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'''Monticello''', located near Charlottesville, Virginia, was the [[plantation]] home of the third president of the United States, [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1743–1826). Jefferson designed and redesigned the neoclassical mansion and gardens at Monticello over a period of more than forty years, from approximately 1767 until 1809. Especially notable landscape features include the innovative terraced vegetable garden and vineyards. Today, Monticello is operated as a historic site by the Thomas Jefferson Foundation.

==Overview==
'''Site Dates:''' 1767 to present<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' Peter Jefferson (1707/8–1757); [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1743–1826); Martha Jefferson Randolph (1772–1836) and children; James T. Barclay (1807–1874); Uriah P. Levy (1792–1862); Jefferson Monroe Levy (1852–1924); Thomas Jefferson Foundation (1923 to present)<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Antonio Giannini (b. 1747, gardener from 1778–82); Giovannini da Prato (gardener from c. 1781–1812); Robert Bailey (gardener from 1794–96); Wormley Hughes (1781–1858, enslaved gardener); Tom Shackleford (enslaved gardener); George Granger Sr. (1730–1799, enslaved gardener and overseer 1796); “Gardener John” (enslaved gardener from 1798–1800); Goliah (enslaved gardener from c. 1802); Edmund Bacon (1785–1866; overseer from 1806–22); Anne Cary Randolph (1791–1826)<br/>
'''Location:''' Charlottesville, VA<br/>
'''Condition:''' extant<br/>
[https://goo.gl/maps/pgHk5m5fZqK2 View on Google maps]

<hr>

==History==
[[Image:0079.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825.]]
Over a period of more than forty years, between approximately 1767 and 1809, [[Thomas Jefferson]] designed, constructed, and renovated the house and gardens of his plantation home, Monticello [Fig. 1]. Located on a mountaintop southwest of Charlottesville in the Piedmont region of Virginia, the site was part of the 5,000-acre property in the Rivanna River district that he inherited from his father, Peter Jefferson, in 1757.<ref>For a transcription of Peter Jefferson’s will, see http://tjrs.monticello.org/letter/1797.</ref>

[[File:2162.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Thomas Jefferson, ''Monticello: 1st version (elevation)'', probably before March 1771.]]
[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] began planning Monticello in 1767, and construction began two years later. He drew heavily from Andrea Palladio’s ''Four Books of Architecture'' (1570) when designing the first version of his neoclassical house, a six-room structure featuring a two-story [[portico]] at the entrance [Fig. 2]. In an architectural memorandum that he wrote in 1769, for example, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] recorded specific figures from Palladio’s text as well as from [[James Gibbs|James Gibb's]] ''Rules for Drawing the Several Parts of Architecture'' (1738), to which he referred during the construction of Monticello.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, Memorandum Books, 1767, Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/02-01-02-0001 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref> He held copies of both architectural treatises as part of his extensive personal library, which contained a significant collection of architecture and landscape design literature.<ref>Jefferson relied on either the 1715 or 1742 edition by Giocomo Leoni of Palladio’s text. For a catalogue of Jefferson’s library holdings, see E. Millicent Sowerby, comp., ''Catalogue of the Library of Thomas Jefferson'', 5 vols. (Washington, DC, 1952–59), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BBH82MR6 view on Zotero]. See also William Bainter O’Neal, ''Jefferson’s Fine Arts Library: His Selections for the University of Virginia Together with His Own Architectural Books'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CUP9BNW2 view on Zotero].</ref> On November 26, 1770, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] moved from Shadwell, his childhood home in Albemarle County, Virginia, to Monticello, occupying the top floor of the recently completed South Pavilion, the first brick building to be constructed on the property.<ref>Edwin Morris Betts, ed., ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766–1824'' (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1944), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero]; Kevin J. Hayes, ''The Road to Monticello: The Life and Mind of Thomas Jefferson'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 119, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DFI87IXS view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Chastellux_cite">In 1782 the French Major General François-Jean Beauvoir, Marquis de Chastellux, an early visitor to Monticello, wrote that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] was “the architect, and often one of the workmen” on the project and described the house—then still in progress—as “very elegant,” proclaiming “[[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. Jefferson]] is the first American who has consulted the fine arts to know how he should shelter himself from the weather” ([[#Chastellux|view text]]). By the summer of 1784, when [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] departed for Paris to serve as minister to France, the exterior of the first house at Monticello was largely complete but the interior remained unfinished.<ref>William L. Beiswanger, “Thomas Jefferson’s Essay in Architecture,” in ''Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello'' (Charlottesville: Thomas Jefferson Foundation; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 2–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DEFR85RJ view on Zotero]. The north wing—the first part of the house to be habitable—was completed by about 1772, around the time that Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton (1748–1782).</ref>

[[File:2163.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Thomas Jefferson, ''Monticello: mountaintop (plat)'', 1809.]]
Whereas much is known about the construction of the dwelling during this initial phase, the landscape design during this period is less well understood. On May 15, 1768, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] recorded in his ''Account Book'' that he had contracted with John Moore to clear and level 250 square feet of the mountaintop before Christmas, so that construction on the new house could begin the following year. By by summer of 1769, Jefferson had planted fruit trees in an [[orchard]] on the southeast side of the mountain and begun also begun preparations for a [[kitchen garden]]. A park with a circumference measuring 1,850 yards had been cleared on the north side of the mountain by September. Work on the first (or uppermost) of four roundabouts—roads that encircled the mountain at different elevations—began by November 1772. The roundabouts were connected to one another by roads that cut across the mountainside obliquely, as seen in this 1809 survey by [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] of the mountaintop [Fig. 3].<ref>Betts 1944, 12, 17, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero]. The first mention of the roundabout is a November 12, 1772, entry in Jefferson’s ''Garden Book'' (34). The exact dates of construction for the other three roundabouts is unknown, but Jefferson mentions the second roundabout in a March 30, 1782, entry in his ''Garden Book'' (94). The third and fourth roundabouts were completed by the time of his 1809 survey.</ref>

