Should have a mind to try me for a season or two, and they Would Please to Send their orders, I Should Endeavour to Comply With them.

:“Be Pleased to favour me So much after thou hast opened and perused My book of observations to present them to the royall Society in My Name.” [[#Franklin_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Parke"></div>Parke, Thomas, July 5, 1772, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 525)<ref>Darlington 1849, 525 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have taken some pains to oblige thee, in endeavouring to recommend thee to some seedsmen, &c., in England; but fear I have had but poor success, as yet. I shall, however, continue to make inquiry, and if any should choose to employ thee, I shall immediately acquaint thee.” [[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Fothergill_1772"></div>Fothergill, John, November 1772, letter from Cheshire to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 508–10)<ref name="Darlington_2">Darlington 1849, 508-510 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We save all the earth, and even the moss, from America, throw it upon some vacant [[border]], and cover it with a little earth, that even if a few casual seeds should be in it, we may save them.

:“Our spring was late and unfriendly to plants, so that many were but just showing themselves above ground when I came away (about two months ago); but my gardener writes to me, that they are in a very prosperous condition, and some never seen in England before. Under a north wall, I have a good border, made up of that kind of rich black turf-like soil, mixed with some sand, in which I find most part of the American plants thrive best. . . It is acknowledged by the ablest botanists we have, that there is not a richer bit of ground, in curious American plants, in Great Britain: and for many of the most curious, I am obliged to thy diligence and care. . . I have an Umbrella Tree, above twenty feet high, that flowers with me abundantly, every spring. The small ''Magnolia'', likewise, flowers with me finely. I have a little wilderness, which, when I bought the premises, was full of old Yew trees, Laurels, and weeds. I had it cleared, well dug, and took up many trees, but left others standing for shelter. Among these I have planted ''Kalmias'', ''Azaleas'', all the ''Magnolias'', and most other hardy American shrubs. It is not quite eight years since I made a beginning; so that my plants must be considered but as young ones. . .

:“Amongst the rest of the plants, which thou had sent me, was the ''Claytonia'', of which there is not, I believe, another plant in England: a new species of ''Serapion''; and a most curious ''Adianrum''. Other things will show themselves, I doubt not, to both our satisfaction. . .

:“If the ships are not all sailed for your port, I propose to send some books by them, which I hope may prove acceptable. And in the mean time, I shall be glad thou may now and then be picking up one little addition or another, to the stock of plants thou hast already furnished me with.

:“The ''Tetragonotheca'', a native of your Province, but known chiefly, I believe, to [[John Bartram]], is no longer in England. I write to him by this opportunity, to request a root or two, if he can procure them, or a few seeds. If they fall in thy way, please to add them to the rest. I had a plant of the great American ''Nymphaea'' [''Nelumbium''], from W. YOUNG. It put out leaves, and the appearance of a flower; but did not flourish. I should be glad of another root, if it could be easily obtained. . .

:“I know not whether [[John Bartram|J. BARTRAM]] or any of his family continue to send over boxes of seeds as usual. He collected them with much care, and they mostly gave satisfaction. W. YOUNG has been very diligent, but has glutted the market with many common things; as the ''Tulip trees'', ''Robinias'', and the like. But, contrary to my opinion, he put them into the hands of a person who, to make the most of them, bought up, I am told, all the old American seeds that were in the hands of the seedsmen here, and mixed them with a few of W. YOUNG’S, to increase the quantity. Being old and effete, they did not come up; and have thereby injured his reputation. I am sorry for him; have endeavoured to help him; but he is not discreet.” [[#Fothergill_1772_cite|back up to History]]

*Fothergill, John, February 6, 1773, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 510–11)<ref name="Darlington_2"></ref>

:“I must desire thee still to proceed in thy vegetable researches, as it falls in thy way. . . ''Bulbous roots'' of all kinds are easily conveyed. The ''Orchis'', likewise, may be easily sent. . . Don't forget the ''Fern'' tribe. This is a very pleasing part of the creation.

:“I have sent the second part of LINNNAEUS and shall not omit the rest, as they are published. I have also sent a few numbers (all that are yet published), of a very useful work for young botanists, now carrying on here. There are three plates to each plant, and one sheet of description. The coloured plates make the price high; and the whole, when finished, will come to upwards of 15 guineas. These will not be half the money; and in respect to use, are as valuable as the whole. I shall continue to send them to thee, as they come out, which is very slowly. . . .

:“We have got the true ''Tea Plant'', at length, in England. We are endeavouring to propagate it, and hope we shall succeed, not to as to raise it as a commodity, but merely, in this country, as a curious article. It would thrive in Virginia and Maryland extremely well. I propose to send thee a pretty good account of it, wrote by an acquaintance of mine.”

*<div id="gentelman"></div>Franklin, Benjamin, February 14, 1773, letter to Benjamin Marshall (1976: 20:71)<ref>Benjamin Franklin, ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', ed. William B. Willcox, 47 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USJZRFF8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received the box of seeds you were so good as to send me, the beginning of last year, with your Observations on the Spots of the Sun. The seeds I distributed among some of my friends who are curious: please to accept my thankful acknowledgments for them. . .

:“As to procuring you a Correspondence with some ingenious Gentelman here, who is curious, which you desire, I find many who like to have a few Seeds given them, but do not desire large Quantities, most considerable Gardens being now supply’d like Dr. Fothergill’s, with what they chuse to have; and there being Nursery-men now here, who furnish what Particulars are wanted, without the Trouble of a foreign Correspondence and the Vexations at the Customhouse.” [[#gentelman_cite|back up to History]]

*Fothergill, John, June 28, 1774, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 512)<ref>Darlington 1849, 512 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I. . . am obliged to thee for thy kind intention of looking out for a few more plants for me.

:“I hope the glasses came safe, and were agreeable to thy orders. I intended them as a compensation for thy endeavours to serve me, and shall readily do what further thou may think needful, as an equivalent. I have sent two more numbers of MILLER’s botanical work; and a treatise on ''Coffee'', with an excellent coloured plate. Nothing more of LINNAEUS’S is yet translated; when it is, I shall not fail to send it.

:“I shall hope to receive, by the autumn ships, some little addition to my garden, as it may occasionally fall in thy way. I have most of your usual plants; but there are divers still unnoticed. I hope I have a plant of your large ''Nymphaea''; but, for all that, I should be exceedingly glad to have another. If seeds are sent, be kind enough to crack the shells of some of them before they are put into the mud they should be sent in. I find the shells are so hard, that they will not give way to the embryo plant without this aid, at least in this country.

:“Look carefully after your Ferns. You have a great variety. I have more American ''Ferns'' than most of my acquaintance; but I know you must have more, and various ''Polypodies'', likewise. I am reckoned to have the best collection of North American Plants of any private person in the neighbourhood. I am obliged to thee for many of them.”

*Fothergill, John, August 23, 1775, letter from Cheshire to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 513–15)<ref>Darlington 1849, 513-15 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I am much obliged to thee for several very kind letters, and a box of plants, amongst which are some ''new Ferns'', and a few other rare plants. For these, and many others, I am still in thy debt, but, at present, without any opportunity of repaying thee. . .

:“At present, I cannot expect anything, as all intercourse between America and Britain will be cut off, and I am afraid for a long time. Be attentive, however, to increase thy collection at home, by putting every rare plant thou meets with in a little garden, and as much like their natural situation, as to shade, dryness or moisture, as possible. For instance, most of the Ferns like shade and moisture; these may be planted on some north border, where the sun shines but little except in the morning; and so of the rest.