[[Image:0167.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Thomas Jefferson, General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.]]
[[Image:0074.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.]]
[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also recorded an elaborate landscaping plan for Monticello in his Account Book of 1771, but much of the design was never realized. In the plan, he called for the establishment of a [[burial ground]] with a “small Gothic [[temple]] of antique appearance” and the construction of a [[temple]] or [[grotto]] by the spring on the north side of the property. <span id="TJ_1771_cite">He also planned to thin the trees throughout the grounds and “intersperse Jessamine, honeysuckle, sweetbriar, and . . . hardy flowers” ([[#TJ_1771|view text]]).<ref>See also Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 150, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref> Two early plans by [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] of the house and surrounding grounds indicate that he intended to create rectangular flower [[bed]]s on the west side of the mansion and a semicircular arrangement of trees on the east side, but these features were not added until more than three decades later [Figs. 4–5]. Additional clues about Jefferson’s planting activities during these early years are provided in his ''Garden Book'', which he maintained between 1766 and 1824. According to Jefferson’s records, various trees and flowers had been planted before he departed for Europe in 1784. This suggests the presence of flower [[bed]]s near the house, although their exact location is undetermined.<ref>Betts 1944, vii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero]. Jefferson’s ''Garden Book'' is in the collection of the Massachusetts Historical Society.</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] cultivated a wide variety of fruits and vegetables at Monticello, planting an [[orchard]], as noted above, as early as 1768 and a vegetable garden and vineyards by 1774. Under the guidance of Filippo Mazzei (1730–1816)—a Florentine horticulturalist and wine merchant who befriended [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] and settled in Albemarle County in 1773—[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] hired professional Italian gardeners Antonio Giannini and Giovanni da Prato to oversee the care of his fruit trees and vineyard.<ref>Martin 1991, 150–151, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero]; Edwin M. Betts, “Jefferson’s Gardens at Monticello,” ''Agricultural History'' 19, no. 3 (July 1945): 182, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZ3ZJRVI view on Zotero]; Philip J. Pauly, ''Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RM4928T view on Zotero]; Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref> Enslaved gardeners such as George Granger Sr., carried out much of the day-to-day work caring for the “[[orchard]]s, grasses &c.”<ref>Letter from Thomas Jefferson, July 29, 1787, from Paris to Nicholas Lewis, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-11-02-0564 ''Founders Online'', National Archives]. During the late 1780s, while serving as minister to France, Jefferson entrusted friends and neighbors, especially Nicholas Lewis (1734–1808), to run Monticello as a tobacco [[plantation]] in his absence. Enslaved people living at Monticello not only maintained Jefferson’s gardens but also established their own vegetable gardens on the property and sold extra produce to the Jefferson family. Hatch 2012, 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref>

The five years that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] spent abroad had a significant impact on his views of domestic architecture and landscape design.<ref>Beiswanger 2002, 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DEFR85RJ view on Zotero].</ref> During a visit to England in April 1786, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], accompanied by John Adams (1735–1826), visited sixteen English gardens, using Thomas Whateley’s ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770) as his guide, and he recorded his impressions in his travel diary.<ref>Adams was then serving as minister to the Court of St. James. Martin 1991, 145, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero]; Hatch 2012, 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref> Jefferson apparently disliked the more formal gardens he visited, complaining, for example, that Chiswick House “shows still too much of art” and that the gardens at Hampton Court Palace were “old fashioned.” He preferred the style of the gardens at Esher Place, remarking that the [[clump]]s of trees “balance finely–a most lovely mixture of concave and convex.”<ref>Betts 1944, 111–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero]. The memorandum, “A Tour to Some of the Gardens of England,” is reproduced on pages 111–14.</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] returned from Europe in 1789, eager to transform Monticello according to his new ideas. <span id="TJ_1793_cite">In a letter to Angelica Schuyler Church (1756–1814), written just before he departed for Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] wrote that he looked forward to being “liberated from the hated occupations of politics” so that he could turn his attention back to Monticello: “I have my house to build, my fields to form, and to watch for the happiness of those who labor for mine” ([[#TJ_1793|view text]]). However, just a few months after landing in the United States, President George Washington appointed [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] the first U.S. secretary of state, a position he held through 1793; the implementation of his new plans for Monticello would have to wait. Jefferson’s son-in-law Thomas Mann Randolph (1768–1828), with the participation of Jefferson’s daughters Martha Jefferson Randolph (1772–1836) and Mary Jefferson (1778–1804), directed basic farming and gardening activities at Monticello in Jefferson’s absence.<ref>Hatch 2012, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] resigned as secretary of state in January 1794 and retired to Monticello. Lucia Stanton has argued that Jefferson was largely focused between 1794 and 1796 on reorganizing the [[plantation]], dividing it into quarter farms—each with seven fields of forty acres—in a “quest for economy and efficiency.” Perhaps the most significant transformation during these years was Jefferson’s decision, in an effort to reverse soil exhaustion, to replace tobacco with wheat as the [[plantation]]’s primary cash crop. The switch greatly affected the living and working conditions of the approximately one hundred enslaved people who lived at Monticello during this period. Wheat demanded more land for cultivation than tobacco, and thus, Stanton argues, drawing on archaeological evidence, that the accommodations for many enslaved field workers changed from from close clusters of large multi-family dwellings located near the overseer’s house to smaller, single-family cabins located on “scattered sites on the fringes of cultivated lands.”<ref>Lucia Stanton, ''“Those Who Labor for My Happiness”: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello'' (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2012), 72–73, 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AB6FV92A view on Zotero].</ref> Jefferson also made some improvements to the ornamental landscape at Monticello during these years, hiring the professional Scottish gardener Robert Bailey in 1794 to assist in laying out the grounds.<ref>Bailey left Monticello in 1797 to start his own commercial nursery in Washington, DC. Hatch 2012, 23, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="TJ_1809_cite">In 1796 [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] embarked on a major expansion and renovation of the neoclassical house that he would later term his “essay in Architecture”—a project that was informed by the modern domestic architecture he had seen while living in Europe ([[#TJ_1809|view text]]). [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] removed the upper story of the original house; extended the northeast front to include a large entrance hall, library, and three bedrooms; and completed a second level of bedrooms within the first floor so that the house appears to be only a single story from the outside. He also added a dome—a first in American domestic architecture—to the house in 1800, inspired by the [[Temple]] of Vesta in Rome. L-shaped dependency wings nestled into the hillside to the north and south of the mansion largely kept utilitarian areas of the house—such as the kitchen, dairy, washhouse, privy, and horse stalls—out of view. Above the dependency wings, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] constructed nine-foot-wide raised [[terrace]]s that provided open [[view]]s of the landscape from the house. According to William L. Beiswanger, these L-shaped terraces recall the elevated walkways suggested by the Scottish theorist and critic Lord Kames (1696–1782) in his ''Elements of Criticism'' (1762), a work that Jefferson knew by 1771.<ref>Lord Kames discussed the walkways in his in his essay “Gardening and Architecture.” Beiswanger 2012, 5, 9, 23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DEFR85RJ view on Zotero].</ref> Other utilitarian spaces, including several slave quarters, servant quarters, storehouses, and skilled workshops (such as the joinery and weaving cottage), were located along Mulberry Row—a street named for the mulberry trees planted on either side of it—that was located about 200 feet southeast of the mansion.<ref>William M. Kelso, “Jefferson’s Garden: Landscape Archaeology at Monticello,” ''Archaeology'' 35, no. 4 (July/August 1982): 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AVNWU6R9 view on Zotero].</ref>

<span id="Weld_cite">Following a visit to the estate in May 1796, Isaac Weld (1774–1856), an Irish travel writer, described the changes underway and predicted that Monticello “[would] be one of the most elegant private habitations in the United States” ([[#TJ_1 March 1808|view text]]). One of the features of the house noted by Weld was the addition of a [[greenhouse]] adjacent to Jefferson’s private apartments, situated where his study opened onto the Southeast [[Piazza]]. <span id="TJ_1 March 1808_cite">Writing to [[William Hamilton]], owner of the Philadelphia estate [[The Woodlands]], in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] described his [[greenhouse]] as “only a [[piazza]] adjoining my study” and explained that he intended to use “it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana & a very few things of that kind” ([[#TJ_1 March 1808|view text]]). The [[piazza]] was apparently without a heating system, and, according to Beiswanger, “its success as a [[greenhouse]] was limited.” The space was multipurpose, and [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] even added a workbench in order to use the space as a small workshop. Although nothing remains of the [[aviary]] at Monticello, which [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] likely designed to house his pet mockingbirds, a brief description in Jefferson’s building notebook suggests that it too was located in the Southeast [[Piazza]] and that the floor of the cage was high enough to walk under.<ref>Beiswanger 2012, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DEFR85RJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:0969.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Thomas Jefferson, Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806.]]
Between 1797 and 1809, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] spent much of his time in Washington, DC, while serving first as vice president of the United States (1797–1801) and then as president (1801–1809). Renovations on the house at Monticello continued throughout Jefferson’s absence and were not completed until 1809. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] waited to implement a second major round of improvements to Monticello’s landscape. <span id="TJ_1806_cite">On July 31, 1806, while in the midst of his second term as president of the United States, Jefferson wrote from Washington to [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] that “having decisively made up my mind for retirements at the end of my present terms, my views & attentions are all turned homewards” and noted that he would wait to improve the grounds “in the style of the English gardens” until his return to Monticello ([[#TJ_1806|view text]]). <span id="TJ_1804_cite">However, as early as 1804, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] began to put his ideas to paper, penning his “General ideas for the improvement of Monticello” ([[#TJ_1804|view text]]). Jefferson’s plans aimed to improve the [[view]]s from the house, intending to arrange [[lawn]]s and [[clump]]s of trees to maximize [[vista]]s between the upper and lower roundabouts and to create a [[pleasure ground]] with a large [[grove]] of trees “broken by [[clump]]s of [[thicket]].” He also wrote of his desire to create a [[ha-ha]] made of stone excavated from the nearby garden (likely to save costs) along Mulberry Row. The [[ha-ha]], which surrounded the west [[lawn]], was not completed until 1814.<ref>Martin 1991, 153–154, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero]; William L. Kelso, “Landscape Archaeology and Garden History Research: Success and Promise at Bacon’s Castle, Monticello, and Poplar Forest, Virginia,” in ''Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods'', ed. John Dixon Hunt (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992), 36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QUIXX2CZ view on Zotero].</ref> In 1806 [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] sketched plans for the mountaintop, featuring a large [[grove]] northwest of the mansion; an expansion of the vegetable garden and [[orchard]] to the south of the house; and an oval [[lawn]] or “Level” on the west front [Fig. 6].