:“My garden is about five miles from London, warm and sheltered, rather moist than dry; and I have the satisfaction of seeing all North American plants prosper amazingly. There are few gardens in the neighbourhood of London, ''Kew'' excepted, that can show either so large or so healthy a collection. . .

:“Many of thy plants are there in good perfection. . .

:“The instruments are all sent by Dr. Franklin.”

*Bond, Thomas, 1779, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Belden 1965: 122)<ref>Belden 1965, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPS998N6 view on Zotero].</ref> <div id="Bond"></div>

:“Knowing you to be a lover of useful knowledge and acquisitions, I take this opportunity. . . to let you know Mons. Gerard, the French minister, is a gentleman of the same turn. . . It is in his power—it is his wish, to improve the useful productions of his new world. He wants our curiosities and novelties; we want his valuable collections from all other parts of the world. This is, therefore, to request you would come forth with me, to make an offer of mutual good offices; and to furnish me with a list of such seeds, vegetables, plants, trees, etc. as this country wants, and what we could give him.” [[#Bond_cite|back up to History]]

*Bond, Thomas, November 3, 1779, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 537)<ref>Darlington 1849, 537 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <div id="Gerard"></div>

:“I received your botanic collection for our friend [the French Minister] Mr. GERARD, which I am certain, from the list, will be a very agreeable present to a man who will not only prize them duly, but will show a grateful acknowledgment for them. They shall be sent to him in your name, with great care, by the first opportunity.” [[#Gerard_cite|back up to History]]

*Bond, Thomas, October 26, 1780, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 538)<ref name="Darlington_3">Darlington 1849, 538 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <div id="Gerard"></div>

:“Mr. MARBOIS, has apply’d to me in behalf of the Marshal NOAILLES, and the Royal Garden at Paris, to enter into a commerce of exchange of such trees, plants, &c., as would be a mutual advantage and improvement, in the natural productions of Europe and America.

:“They do not desire botanical curiosities; but such things only as would enrich France,—such as ''Pines'', ''Oaks'', ''Hickories'', ''Poplars'', ''Persimmons'', ''Magnolias'', &c., and wish to have a parcel of the nuts sent as soon as possible—for planting next spring.”

*Bond, Thomas, November 20, 1780, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 538–39)<ref name="Darlington_3"></ref>

:“Your two letters and botanic collection came safe to hand; but not being at home, I missed a wished-for opportunity of. . . sending the list of seeds which our new correspondents Desire to have sent them. . . I think it would be best for you to come up yourself, and hear what Proposals the Minister of France and Mr. MARBOIS have further to make; the catalogue being very large, and will give you much trouble to collect.

:“I perceive by your last letter, 'tis your inclination to send this box to our former friend, Mr. GERARD, on the generous plan of reciprocal correspondency. This I highly approve, and shall ship it this week; and make no doubt he will make a very useful exchange for us and the public.”

*Bond, Thomas, December 2, 1780, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 539)<ref name="Darlington_3"></ref>

:“I received last night your letter and box, which I shall inform the Chevalier of, and know his pleasure about it. The collection, though small, is valuable and curious. I wish to keep up a correspondency in Europe, on a small scale, and solely with a view of furnishing each country, reciprocally, with such things as may be useful. This I hope you will enable me to do. As the other is a very large affair, and will cost you much trouble, you ought to be well paid for it. I had not time to translate the direction, about the manner of preserving the seeds: you must, therefore—when you have perused it—send it again; or rather bring it and I will introduce you to the Minister.”

*<div id="king"></div>Bond, Thomas, March 16, 1781, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 539)<ref name="Darlington_3"></ref>

:“Mr. GERARD . . . desires we would continue our correspondency. He sent us two boxes of curious seeds. . . Another may be expected every day. Mr. WHARTON tells me, the King of France examined every article of our collection, and was extremely pleased with it. This is a very respectful and may be a very useful correspondency. Let us support it with the patriotic spirit it deserves. I have a prospect of adding to it greatly, via Pittsburg.” [[#king_cite|back up to History]]

*Lettsom, John Coakley, c. March 1781, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 541)<ref>Darlington 1849, 541 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref> <div id="Gerard"></div>

:“I received thy letters dated the 19th and 29th of October, and November 10th, with some shrubs, and afterwards various seeds.

:“I think full half the shrubs are now in a thriving state, and many of the seeds are above ground. For these last I am still indebted to thee five guineas.

:“I have sent thee some books, &c, which I hope will arrive safe, and meet with thy free acceptance.”

*Bond, Thomas, July 12, 1781, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 540)<ref name="Darlington_4">Darlington 1849, 541 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There lately arrived here, after a series of misfortunes, a young Swede gentleman, by name of GUSTAVUS FREDERIC HILLMAN, a regular bred physician, a good naturalist and botanist, and was bred under LINNAEUS. He appears to me to be a man worthy and learned, and may be of great use in this country, in many respects. I think he might be of service to your neighbours, as a physician, and to you, in your botanic collections. As you have a large house and small family, if it was not inconvenient to you to let him have lodgings with you, for a short time. . . If he has not a favourable answer from you soon, he will be obliged to re-embark for Europe.”

*Bond, Thomas, August 24, 1781, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 540–41)<ref name="Darlington_4"></ref>

:“I find a letter I wrote you, some time since, concerning Mr. HILLMAN, was not come to hand. He is since engaged in the Pennsylvania Hospital.

:“Several of the botanic plants GERARD sent, have grown, but the greater part failed. There is one very fine plant of the ''Jalap''. The ''Gentian'' did not grow. The garden seeds mostly grew; some of them are an acquisition. I wrote to Mr. MARTIN, about the seeds you mentioned, but have not received an answer. . .

:“I think it will be best to make another collection for our friend GERARD. I will write to him for more seeds, to be put up more carefully.”

*Parke, Thomas, September 5, 1782, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 528)<ref>Darlington 1849, 528 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The bearer, [[William Hamilton|WILLIAM HAMILTON]], Esq., intending to pass through part of Chester County, is desirous of being introduced to my friend MARSHALL’S acquaintance. His knowledge of Botany and Natural History—his taste for cultivating the many curious productions of America, united to his very amiable character—will, I am confident, gain him a welcome reception at Bradford.”

*Fontana, Abbé Felice, 1783, letter forwarded by George Logan to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 550–51)<ref>Darlington 1849, 550-1 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We wish to be informed if we can be supplied with any of the natural productions of America, either by barter for the productions of Italy, or at a moderate price.

:“Quadrupeds, birds, insects, worms or serpents, . . . minerals, seeds, and plants,—particularly that plant called ''Dionoea muscipula'', which is found in low marshy places in South Carolina. For such articles we shall be willing to pay the customary price, or return the value of them in such plants as we are in possession of; a catalogue of which we now send you.

:“If any gentlemen of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia are willing to enter on such a friendly intercourse with the Royal Museum of the Grand Duke, they will please address their letters to ''Monsieur L'Abbé'' FONTANA, ''à Florence''.”