The expansion of the fruit and vegetable gardens was a major undertaking during these years. In 1807 [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] hired a crew of enslaved laborers from Fredericksburg, Virginia, to move approximately 200,000 cubic feet of Piedmont clay to expand and transform the existing vegetable garden into a 1,000-foot-long [[terrace|terraced]] vegetable garden. 5,000 tons of rocks were placed to retain the [[terrace]]s, and the arduous work took three years to complete. During the years [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] lived in Washington, his daughter Martha, aided by the enslaved gardeners George Granger Sr., “Gardener John,” and Goliah, tended the vegetable garden at Monticello.<ref>Jefferson paid Lewis Dangerfield, a farmer from Fredericksburg, for the use of Dangerfield’s enslaved workers. Hatch 2012, 5, 25, 30, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref> After an 1809 visit to the [[plantation]], Margaret Bayard Smith (1778–1844) noted that there was still much work to be done on the vegetable garden and wrote that the view from the garden was “at present its greatest beauty.” <span id="Smith_cite">Smith also observed that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] kept all of his garden seeds “labeled and in the neatest order” in a closet ([[#Smith|view text]]). 330 varieties of 99 species of vegetables and herbs were grown in this two-acre garden at Monticello, including species native to the hot climates of South and Central America, the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Middle East, and seeds that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] acquired through the Lewis and Clark expedition.<ref>Hatch 2012, 3–4, 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero]. Jefferson kept some of the seeds from the Lewis and Clark expedition to grow at Monticello, but he sent most to William Hamilton and Bernard M’Mahon in Philadelphia. Jefferson also received annual shipments of seeds from André Thöuin, director of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, between 1808 and 1822. In 1809, shortly before leaving Washington, DC, to retire to Monticello, Jefferson purchased at least thirty new vegetable varieties for his garden from seedsman Theophilus Holt. See pages 19–20, 27, 33.</ref> According to Peter J. Hatch, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] took advantage of the [[terrace|terraced]] microclimates to “grow more vegetables with significantly less skill or labor” than was required by a more traditional and refined English-style [[kitchen garden]]s like the one found at George Washington’s [[Mount Vernon]] estate.<ref>Hatch 2012, 7–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson]] also improved the fruit garden, comprising two small vineyards, berry squares, a small [[nursery]], and the 400-tree South [[Orchard]], located to the south of the vegetable garden. The [[orchard]] had been surrounded by a [[hedge]] of hawthorn bushes that Jefferson purchased from the nurseryman Thomas Main in Washington, DC, and shipped to Monticello in February 1806.<ref>Hatch 2012, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG view on Zotero].</ref> In 1809, workers erected a ten-foot chestnut board paling [[fence]] surrounding the vegetable and fruit gardens that could be locked to keep the produce out of the reach of animals, plantation workers, and unwanted guests.<ref>Kelso 1982, 39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AVNWU6R9 view on Zotero].</ref> On the north side of the mansion, a second [[orchard]] was planted with cider apples (to take advantage of this [[orchard]]’s relatively cooler temperatures) and peach trees.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, “The Gardens of Monticello,” in ''Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello'' (Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Foundation; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 141, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8MKDXCV5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0166.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Thomas Jefferson, Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at Monticello, June 7, 1807.]]
<span id="TJ_June 1807_cite">From Washington, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] worked primarily with his granddaughter Anne Cary Randolph to design and care for the new oval flower [[bed]]s that were installed in 1807–8 on the east and west fronts of the mansion and the flower [[border]] along the winding [[walk]] surrounding the [[lawn]] ([[#TJ_June 1807|view text]]) [Fig. 7]. <span id="TJ_Feb 1808_cite">[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] instructed the overseer Edmund Bacon that Wormley Hughes, an enslaved man who had been trained by Bailey and by 1806 had become the principal gardener at Monticello, should prepare the flower [[bed]]s for planting ([[#TJ_Feb 1808|view text]])<ref>Stanton 2012, 190–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AB6FV92A view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="TJ_1811_cite">Many of the flower seeds and bulbs were procured by [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] from the Philadelphia nurseryman [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#TJ_1811|view text]]).<ref>Hatch 2002, 125, 129, 130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8MKDXCV5 view on Zotero]. According to Hatch, twenty-five percent of the flowers documented at Monticello were native to North America.</ref>

[[File:0092.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 8, Thomas Jefferson, “Plan of Spring Roundabout at Monticello,” c. 1804.]]
<span id="TJ_to Bacon_cite">In 1808 [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also sent Bacon instructions for an experimental garden, reserving part of the ground between the third and fourth roundabouts for “lots for the minor articles of husbandry, and for experimental culture, disposing them into a [[ferme ornée]] by interspersing occasionally the attributes of a garden” ([[#TJ_to Bacon|view text]]).<ref>See also Martin 1991, 148, 161, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref> According to Therese O’Malley, southern [[plantation]]s in the United States such as Monticello exemplify the [[ferme ornée]], as endorsed by the English garden designer and writer Stephen Switzer (1682–1745) in his ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1742). Jefferson’s plan for the spring roundabout at Monticello shows how [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] integrated farm and garden elements at Monticello [Fig. 8]. With its use of spiral and serpentine forms, the plan also suggests the influence of Batty Langley's "irregular" garden designs published in his ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728).<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Appropriation and Adaptation: Early Gardening Literature in America,” ''Huntington Library Quarterly'' 55, no. 3 (Summer 1992): 409, 412–13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5CQ4IVX2 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] continued to play an active role in managing his gardens and farms at Monticello until about 1816, when, at the age of seventy-three, he turned their care over to his grandson Francis Eppes (1801–1888).<ref>Martin 1991, 163, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] died at Monticello a decade later, on July 4, 1826, and was interred in the [[cemetery]] on the site. To pay off Jefferson’s debts, his daughter Martha and grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph (1792–1875) sold most of the contents of the mansion, as well as farm animals, equipment, and 140 enslaved people by public auction in 1827.<ref>Stanton 2012, 69–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AB6FV92A view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Smith_1828_cite">Smith, who returned to Monticello for a second visit in 1828, remarked on the dilapidated state in which she found the property at that time, noting “Ruin has already commenced its ravages” ([[#Smith_1828|view text]]). In 1831, Jefferson’s heirs sold the Monticello to Dr. James T. Barclay of Charlottesville, who attempted to turn the estate into a silkworm farm. The venture quickly failed, and in 1834 Barclay sold Monticello to U.S. naval officer Uriah Phillips Levy. The Thomas Jefferson Foundation purchased the estate from Levy’s nephew, Jefferson Monroe Levy, in 1923.

Soon after taking over the estate, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation began to restore it, starting with the mansion and then replanting the [[grove]]s, vegetable garden, [[orchard]]s, and vineyards. Information for the restoration was gleaned not only from Jefferson’s detailed plans and notes but also from pioneering landscape archaeological excavations, which began in June 1979 and uncovered the remains of the roundabouts, the [[ha-ha]] and paling [[fence]], a complex of buildings along Mulberry Row, and the [[terrace|terraced]] gardens, vineyards, and [[orchard]]s.<ref>Kelso 1982, 38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AVNWU6R9 view on Zotero]; Kelso 1992, 37–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QUIXX2CZ view on Zotero].</ref> In 1997, archaeologists began a long-term Plantation Archaeological Survey to document and analyze the history of settlement and land-use on the more than 2,000 acres of land that comprised the core of Jefferson’s [[plantation]]. Through extensive examinations of the [[terrace|terraced]] garden [[wall]], the kitchen dependency, and the four corner [[terrace]]s, the survey has yielded significant insights into how Monticello was constructed and how the surrounding landscape was modified during and after Jefferson’s lifetime. The survey has revealed much about the lives of Monticello’s enslaved inhabitants as well. Between 2000 and 2002, for example, archaeologists uncovered the Park Cemetery, a [[burial ground]] for enslaved African-Americans, which was located on the southern flank of Monticello Mountain.<ref>For documents related to past and current archaeological projects at Monticello, see https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/current-research.</ref> The Thomas Jefferson Foundation continues to operate Monticello as a historic site, and archaeological research into the house and grounds is ongoing.

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
* <div id="TJ_1771"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing plans for Monticello (1944: 25–27)<ref name="Jefferson 1944">Betts 1944, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . choose out for a Burying place some unfrequented vale in the [[park]]. . . let it be among antient and venerable oaks; intersperse some gloomy evergreens. the area circular, abt. 60 f. diameter, encircled with an untrimmed [[hedge]] of cedar, or of stone [[wall]] with a holly [[hedge]] on it. . . in the center of it erect a small Gothic [[temple]] of antique appearance. appropriate one half to the use of my own family, the other of strangers, servants, etc. erect pedestals with urns, etc., and proper inscriptions. the passage between the [[wall]]s, 4 f. wide. . . in the middle of the [[temple]] an altar, the sides of turf, the top of plain stone. very little light, perhaps none at all, save only the feeble ray of an half extinguished lamp. . .
:“at the spring on the North side of the park.
:“a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the [[waterfall|water fall]] from the spring in the upper level over a [[terrace]] in the form of a [[cascade]]. then conduct it along the foot of the terrace to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a [[temple]], from which it may go off by the western [[border]] till it falls over another [[terrace]] at the Northern or lower side. let the [[temple]] be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a bath or anything else. the 1st story arches on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]], Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens. . .

:“This would be better.

:“the ground above the spring being very steep, dig into the hill and form a cave or [[grotto]]. build up the sides and arch with stiff clay. cover this with moss. spangle it with translucent pebbles from Hanovertown, and beautiful shells from the shore at Burwell’s ferry. pave the floor with pebbles. let the spring enter at a corner of the [[grotto]], pretty high up the side, and trickle down, or fall by a spout into a [[basin]], from which it may pass off through the [[grotto]]. the figure will be better placed in this. form a couch of moss. the English inscription will then be proper.

::Nymph of the [[grotto|grot]], these sacred springs I keep,
::And to the murmur of these waters sleep;
::Ah! spare my slumbers! gently tread the cave!
::And drink in silence, or in silence lave!