*<div id="Fontana"></div>Fontana, Abbé Felice, January 16, 1784, in Pisa, Italy, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 552)<ref>Darlington 1849, 552 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It is with a great pleasure that I have received. . . your letters, and the two boxes of American plants, which you was so good to forward to us; which came almost all alive, and hope they will thrive well in our country. . . I am not in Florence now; and consequently it is not in my power to send you anything, except few seeds that I shall endeavour to get from the garden of the University, reserving to me self the pleasur to send you something more by the first occasion.” [[#Fontana_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Lettsom"></div>Lettsom, John Coakley, February 28, 1784, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 542–43)<ref>Darlington 1849, 542-543 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Thy very obliging letter, with the present of the seeds, came safe, for which I return many thanks.

:“I have wrote to Dr. [Thomas] PARKE by this opportunity, and desired him in my name, to make some compensation for thy trouble for the same, and for such as thou choose to send me by the subsequent opportunities.

:“I have not yet introduced many exotics into my grounds. I have a few ''Magnolias'', ''Kalmias'', and ''Evergreen Oaks''; but, as I have devoted a large space of ground for American shrubs and trees, duplicates will not be disagreeable to me. Seeds I shall take the best care of; but shrubs, and trees growing, fruit-trees, and any others, will be full as acceptable as ''seeds'', where they can be sent but both shall receive a hospitable reception at my villa of ''Grove Hill''.

:“The major part of Dr. Fothergill’s [[hothouse|hot]] and [[greenhouse|green house]] plants I purchased; but I had no Americans, which were in general in his ground; and this leaves me more open to receive duplicates. I should wish to have some little information respecting soil and growth, though ever so short.” [[#Lettsom_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Moses Marshall|Marshall, Moses]], June 27, 1784, in Bedford, letter to Humphry Marshall, (Darlington 1849: 553)<ref>Darlington 1849, 553 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These four days past, we have been amongst the Pine Mountains, where we have seen plenty of the Cucumber Trees, Rhododendrons, and Mountain Raspberry [''Rubus odoratus'', L.]: and yesterday, about Juniata, we found broad, willow-leaved Oak [''Quercus imbricaria'', Mx.?], and red-berried Elder.

:“In coming along, I have seen many strange plants; but may be chiefly varieties of what we have already. However, I shall gather what seed I can, of any such, or bring the plants.”

*[[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan, Samuel]], April 13, 1785, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref>Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I want to send to England a box of plants & seeds as complete as may be. . . I have further an order for some particular plants which I have mislaid, shd. I find it shall wish to know from you where I can send it so as to come quickest to you. If convenient shd. like to receive a list of such things as you wd. propose putting up in [illeg.] as also a note of the probable cost. I shall have frequent orders.

:“I find a mem[orandu]:m. mentioning Cardinal, Blue Scarlet.”

*Parke, Thomas, April 27, 1785, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 529)<ref>Darlington 1849, 529 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[William Hamilton|W. HAMILTON]] has sent a number of curious flowering shrubs and fruit trees, to be transplanted at his seat on the Schuylkill; and his gardener informs me, the most of them are healthy, and appear likely to live.

:“I have lately received a letter from my friend, Robert Barclay, dated in December last, wherein he requests I would apply to thee to send him a collection of ''seeds'' of such ''herbaceous plants'' as were in thy list of the year 1783. He adds, if they could be sent in March, by some safe conveyance, he should be glad to have them forwarded; but, as his letter did not reach me in time, I expect it will not do to forward them before next fall. However, I leave it to thy better judgment,—and request thee to collect the seeds, and send them when thee thinks the season will be most favourable.”

*<div id="Vaughan_Arbustum"></div> [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan, Samuel]], April 30, 1785, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref>Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The day after your departure I laid your Botanical Catalogue before the Society for promoting Agriculture & on friday, before the Philosophical Society, they each were sensible of the merit & utility of the work & wished it might be published, but the present state of their finances, did not authorise them to undertake the publication. . .

:“As the work will give much original Botanical Information of the new World, be of public utility, also reputable & serviceable to you, by collecting for the curious I am very anxious for its immediate publication, therefore would venture in behalf of my friends here and in Europe to subscribe for 50 or 60 copies & also use my interest for procuring other subscrips.” [[#Vaughan_Arbustum_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Vaughan"></div> [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan, Samuel]], May 14, 1785, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref>Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Conformable to your letter of 5 Ins[tant]. I sent an advertisement to the papers & hope it will have the deserved effect, but if not, as I think it calculated to promote Botanical knowledge, hitherto but little attended to in the new world, it shall not want the necessary assistance to carry it on, but this keep to yourself, as it might, if known, injure the subscription. I can by no means approve of its being published in England, as I wish America to have the whole merit & it will be sooner accomplished. . . .

:“I am now planting trees & shrubs in the [[State House Yard|state house square]], & as I wish to collect there a specimen of every sort in America that will grow in this state, I wish to have your advice & assistance, as soon as convenient.” [[#Vaughan_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan, Samuel]], May 28, 1785, in Philadephia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref>Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As it is my wish to plant in the State-house square specimens of every tree & shrub that grows in the several states on this Continent that will thrive here, I have Inclosed a sketch of such as I have been able to procure since the 7th. of last month, with a list of such others as have occurred to me hitherto, but as I am unacquainted with the vast variety remaining & that you have have turned your thoughts in that line, I have to request & shall be much obliged to you for a list of such as occur to you, with directions in what state or place they are to be had; that I may lay out to procure them to plant in the fall.

:“Planted in the [[State House Yard|State-house square]]. . .” [List of 86 plant varieties follows]

*Marshall, Humphry, October 4, 1785, in West Bradford, PA, letter to John Coakley Lettsom (Darlington 1849: 543–44)<ref>Darlington 1849, 543-544 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I must acknowledge myself much obliged to thee, for getting my thermometer repaired, and sending me the several books thou hast. But, instead of LINNAEUS’S ''Genera Plantarum'', translated into English by COLIN MILNE, thou hast sent the Lichfield publication, which I had sent me before by my friend BARCLAY. . .

:“The box is filled up with some other articles, as per catalogue inclosed, being a few seeds, nuts, &c, not dried much—which, if they don't mould, will come over in perfection; and if they do, they may vegetate, perhaps, better than if dried.”

*<div id="1785"></div>Marshall, Humphry, 1785, Advertisement published in ''Arbustrum Americanum''(1785: viii–ix, 170)<ref>Marshall, 1785, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJU57ISS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In this my ''Countrymen'' are presented at one view with a concise description of their own native Forest Trees and Shrubs, as far as hitherto discovered. And those whose fancy may lead to this delightful science, may by a little application, from hence be enabled scientifically to examine and arrange, not only those of the shrubby, but the several and various species of the herbaceous class. The ''foreigner'', curious in American collections, will be hereby better enabled to make a selection suitable to his own particular fancy. If he wishes to cultivate timber for oeconomical purposes, he is here informed of our valuable Forest Trees: if for adorning his [[plantation]] or garden of our different ornamenting flowering shrubs.

:“ADVERTISEMENT.