:“The ground in General

:“thin the trees. cut out stumps and undergrowth. remove old trees and other rubbish, except where they may look well. cover the whole with grass. intersperse Jessamine, honeysuckle, sweetbriar, and even hardy flowers which may not require attention. keep in it deer, rabbits, Peacocks, Guinea poultry, pigeons, etc. let is be an asylum for hares, squirrels, pheasants, partridges, and every other wild animal (except those of prey). court them to it, by laying good food for them in proper places. procure a buck-elk, to be, as it were, monarch of the [[wood]]; but keep him shy, that his appearance may not lose its effect by too much familiarity. a buffalo might be confined also. inscriptions in various places, on the bark of trees or metal plates, suited to the character or expression of the the particular spot.
:“benches or [[seat]]s of rock or turf.” [[#TJ_1771_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Chastellux"></div>Chastellux, François Jean Marquis de, April 13, 1782, describing Monticello (1787: 2:41–42)<ref> François Jean Chastellux, Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782,'' 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UXHRGXKX/q/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Jean| view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He calls his house ''Monticello'', (in Italian, ''Little Mountain'') a very modest title, for it is situated upon a very lofty one, but which announces the owner’s attachment to the language of Italy. . . . This house, of which [[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. Jefferson]] was the architect, and often one of the workmen, is rather elegant, and in the Italian taste, though not without fault; it consists of one large square pavilion, the entrance of which is by two [[portico|porticoes]] ornamented with pillars. The ground floor consists chiefly of a very large lofty saloon, which is to be decorated entirely in the antique style: above it is a library of the same form, two small wings, with only a ground floor, and attic story, are joined to this pavilion, and communicate with the kitchen, offices, &c. which will form a kind of basement story over which runs a [[terrace]]. My object in this short description is onto to shew the difference between this, and the other houses of the country; for we may safely aver, that [[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. Jefferson]] is the first American who has consulted the fine arts to know how he should shelter himself from the weather.” [[#Chastellux_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], October 12, 1786, in a letter to Maria Cosway, describing Monticello (1786; repr., 1954: 443–550)<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Maria Cosway, October 12, 1786, ''Founders Online, National Archives'', last modified June 13, 2018, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-10-02-0309. Original source: ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', vol. 10, ''June 22–December 31, 1786'', ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954, 443–550).</ref>
:“. . . And our own dear Monticello, where has nature spread so rich a mantle under the eye? mountains, forests, rocks, rivers. With what majesty do we there ride above the storms! How sublime to look down into the workhouse of nature, to see her clouds, hail, snow, rain, thunder, all fabricated at our feet! And the glorious Sun, when rising as if out of a distant water, just gilding the tops of the mountains, and giving life to all nature! . . .”

* <div id="TJ_1793"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 27, 1793, in a letter from Germantown to his friend Angelica Schuyler Church<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Angelica Schuyler Church, November 27, 1793, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-27-02-0416 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“In the mean time I am going to Virginia. I have at length been able to fix that to the beginning of the new year. I am then to be liberated from the hated occupations of politics, and to sink into the bosom of my family, my farm and my books. I have my house to build, my feilds to form, and to watch for the happiness of those who labor for mine.” [[#TJ_1793_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Weld"></div>Weld, Isaac, May 1796, describing Monticello (1799: 1:207–8)<ref name="Weld_1799">Isaac Weld Jr., ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: John Stockdale, 1799), i, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is most singularly situated, being built upon the top of a small mountain, the apex of which has been cut off, so as to leave an area of about an acre and a half. At present it is in an unfinished state; but if carried on according to the plan laid down, it will be one of the most elegant private habitations in the United States. A large apartment is laid out for a library and museum, meant to extend the entire breadth of the house, the windows of which are to open into an extensive [[greenhouse|green house]] and [[aviary]]. In the center is another very spacious apartment, of an octagon form, reaching from the front to the rear of the house, the large folding glass doors of which, at each end, open under a [[portico]]. . . The house commands a magnificent [[prospect]] on one side of the blue ridge mountains for nearly forty miles, and on the opposite one, of the low country, in appearance like an extended heath covered with trees, the tops alone of which are visible. The mists and vapours arising from the low grounds give a continual variety to the scene. The mountain whereon the house stands is thickly wooded on one side, and [[walk]]s are carried round it, with different degrees of obliquity, running into each other. On the fourth side is the garden and a large vineyard, that produces abundances of fine fruit.” [[#Weld_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 16, 1796, in a letter from Monticello to his friend Mann Page<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Mann Page, May 16, 1796, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-29-02-0068 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“I am full of business for this year. Besides the attention to my farms I am uncovering and repairing my house, which during my absence had gone much to decay. I make some alterations in it with a greater eye to convenience than I had when younger.”

*Thornton, Anna Maria Brodeau, September 22, 1802, describing Monticello (Library of Congress, Papers of Anna Maria Brodeau, 1793–1863)
:“The House is situated on the very summit of the mountain, on a circular level, formed by art, commanding a [[view]] of all the surrounding country, the small town of Charlottesville and a little winding river. . . with a [[view]] of the blue ridge & even more distant mountains form a beautiful scene on the north side of the house.—There is something grand & awful in the situation but far from convenient or in my opinion agreeable—it is a place you wo’d rather look at now & then than live at.”