:“BOXES of SEEDS, and growing PLANTS, of the FOREST TREES, FLOWERING SHRUBS, &c. of the American United States; are made up in the best manner and at a reasonable rate by the Author. All Orders in this line, directed for ''Humphry Marshall'', of Chester County, Pennsylvania; to the Care of Dr. THOMAS PARKE, in Philadelphia, will be carefully and punctually attended to.” [[#1785_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Franklin_Arbustum"></div>Marshall, Humphry, December 5, 1785, letter to Benjamin Franklin (Darlington 1849: 522–23)<ref>Darlington 1849, 522-523 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I had it in contemplation to mention to thee for thy approbation, or sentiments thereon, a proposal that I had made, last winter, to my cousin, [[William Bartram|WM. BARTRAM]], and nephew, [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MOSES MARSHALL]], of taking a tour, mostly through the western parts of our United States, in order to make observations, &c, upon the Natural productions of those regions; with a variety of which, hitherto unnoticed, or but imperfectly described, we have reason to believe they abound; which, on consideration, they at that time seemed willing to undertake, and I conceive would be so still, provided they should meet with proper encouragement and support for such a journey; which they judge would be attended with considerable expense, for the transportation of their collections, &c, and for their subsistence during a period of fifteen or eighteen months, or more, which would at least be necessary for the completion of the numerous observations, and objects they would have to make remarks on, and collect. Should such proposals be properly encouraged, I apprehend they would engage to set out early in the spring, and throughout their journey make diligent search and strict observation upon everything within the province of a naturalist; but more especially upon Botany, for the exercise of which there appears, in such a journey, a most extensive field; for, from accounts of our western territories, they are said to abound with varieties of strange trees, shrubs, and plants, no doubt applicable to many valuable purposes in arts or manufactures, and to be replete with various species of earths, stones, salts, inflammable minerals, and metals (the many uses of obtaining a knowledge of which is sufficiently obvious); remarks, experiments, &c, upon every of which they propose making; as also to make collections, and preserve specimens, of everything that may enrich useful science, or amuse the curious naturalist; to the conducement of which, they would willingly receive and observe any reasonable instructions that might facilitate their discoveries, or direct their researches.

:“I have taken the freedom to mention these proposals to thee knowing that thou was always ready and willing to promote any useful knowledge and science, for the use of mankind; and if, on consideration of the premises, thou should approve thereof, thou may communicate them to the members of the Philosophical Society, or any other set of gentlemen, that would be willing or likely to encourage such an undertaking. Perhaps Congress, or some of the members, might promote their going out with the surveyors, when they lay out the several new states.

:“I have ordered [[Moses Marshall|my nephew]], the Doctor, to present thee with one of my Catalogues of the Forest Trees of our Thirteen United States; which I hope thou'll accept of, for thy perusal.” [[#Franklin_Arbustum_cite|back up to History]]

*Dickinson, Mary, June 12, 1786, in Wilmington, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 566)<ref>Darlington 1849, 566 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A relation of mine in England, who is wife to David Barclay, has requested me to send her some seeds of the most curious natural productions of America. I thought I would take the freedom to ask thy assistance, knowing how very curious thee is in this way.”

*Parke, Thomas, June 18, 1786, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 529)<ref>Darlington 1849, 529 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A young gentleman being about to sail for London, from whence he intends to go to Edinburgh to finish his medical education, is desirous of taking a box of seeds of the most curious flowering shrubs, &c., to present to the Professor of Botany in that University. . . He is willing to pay £5 for the collection, and expects to have a sample of the most curious, particularly of the ''Franklinia''.”

*<div id="Banks_Arbustum"></div>Marshall, Humphry, November 14, 1786, in West Bradford, Chester County, PA, letter to Sir Joseph Banks (Darlington 1849: 560–62)<ref>Darlington 1849, 560-562 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received thy favour, dated April the 5th, 1786, in which thou seems desirous of trying an experiment upon the curing the root of ''Ginseng''; for which purpose thou desires that I would procure thee one or two hundred weight of the fresh root. . . which requisition I have endeavoured to comply with, but have not been able to procure for thee more than about one hundred weight of the fresh root, and that at a considerable expense; having to employ a young man, a nephew of mine [[Moses Marshall|[Moses Marshall]]], that lives with me, to travel about two hundred miles to the westward, through a dismal mountainous part of our country. . .

:“I expect thou’ll be willing to pay a reasonable compensation, which would be, at least, an English crown a pound, I should apprehend. But, if thou thinks that too much, be pleased to pay what thou thinks would be a compensation, adequate to the trouble and cost the young doctor hath been at; and I hope, if thou, or any of the members of the Royal Society, should see cause to employ him, or me, in future, that we would endeavour to serve you as reasonable as any other persons; and as my nephew is well versed in the knowledge of Botany, and would gladly be employed in researches in that line, or to explore our western regions in search of minerals, fossils, or inflammables, and objects of History, &c., provided he could meet with proper encouragement, I, therefore, make free to mention something of the kind to thee, that if the Royal Society should have a mind to employ any person, on this side the water, for such purposes, he would be willing to serve them.

:“I have sent thee one of my pamphlets, entitled the ''American Grove'', and expect thou'll present it to the Royal Society, in my name, if thou thinks it worth their notice and acceptance; as also one for thyself, which I hope will be accepted.

:“P.S. If the Ginseng is to plant, as I expect it is, it should be planted in a shady situation, and in a rich black mould, or soil: as I have experienced it will not bear our summer heat, without being shaded,—especially in the middle of the day.

:“But your country not being so hot, perhaps it may bear the heat of the sun with you. However, I should advise a shady situation for it, and rich ground. And if any more should be wanted, perhaps it might be procured some small matter reasonabler than this sent, my nephew having found, in his route, where it grows pretty plenty.”

*Eddy, Charles, July 18, 1787, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (quoted in Harshberger 1929: 270)<ref name="Harshberger">Harshberger, 1929, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have an idea if [[Moses Marshall|thy Nephew]] could spare the time to come to come to this Country even for a very short time he might find a great Advantage in observing which Plants are the most valuable and scarce here—am told that when the Scarlet Azalea was first introduced here a single plant was sold for £40 St[erlin]g. to a nurseryman for propagation. James Phillips informs me that very few of the American Grove are yet disposed of" [[#Banks_Arbustum_cite|back up to History]]

*Merian, Samuel, August 10, 1787, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (quoted in Harshberger 1929: 270)<ref name="Harshberger"></ref>

:“A friend of myne living in the country knowing by the American Grove that you can provide with those shrubs and trees therein described desired me to whrite for the annexed plants.”

*Wistar, Caspar, October 21, 1787, letter to Humphry and [[Moses Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 568–69)<ref>Darlington 1849, 568-569 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“With this I send a Treatise on the effects of ''Foxglove'', which I mentioned to friend H. M. when he was last in town. [[Moses Marshall|Dr. M.]] will he pleased to find that he is in possession of a plant of such efficacy, and perhaps will cultivate a greater quantity of it. As the book is in great demand, I wish he would return it by the first opportunity that offers, after he has read it.

:“If you have any of the plant to spare, I will be much obliged to you for a few leaves of it, and also a few seeds, with the book, when it is returned.”

*Banks, Joseph, February 6, 1788, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref>Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plants of which you have a list. . . being wanted for Kew Garden his Majesties Botanic institution I have at the desire of Mr. Aiton the gardener undertaken to apply to you for them. . . .

:“You will contrive to have them ship’d at a reasonable expense & properly take care of their passage as their safe arrival & reasonable price will enable me to recommend you to Custom here.” [List of 28 plants follows]

*<div id="Kramsch"></div>Kramsch, Rev. Samuel, July 2, 1788, in Nazareth, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 571–73)<ref>Darlington 1849, 571-573 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I take the liberty, though not personally acquainted, but highly esteemed by your excellent botanical work styled ''Arbustum Americanum'', or American Grove, to trouble you with a few lines. . .

:“I am a German by birth. . . I came to this country in the year 1783, at the latter end of it. I belong to that Society which is called the United Brethren, or, as they call them here, the Moravians. . .

:“As I loved the study of Natural History, and especially Botany, from my childhood, I was very happy. . . when my call brought me to North America. The first year, I searched, with great care, the country about Bethlehem, to examine new plants I never saw before. . . I inquired very often if nobody ever undertook to write a botanical work for this country, a ''Flora Americana'', or the like; but I could not learn of any. But, how glad was I, when I first saw your excellent book advertised. My colleagues in that science, viz., Rev. Mr. HUBNER, the Rev. JACOB VAN VLECK, and Dr. KAMPMAN, each of us, we procured us with it.

:“I got new feal [zeal?] in Botany, when I came to Nazareth, in searching the country round about. Natural History, and especially Botany, was one of the sciences I should teach here in our boarding-school, or academy; and my young scholars were exceeding glad to see a book in that science also from their native country: and perhaps it is the first place where it is used as a school-book.

:“But, dear sir, though I am not a native of these states, but a warm friend to them, and because it is my ardent wish that also Natural History, as other sciences, should become more extensive and flourishing, I beg your pardon that I remember here your promise, given at the introduction to the ''American Grove.'' ‘The author would have been happy, could he have given also a descriptive catalogue of our native herbaceous plants. At present, circumstances oblige him to confine himself to forest trees and shrubs; however, he has such a work in contemplation should this meet with the encouragement of the public.’

:“ . . . I think it would be necessary to consider once about the plan, that it may become as useful as possible to the public. I would flatter myself, if you would be incited, through these lines, to consider the matter once more. Perhaps you could hear some or other thought, if you would put once something about this point in a public paper, Columbian Magazine, or American Museum; and perhaps by that channel your learned friends in the United States could lend their accounts, hints, or notes, for public use to you.

:“Would you do me the favour to inform me where one could get Dr. KALM’S ''Journeys through N. America'', and CLAYTON’S ''Flora Virginica'', it would be greatly obliging to me.” [[#Kramsch_cite|back up to History]]

*Lettsom, John Coakley, August 10, 1788, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 548)<ref>Darlington 1849, 548 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The plant described by thee, and designed to honour my name, is a species of ''Polygala'', and is, I believe, a new one. . .

:“Perhaps thou may send me some plants, at the fall of the leaf; and it is necessary that I should compensate thee; and therefore, I give thee the liberty of drawing upon me for ten pounds sterling.

:“I wish a healthy plant of Ginseng could be sent with the plants.”

*Parke, Thomas, October 10, 1788, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 530)<ref>Darlington 1849, 530 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I intended to have sent thee a copy of [Thomas] WALTER’S ''Flora Caroliniana'' but find one is already thy property, by direction of Doctor LETTSOM.”

*Marshall, Humphry, November 4, 1788, letter to John Coakley Lettsom (Darlington 1849: 548–49)<ref>Darlington 1849, 548-9 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Thine, dated 10th of August, with several books, came safe to hand.

:“With this, I send a small box of plants the list of contents inclosed which I hope will not prove unacceptable; though there is little of novelty in the collection to recommend it, except the ''Azalea'', which I believe is yet rare.

:“I had discovered my error, with regard to the small plant sent thee last year, and might sooner have done it, had I been careful. However, it has gone but to thyself, except lately, by the name of ''Polygala'', to SIR JOSEPH BANKS.

:“The ''Plumed Andromeda'', of BARTRAM, is the ''Cyrilla''. The ''Franklinia'', I believe, is a species of ''Gordonia''.

:“I am much pleased with WALTER’S ''Flora'', which appears to be well executed. Every addition to botanical knowledge will always prove acceptable.”

*Lettsom, John Coakley, February 2, 1789, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 549)<ref>Darlington 1849, 549 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I write now to acknowledge the receipt of thy letter of November last, and to add that yesterday the box was safely landed; and, on a cursory inspection, the plants contained seem healthy.

:“At the expense of much labour and money, I have brought some fine bog earth on my premises which your countrymen thrive best in; and I hope soon to possess an ample collection of them.

:“I am obliged to thee for thy intention of increasing my Americans, as opportunity may offer. [John] FRASER, to whom a few of us in London subscribed an annual sum, has not answered our expectations. His ''catalogue'', enclosed, are the seeds and plants of his own property. His subscribers, at least I—had very few indeed.”

*<div id="Banks"></div>Banks, Sir Joseph, May 6, 1789, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Your Box of Plants was received safe & to all appearance in good order. have no doubt that as the spring advances we shall find in it several Plants which will enrich our Botanical knowledge. . . .

:“The Franklinia is as you conjecture a species of Gordonia a drawing of that Plant sent here by Mr. [[John Bartram|Bartram]] to Mr. Barclay has been compared with specimens; so that no doubt now can remain on that subject.

:“Mr. Aiton has desir’d me to request from you a similar Box of Plants by the next fall for his Majesty’s Garden where those of the Last Box are already planted & has given me the under written List of Plants more particularly wanted there. . .” [list of sixteen plants] [[#Banks_cite|back up to History]]

*Parke, Thomas, May 18, 1789, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 531)<ref>Darlington 1849, 531 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“R. BARCLAY writes me that he is much pleased with the plants received, which, with [[William Bartram|W. BARTRAM’s]] drawing of the ''Franklinia'', arrived in good order. The botanists in England will not, however, allow it to be properly named. BARCLAY says he shall want some plants from thee in the fall; and wishes to know whether the ''Cranberry plant'' cannot be sent to England, to be propagated.”

*Parke, Thomas, July 10, 1789, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received a few days ago an open Letter for thee. . . from Descenet at Paris. . . He is very desirous of knowing whether he can depend on having the seeds sent agreeably to his Garden. . .

:“I received a Letter from my friend R. Barclay who informs me Aiton the Kings Gardener is about publishing a Catalogue of all the Botanic Collection at Kew—when tis published he promises thee a Copy. RB wishes to have a Box of Cranberry plants as before mentioned.”

*Kramsch, Rev. Samuel, July 25, 1789, in Salem, NC, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 573–74)<ref>Darlington 1849, 573-574 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I pity you extraordinary that you met with so little encouragement for a description of the herbaceous plants, occasioned by the dull sale of the American Grove. I always think some hints, either in the Columbian Magazine, or the American Museum, should encourage this study.

:“The spirit of home-made manufactories is now happily spread abroad. We begin to look upon everything what might be useful for it. We should now also know that treasures we possess in the United States, concerning vegetables. Proposals should be made in that respect, to get a complete catalogue; and afterwards, we should learn and discover all the use of them.

:“I botanized hereabouts, as much as time would permit it, and found a great variety of plants between here and my former place. . . As soon as time is over for that purpose, I shall sent you the catalogue of all my plants, which I have found here and in Pennsylvania.”

*<div id="Muhlenberg"></div>Muhlenberg, Rev. Henry, January 18, 1790, in Lancaster, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 575–76)<ref>Darlington 1849, 575-576 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I would have answered your kind letter, and have returned my thanks sooner for the shrubs and roots you were pleased to send to me, if I had not waited, though in vain, for an opportunity of sending the ''Viburnum Opulus'' you wanted. I have been all about, and can find none that are small enough. However, I shall try again, in spring, at some other places, where I formerly have seen some.