[[File:0091.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Thomas Jefferson, General ideas for the improvement of Monticello [detail], c. 1804.]]
[[File:0090.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.]]
* <div id="TJ_1804"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, notebook suggesting improvements for Monticello (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)
:“General ideas for the improvement of Monticello
:“all the houses on the Mulberry [[walk]] to be taken away, except the stone house, and a [[ha-ha|ha! ha!]] instead of the paling along it for an inclosure. This will of course be made when the garden is levelled, and stone for the [[wall]] will be got out of the garden itself, in digging, aided by that got out of the level in front of the S.W. offices, the old stone [[fence]] below the stable, and the lower [[wall]] of the garden, which is thicker than necessary.
: “The ground between the upper and lower roundabouts to be laid out in [[lawn]]s & [[clump]]s of trees, the [[lawn]]s opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.
:“[[Vista]]s from the lower roundabout to good portions of [[prospect]].
:“[[Walk]]s in this style, wind- [Fig. 9] -ing up the mountain.
:“the spring of Montalto [Carter’s Mountain] either to be brought to Monticello by pipes or to fall over steps of stairs in [[cascade]], made visible at Monticello through a [[vista]].
:“a fish [[pond]] to be visible from the house.
:“a level round-about from the thoroughfare to circumscribe the garden grounds.
:“The north side of Monticello below the thoroughfare roundabout quite down to the river, and all Montalto above the thoroughfare to be converted into park & riding grounds, connected at the thoroughfare by a [[bridge]], open, under which the public road may be made to pass so as not to cut off the communication between the lower & upper [[park]] grounds.
:“all the farm grounds of Monticello had better be turned into [[orchard]] grounds of cyder apple & peach trees, & [[orchard]] grass cultivated under them.
:“at the Rocks build a turning Tuscan [[temple]] 10. f. diam. 6. columns. proportions of Pantheon.
:“at the Point build Demosthenes’s lantern. . .
:“Garden Olitory. make the upper [[slope]] thus [drawing] at ''a'' plant a [[hedge]] of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet, or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance thus taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the [[terrace|terras]] for forward productions, the main [[bed]]s must be reduced from 50 f. to 42 f. [drawing]
:“Garden or [[pleasure ground]]s
:“The canvas at large must be [[Grove]], of the largest trees, (poplar, oak, elm, maple, ash, hickory, chestnut, Linden, Weymouth pine, sycamore) trimmed very high, so as to give it the appearance of open ground, yet not so far apart but that they may cover the ground with close shade.
:“This must be broken by [[clump]]s of [[thicket]], as the open grounds of the English are broken by [[clump]]s of trees. plants for thickets are broom, calycanthus, altheas, gelder rose, magnolia glauca, azalea, fringe tree, dogwood, red bud, wild crab, kalmia, mezereon, euonymous, halesia, quamoclid, rhododendron, oleander, service tree, lilac, honeysuckle, brambles.
:“The best way of farming [[thicket]] will be to plant in [[labyrinth]] spirally, putting the tallest plants in the center & lowering gradation to the external termination. a [[temple]] or [[seat]] may be in the center thus [drawing] leaving space enough between the rows to walk & to trim up, replant etc. the shrubs.
:“[[Vista]]s to very interesting objects may be permitted, but in general it is better so to arrange the [[thicket]]s as that they may have the effect of [[vista]] in various directions.
:“Dells or ravines should be in close in trees & undergrowth. Glens, or hollows should be opened downward, being embraced by forest. Glades opened on sloping hill sides, with [[clump]]s of trees within them. [[Temple]]s or [[seat]]s at those spots on the [[walk]]s most interesting either for [[prospect]] or the immediate scenery.
:“The Broom [[wilderness]] on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.
:“a [[thicket]] may be of Cedar, topped into a bush, for the center, surrounded by Kalmia. or it may be of Scotch broom alone.” [Fig. 10] [[#TJ_1804_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing Monticello (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref name="Nichols and Griswold">Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The [[kitchen garden]] is not the place for ornaments of this kind. bowers and [[trellis|treillages]] suit that better, & these [[temple|temples]] will be better disposed in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]].”