:“I have made different excursions this year, after I had the pleasure of seeing you here; and have added greatly to my Flora. If I am not mistaken, I found a great number of your ''spiraea Hypericifolia'' at the Susquehanna. It blossoms the latter end of July, with a fine yellow flower; but I doubt whether it should not be called ''Hypericum Kalmianum'' or ''prolificum'', as the capsule is very different from ''Spiraea''. When the exemplar you sent to me blossoms, I will be better able to judge.

:“Your ''Arbustum'' has been translated and reprinted in Germany. I have wrote for several exemplars and expect them this year.

:“As I know that [[Moses Marshall|your nephew]] has studied physic, I make bold to send him the late edition of Linnaei ''Materia Medica'', and hope the present will be not unacceptable. I have a great many botanical writings, and shall be happy if I can serve you or him in botanical researches, through a loan of them. Pray remember my best respects to him; and tell him how gladly I would embrace an opportunity of a correspondence, which certainly would be an advantage to our botanical studies.

:“You were pleased to mention to me, that you had an edition of WALTER’s ''Flora Caroliniensis''. If you could spare that work for a few weeks, and send it to Lancaster for my perusal, I should think myself greatly indebted to you. It should be returned with expedition and undamaged. . . .

:“I shall pass by your house, the latter end of May, on my way to Philadelphia; and then hope to see you, [[Moses Marshall|your nephew]], and your garden. Against that time, I expect to receive a great many of fresh seeds from Germany, of which you shall have whatever may be pleasing.” [[#Muhlenberg_cite|back up to History]]

*Kramsch, Rev. Samuel, February 20, 1790, letter from Salem, NC, to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 574–75)<ref>Darlington 1849, 574-575 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When I wrote my last letter to you, I imagined to make good harvest in the fall, concerning seeds, fruits, and the like; but. . . it was not in my power to bring the list of plants in order, and to copy it for you.

:“The scarlet blowing ''Azalea'', I shall hardly find living sixty miles distant from the big mountains. For the Physik nut I will inquire.”

*Banks, Sir Joseph, April 3, 1790, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plants sent by you this year arrived safe & in good condition except that some of the pieces of the root of Violas &c. were so small that I fear we shall not be able to preserve them I should be glad if larger pieces could be sent in future even tho a higher price was charged. . .

:“Enclosed is a List for this year the plants of which I should wish to receive in the autumn about the same time as the last came here as that is the best season for sending the list is forwarded Early as some of the Plants may be to be sought for in the Course of the summer.”

*Parke, Thomas, April 20, 1790, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 531)<ref>Darlington 1849, 531 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I apply’d to [[John Bartram|J. B]]. for the plants thee mentioned. I could not procure the whole number ordered, but, as a great favour, obtained some of each sort, with a few of some he calls a ''new species'', as per his account inclosed.

:“Did thee not promise some seeds for Lord SUFFIELD? If a few could be sent him, I think he would be pleased; and as the plants cannot go till the fall, it would manifest an attention to his orders.”

*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], November 22, 1790, in [[The Woodlands]], letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 577)<ref>Darlington 1849, 577 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I was truly sorry that I did not see you when you were last at Philadelphia. I hope, the next time you come down, you will give me a call. If I can tempt you no other way, I promise to show you many plants that you have never yet seen, some of them curious.”

*Beelen Bertholf, Baron de, October 12, 1791, letter to Humphry Marshall (Gutowski 1988: 33)<ref>Gutowski 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FEKTNCPT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I am very much oblige to you for the maple and lombardy poplar trees, which you sent forward to me by the negro man.”

*Banks, Sir Joseph, March 2, 1791, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I shall be very glad of specimens when you Collect them especially of new or very Rare Plants with such names as you chuse written upon them as they will serve as interpreters between us. . . .

:“The enclosed leaf grows here from your Plants; but as it does not Flower we have no means of Discovering what it is. I shall thank you if you can spare a specimen of it with the Flower to enclose it to me in a Letter or at least let me know what name it is known by.” [List of 33 plants follows]

*Banks, Sir Joseph, 1792, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“You Box arrivd as usual safe & in good condition.

:“I shall be obligd to you for the Following sorts next year on the same terms & anything new you chuse to put among them. . . [list of 33 plants follows]

:“I am sorry the specimens were in a bad order & so small as I am not able unless they were larger & more carefully dried to ascertain what they have been. The following are all the characters I have been able to make. . . [list of plants follows]

:“I heartily wish you success in your undertakings & shall be happy when in my power to recommend you to Custom here be in other manner serviceable to you.”

*Parke, Thomas, October 9, 1792, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (USDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have just now obtained from [[John Bartram]] a Box of Plants agreeably to thy request. To make up for some, contained in thy list, I find he has added considerably to the number requested in the Order given him. . .

:“The Ships. . . are expected to sail next Seventh day the 13th Inst. by which time I shou’d like to have the Boxes for P. Bond & Thornton.

:[Invoice and receipt enclosed with letter] “Box containing growing Roots of curious Trees Shrubs & Herbacious Plants [List of 45 varieties follows]

:“1 Case growing Roots of American Trees Shrubs & c.”

*Banks, Sir Joseph, August 28, 1793, in London, letter to Humphry Marshall (UDSDA History Collection)<ref name="Marshall_Papers">Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NCUEHMJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Baron Itzenplitz who writes to you with this Letter is a particular Friend of mine & has opened a Correspondence with you at my desire you will find him a man of probity in his dealings on whom you may fully depend a Paymaster in whatever he may order from you & I should think it probable if you oblige him that he may have it in his Power to recommend you to much business in Germany.”

*Parke, Thomas, April 29, 1795, in Philadelphia, PA, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 531–32)<ref>Darlington 1849, 531-532 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Sir JOHN MENZIES wishes to improve his grounds, in Scotland, by mixing such of the American ''forest trees'' with the native Pines of Great Britain, as are likely to agree with the soil and climate; and desires a collection of such trees as can be got in Pennsylvania, or rather, that an assortment of seeds may be sent him by the first opportunity. He also wishes a small assortment of apples, pears, and peaches, of the best grafted or inoculated kinds, in trees of two or three years old.”

*Dickinson, John, October 29, 1796, in Wilmington, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 566–67)<ref name="Darlington_5">Darlington 1849, 566-567 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Dr. DANIEL BANCROFT having a demand, from Europe, for some samples in Natural History, described in thy book, wishes thy acquaintance.

:“I therefore beg leave thus to introduce him; being well assured it will give thee pleasure to pay attention to a gentleman engaged in such pursuits, as well as to serve our native land, by rendering the products, with which it is so eminently blessed, more known in other parts of the world; an office that perhaps may communicate benefits to distant regions, and generations yet unborn.”

*Dickinson, John, November 1, 1796, letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 567)<ref name="Darlington_5"></ref>

:“ARCHIBALD HAMILTON ROWAN, for whom I have a particular esteem, has been requested by his excellent wife, from whom he is so unhappily banished, to send her a collection of American seeds; and it will afford me a great deal of pleasure, if I can assist him in making it.

:“I understand that the seeds intended are those of flowers and shrubs, but chiefly the latter, with some few seeds of trees.

:“If thou or [[Moses Marshall|the Doctor]] will be so kind as to give directions for my being supplied with a collection to the amount of ten or fifteen dollars, it will be regarded as a great favour. . . .

:“The collection will be the more valuable, if the properest names are given, and the seasons for planting mentioned.”

*<div id="Hamilton"></div>[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], November 23, 1796, and May 3, 1799, in [[The Woodlands]], letter to Humphry Marshall (Darlington 1849: 578, 579–79)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:[November 23, 1796] “I am much obliged to you for the seeds you were so good as to send me, of the ''Pavia'', and of the ''Podophyllum'' or ''Jeffersonia''.

:“When you were last here it was so late, and you were of course so much hurried, as to prevent your deriving any satisfaction in viewing my exotics. I hope when you come next to Philadelphia, that you will allot one whole day, at least, for [[The Woodlands|the ''Woodlands'']]. It will not only give me real pleasure to have your company, but I am persuaded it will afford some amusement to yourself.

:“Your nephew [[Moses Marshall|[Moses Marshall]]] did me the favour of calling, the other day; but he, too, was in a hurry, and had little opportunity of satisfying his curiosity. I flatter myself, however, that during his short stay he saw enough to induce him to repeat his visit. The sooner this happens, the more agreeable it will be to me.

:“When I was at your house, a year ago, I observed several matters in the gardening way, different from any in my possession. Being desirous to make my collection as general as possible, I beg to know if you have, by layers, or any other mode, sufficiently increased any of the following kinds so as to be able, with convenience, to spare a plant of each of them, viz.:—''Ledum palustre'', ''Carolina Rhamnus'', ''Azalea coccinea'', ''Mimosa Intsia'', and ''Laurus Borbonia''. Any of them would be agreeable to me; as also would be a plant, or seeds ''Hippophae Canadensis'', ''Aralia hispida'', ''Spiraea nova'' from the western country; ''Tussilago Petasites'', ''Polymnia tetragonotheca'', ''Hydrophyllum Canadense'', ''H. Virginicum'', ''Polygala Senega'', ''P. biflora'', ''Napoea scabra dioica'', ''Talinum'', a nondescript ''Sedum'' from the west, somewhat like the ''Telephium'', two kinds of a genus supposed, by [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL]], to be between ''Uvularia'' and ''Convallaria'' [probably the ''Streptopus'', of MICHAUX, which the MARSHALLS proposed to call ''Bartonia''], and ''Rubia Tinctorum''. I should also be obliged to you for a few seeds of your ''Calycanthus'', ''Spigelia Marilandica'', ''Tormentil'' from Italy, and two of your ''Oaks'' with ovate entire leaves. . .”

:[May 3, 1799] “I have not until this time been able to comply with my promise of sending you a Tea Tree.

:“. . . I now take the opportunity of forwarding you. . . a very healthy one, as well as several of other kinds, which I believe are not already in your collection; together with a small parcel of seeds. . .

:“Should anything else, in my possession, occur to you as a desirable addition to the variety in your garden, I beg you will inform me. You may be assured, whatever it is, if I have two of the kind, you will be welcome to one. Sensible as I am of your kindness and friendship to me, on all occasions, you have a right, and may freely command every service in my power.

:“Doctor Parke informs me you were lately in Philadelphia. Had it been convenient to you to call at [[The Woodlands|the ''Woodlands'']], I should have had great pleasure in seeing you. I have not heard of [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL’s]] having been in this neighbourhood since I was last at ''Bradford''. From the pressing invitation I gave him, I am willing to hope that, in case of his coming to town, he will not forget to give me a call. I beg you will present him with my best respects, and request of him to give me a line of information, as to the ''Menziesia ferruginea'', particularly of its ''vulgar name'', if it has one, where it grows, if he knows the name of any person in its neighbourhood, who is acquainted with it, so, as to direct or show it to any one who may go to look after it.

:“I intend, next month, to go to Lancaster; and if convenient to me, when there, to spare my George, I have thoughts of sending him to Redstone, for the ''Menziesia'', and ''Podophyllum diphiyllum''. If [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL]] knows of any curious and uncommon plants, growing in the neighbourhood with those I have mentioned, I will be obliged to him to give me any intelligence by which he may suppose they can be found: or, if he knows any person or persons at Redstone, or Fort Pitt, who are curious in plants, of whom any questions on the subject may be asked, he cannot do me a greater service than by giving me their names and place of abode.

:“I do not know how your garden may have fared during this truly long and severe winter, which has occasioned the loss of several valuable ones in mine; amongst which are the Wise Briar [probably ''Schrankia uncinata'', Willd.; ''Mimosa Intsia'', Walt.] and ''Hibiscus speciosus'', which I got from you. The plants, also, of ''Podophyllum diphyllum'', which I raised last year, from seeds I received from your kindness, have, I fear, been all destroyed. They have not shown themselves above ground this spring. A tree, too (the only one I had of ''Juglans Pacane'', or Illinois Hickory), which I raised twenty-five years ago from seed, is entirely killed.

:“In case you have seeds of the kinds named in the list hereto adjoined, I will thank you exceedingly for a few. Any of them which you have not, at present, I beg you will oblige me with them in the ensuing fall. I am very desirous to know if your ''Iva'', or Hog’s Fennel, from Carolina, produces seeds. In that case, I must entreat you for a few of them.

:“You will permit me, also, to remind you of your promise to spare me a plant or two of the ''White Persimmon'', one of ''Azalea coccinea'', and of the sour ''Calycanthus''. If convenient to let me have a plant or two of your ''Stuartia Malachodendron'', and of ''Magnolia acuminata'', you will do me a great favour.

:“Anything left for me at the toll-gate, on the middle ferry wharf to the care of Mr. TRUEMAN, who constantly attends there, will reach me the same day that it arrives there. . . .

:“I am very desirous to compare a flower of your Stuartia with [[John Bartram|J. Bartram’s]]; and will be obliged to you for a good specimen. [[#Hamilton_cite|back up to History]]

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, recalling a visit to [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden]] in 1799 (1814: 1:vi)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“My first object, after my arrival in America, was to form an acquaintance with all those interested in the study of Botany. . . .
:“I next visited the old established gardens of Mr. Marshall, author of a small “Treatise on the Forest-Trees of North America.” This gentleman, though then far advanced in age and deprived of his eye-sight, conducted me personally through his collection of interesting trees and shrubs, pointing out many which were then new to me, which strongly proved his attachment and application to the science in former years, when his vigour of mind and eye-sight were in full power. This establishment, since the death of Mr. Marshall, (which happened a few years ago,) has been, in some respects, kept up by the family but is now very much on the decline, only a few old established trees being left as a memento of what formerly deserved the name of a respectable [[botanic garden]].”

*Anonymous, May 10, 1828, history of [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden]], (“Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science": 302–3)<ref>"Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science,” [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4JXNRSNZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the year 1774, the late Humphrey [''sic''] Marshall established his [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|''Botanic Garden'', at Marshallton]]: he applied himself very diligently to the improvement of the place, and to the collection of plants, especially such as were indigenous to the United States. The Garden soon obtained a reputation; and for many years before the death of Mr. Marshall, it had become an object of curiosity to men of science: Mr. Frederick Pursh informs us, that it was the first place of a Botanical character visited by him, after his arrival in America. After the decease of Mr. Humphrey Marshall, in the year 1801, we believe that no improvements were made in the garden, and since the death of Doctor [[Moses Marshall]], in 1813, the Botany of the place seems to have been entirely neglected. But it still exhibits many interesting relics, as pine and fir trees—the willow leaved and English oaks, the Kentucky nickar tree, the buckeye, and several species of magnolia. The trees we have mentioned, with various interesting shrubs and herbaceous plants, which survive the general ruin, are memorials of the interest which was formerly taken in the garden by its venerable founder. . . .

:“The science of plants was his favourite study, and before he established his [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|botanic garden]], at Marshallton, he had cultivated one on a smaller scale, on the [[plantation]] now occupied by Joshua Marshall. In 1785, he published the ''Arbustum Americanum'', or catalogue of American Forest Trees and Shrubs, in which he was assisted by his nephew, the late Doctor [[Moses Marshall]], who was a botanist of considerable merit, and, at the request of his uncle, had travelled through many of the States, in search of American plants.”

*Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel, 1836, description of visits to [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden]] in the summer of 1802 and 1804 (1836: 15, 22)<ref>Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, ''A Life of Travels in North America and South Europe, or Outlines of the Life, Travels and Researches of C.S. Rafinesque'' (Philadelphia: F. Turner, 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/II9VXNQU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On our return to Germantown I studied all the plants of that locality, describing them all minutely. I went also fishing and hunting, and described the birds, reptiles, fishes, &c. An excursion to Westchester was taken with Col. F. [Forrest] to see [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|MARSHALL’s Botanic garden]], and we returned by Norristown. We visited also [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|BARTRAM’S Botanic garden]] and several other places. . .

:“I went to see again Mr. Marshall at Westchester, and visited with him the singular magnesian rocks, where alone grow the ''Phemeranthus or Talinum teretifolium''.”

*Darlington, William, 1837, ''Flora Cestrica'' (1837: 138, 359, 405)<ref>William Darlington, ''Flora Cestrica: An Attempt to Enumerate and Describe the Flowering and Filicoid Plants of Chester County in the State of Pennsylvania. With Brief Notices of Their Properties, and Uses, in Medicine, Domestic and Rural Economy, and the Arts'' (West-Chester, PA: The author, 1837), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AU239VXT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“CAROLINIAN SOLANUM. . . This is a vile, pernicious weed; and extremely difficult to subdue, or eradicate. It is believed to have been introduced by the late ''Humphrey'' [sic] ''Marshall'', into his [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|Botanic Garden at Marshallton]],—whence it has spread around the neighborhood; and strongly illustrates the necessity of caution, in the introduction of mere Botanical curiosities into good agricultural districts.

:“MARRUBIUM-LIKE LEONURUS. . . This foreign has probably escaped from the [[Botanic Garden]] of the late HUMPHREY [''sic''] MARSHALL, and bids fair to become extensively naturalized in the surrounding country.

:“M. LUPULINA, L. . . . This is an introduced plant; and not generally naturalized in this County. I am not certain that I have observed it, except in the vicinity of the late [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|''Humphrey'' [sic] ''Marshall’s'' Botanic Garden]].”

*<div id="Marshall_Square"></div>Resolution of the Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, PA, March 13, 1848 (Darlington 1849: 492–93)<ref>Darlington 1849, 492-493 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public [[Square]], on which the upper reservoir connected with the Water-works of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and shrubbery: And whereas it will be convenient and necessary to designate the said [[Square]] by some appropriate name; And whereas the late Humphry Marshall of Chester County was one of the earliest and most distinguished horticulturists and botanists of our country, having established the second [[botanic garden]] in this republic; and also prepared and published the first treatise on the forest trees and shrubs of the United States, and diffused a taste for botanical science which entitles his memory to the lasting respect of his countrymen:

:“Therefore resolved, by the Burgesses and Assistant Burgesses of the Borough of West Chester, in Council assembled, That the public [[Square]], aforesaid, shall for ever hereafter be designated and known by the name of ‘The Marshall [[Square]],’ in commemoration of the exemplary character, and scientific labours, of our distinguished fellow-citizen, the late Humphry Marshall, of West Bradford Township, Chester County.” [[#Marshall_Square _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="ornamental"></div> Darlington, William, 1849, on Humphry Marshall (1849: 22, 487–88, 490–91)<ref>Darlington 1849, 490-491 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
[[#ornamental_cite |back up to History]]

:“In 1773, the second [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] within the British provinces of North America, was established by Humphry Marshall, in the township of West Bradford, Chester County, Pennsylvania, at the site of the present village of Marshallton. Humphry, however, had been previously indulging his taste, and employing his leisure time in collecting and cultivating useful and ornamental plants at his paternal residence, near the Brandywine. . .

:<div id="greenhouse"></div> "In 1764, it became expedient to enlarge the dwelling in which he resided with his parents. This addition was built of brick; and the entire work of digging and tempering the clay, making and burning the bricks, and building the walls, was performed by Humphry himself. He also erected a [[greenhouse|green-house]], adjoining the dwelling; which was, doubtless, the first [[conservatory]] of the kind ever seen, or thought of, in the county of Chester. [[#greenhouse_cite|[back up to History]]]

:“The [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden|Botanic Garden, at Marshallton]], was planned and commenced in the year 1773, and soon became the recipient of the most interesting trees and shrubs of our country, together with many curious exotics; and also of a numerous collection of our native herbaceous plants. A large portion of these yet survive, although the garden, from neglect, has become a mere [[wilderness]]; while a number of our noble forest trees, such as Oaks, Pines, and Magnolias (especially the Magnolia acuminata), all planted by the hands of the venerable founder, have now attained to a majestic altitude.

:“For several years prior to the establishment of the Marshallton Garden, Humphry had been much engaged in collecting native plants and seeds, and shipping them to Europe; but after that event, being aided by his nephew, [[Moses Marshall|Dr. Moses Marshall]], he greatly extended his operations, and directed his attention with enhanced zeal and energy to the business of exploring, and making known abroad, the vegetable treasures of these United States. The present generation of botanists have but an imperfect idea of the services rendered to the science, by the skill and laborious industry of those faithful pioneers; but the letters here given, will show that they contributed largely to the knowledge of American plants.

:“His sight. . . was never so entirely lost, but that he could discern the [[walk]]s in his garden, examine his trees, and recognise the localities of his favourite plants. In tracing those [[walk]]s with his friends, pointing out the botanical curiosities, and reciting their history, he took the greatest delight to the last.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px”heights="170px”perrow="7">

Image:2075.jpg|Humphry Marshall, ''Arbustrum [''sic''] Americanum'' (1785), title page.

Image:2078.jpg|James Trenchard after William Bartram, ''Franklinia Alatamaha'', c. 1786.

Image:2079.jpg|George Samuel after Thomas Medland, ''A South View of a Villa at Grove Hill, Camberwell, Surry'', 1792.

Image:2077.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair after John T. French, “Prunus Americana,” in Thomas Nuttall, ''The North American Sylva'' (1849), vol. 2., pl. 48.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibits/nature/marshall.htm American Philosophical Society online exhibit on ''Arbustrum Americanum'']

[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-2549mar?view=text Humphry and Moses Marshall Papers, 1721–1863, University of Michigan]

[http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/series-x-usda-history-collection-2 Humphry Marshall Papers, 1785–1792, History Collection, National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture]

[http://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/d/Dreer0175.html Humphry Marshall Papers in the Frederick J. Dreer Autograph Collection, Historical Society of Pennsylvania]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Marshall, Humphry]]