* <div id="TJ_1806"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 31, 1806, in a letter from Washington, DC, to [[William Hamilton]]<ref>Thomas Jefferson to William Hamilton, July 31, 1806, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4111 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“having decisively made up my mind for retirement at the end of my present term, my views & attentions are all turned homewards. I have hitherto been engaged in my buildings, which will be finished in the course of the present year. the improvement of my grounds has been reserved for my occupation on my return home. for this reason it is that I put off to the fall of the year, after next the collection of such curious trees as will bear our winters in the open air. the grounds which I destine to improve in the [[English style|style of the English gardens]] are chiefly in their native [[wood]]s not a bush scarcely having been suffered to be cut out of them. it is easier to take away what is superfluous than to supply a chasm. are in a form very difficult to be managed. they compose the Northern quadrant of a mountain for about ⅔ of it’s height, & then spread for the upper third over it’s whole crown. they contain about 300. acres, washed at the foot, for about a mile, by a river of the size of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]]. the hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level [[walk]]s successively along on it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill, & we intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts. they are chiefly still in their native [[wood]]s, which are majestic, and very generally, a close undergrowth, which I have not suffered to be touched, knowing how much easier it is to cut away, than to fill up. the upper third is chiefly open, but to the South is covered with a dense [[thicket]] of [. . .] (Cerastium supparium Lin.) which being favorably spread before the sun will admit of adventageous arrangement for winter enjoyment. you are sensible that this disposition of ground takes from me the first beauty in gardening, the variety of hill & dale, & leaves me as an awkward substitute a few hanging hollows & ridges. this subject is so original unique & at the same time refractory that to make a disposn analogous to it’s character, would require much more of the genius of the landscape painter & gardener than I pretend to: I had once hoped to get Parkins to go & give me some outline. but I was disappointed. certainly I could never wish your health to be such as to render travelling necessary: but should a journey at anytime promise improvement to it, there is no one on which you would be recieved with more pleasure than at Monticello should I be there. you would have an opportunity of indulging on a new field some of the taste which has made [[the Woodlands]] the only rival I have known in America to what may be seen in England. thither we are to go without doubt, for the first models in this art. their sun-less climate has permitted them to adopt what is certainly a beauty of the very first order in landscape. their canvas is of open ground, variegated with [[clump]]s of trees distributed with taste. they need no more of [[wood]] than will serve to embrace a [[lawn]] or a glade. but under the beaming, constant & almost vertical sun of Virga, shade is our Elysium. in the absence of this no beauty of the eye can be enjoyed. this organ then must yield it’s gratificn to that of the other senses, without the hope of any equivalent to the beauty relinquished. the only substitute I have been able to imagine is this. let your ground be covered with trees of the loftiest stature. trim up their bodies as high as the constitution & form of the tree will bear, but so as that their tops shall still unite and yield a dense shade. a [[wood]], so open below, will have nearly the appearance of open grounds. then, where in open ground you would plant a [[clump]] of trees, place a [[thicket]] of shrubs presenting a hemisphere, the crown of which shall distinctly show itself under the branches of the trees. this may be effected by a due selection & arrangement of the shrubs, and will I think offer a groupe not much inferior to that of trees. the [[thicket]]s may be varied too by making some of them of evergreens, altgether. our red cedar made to grow in a bush, ever green Privet, Hyacanthus, Kalmia, Scotch broom, either separately or an[. . .] are proper for this purpose, would be elegant; it will not grow in my part of the country.
:“Of [[prospect]] I have a rich profusion and offering itself at every point of the compas, mountains distant & near, smooth & shaggy, single & in ridges, a little river hiding itself among the hills so as to shew in lagoons only, cultivated grounds, under the eye and two small villages. to prevent a satiety of this is the principal difficulty. it may be successively offered, & in separate different portions through [[vista]]s, or which will be better, between [[thicket]]s so disposed as to serve for [[vista]]s, with the advantage of shifting the scenes as you advance on your way.
:“You will be sensible by this time of the truth of my informan that my views are turned so steadfastly homeward that the subject runs away with me whenever I get on it. I sat down to thank you for kindnesses recieved, & to bespeak permission to ask further contribns from your collection, & I have written you a treatise on gardening generally, in which, art lessons would come with more justice from you to me.” [[#TJ_1806_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="TJ_June 1807"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 7, 1807, in a letter from Washington, DC, to his granddaughter, Anne Cary Randolph<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Anne Cary Randolph, June 7, 1807, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-5709 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“I find that the limited number of our flower [[bed]]s will too much restrain the variety of flowers in which we might wish to indulge, & therefore I have resumed an idea, which I had formerly entertained, but had laid by, of a winding [[walk]] surrounding the [[lawn]] before the house, with a narrow [[border]] of flowers on each side. this would give us abundant room for a great variety. I inclose you a sketch of my idea, where the dotted lines on each side of the black line shew the [[border]] on each side of the [[walk]]. the hollows of the [[walk]] would give room for oval [[bed]]s of flowering shrubs.” [[#TJ_June 1807_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 24, 1807, in a letter from Washington, DC, to Edmund Bacon, overseer at Monticello<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Edmund Bacon, November 24, 1807, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-6838 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“P.S. I have forgot to mention that in the box of Paccans there are 3. papers of seeds, to wit, Cucumber tree, Mountain Laurel, & Pitch pine. the 2 former Wormley must plant in the [[Nursery]] and he must plant the Pitch pine in the [[wood]]s along the new road leading from the house to the river, on both sides of the road. he is just to lay the seed on the ground & scratch half an inch of earth over it.”

* <div id="TJ_to Bacon"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 1, 1808, instructions for Edmund Bacon, overseer, for an experimental garden at Monticello (1944: 360)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>
: “in all the open grounds on both sides of the 3d. & 4th. Roundabouts, lay off lots for the minor articles of husbandry, and for experimental culture, disposing them into a [[ferme ornée]] by interspersing occasionally the attributes of a garden.” [[#TJ_to Bacon_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="TJ_Feb 1808"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 16, 1808, in a letter from Washington, DC, to his granddaughter Anne Cary Randolph<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Anne Cary Randolph, February 16, 1808, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-7433 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“The time at which Congress will adjourn is very uncertain, but certainly not till April, and whether I shall be free to come home even then is doubtful. under these prospects I shall not attempt to get any more flower roots & seeds from Philadelphia this season, and must rely entirely on you to preserve those we have by having them planted in proper time. this you will see from [[Bernard M'Mahon|McMahon’s]] book, & mr Bacon will make Wormley prepare the [[bed]]s whenever you let him know, so that they may be ready when you go over to set out the roots. the first time I come home I will lay out the projected flower [[border]]s round the level so that they shall be ready for the next fall; and in the spring of the next year I will bring home a full collection of roots & plants. we shall then have room enough for every thing.” [[#TJ_Feb 1808_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="TJ_1 March 1808"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter from Washington, DC, to [[William Hamilton]] (1944: 366)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>
:“I am very thankful to you for thinking of me in the destination of some of your fine collection. within one year from this time I shall be retired to occupations of my own choice, among which the farm & garden will be conspicuous parts. my [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a [[piazza]] adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana & a very few things of that kind. I remember to have been much taken with a plant in your [[greenhouse|green house]], extremely odoriferous, and not large, perhaps 12. or 15. I. high if I recollect rightly. you said you would furnish me a plant or two of it when I should signify that I was ready for them. perhaps you may remember it from this circumstance, tho’ I have forgot the name. this I would ask for the next spring if we can find out what it was, and some seeds of the Mimosa Farnesiana or Nilotica. the Mimosa Julibrisin or silk tree you were so kind as to send me is now safe here, about 15. I. high. I shall carry it carefully to Monticello. I will not trouble you for the paper Mulberry mr Maine having supplied me with 12. or 15. which are now growing at Monticello.” [[#TJ_1 March 1808_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 22, 1808, in a letter from Washington, DC, to his granddaughter Anne Cary Randolph<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Anne Cary Randolph, March 22, 1808, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-7684 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“you had better direct Wormly to plant these seeds in some open place in the [[nursery]], by dropping two or three seeds every 10. or 12. I. along a row, and his rows 2. feet apart. the plant grows somewhat like hemp. it was brought to S. Carolina from Africa by the negroes, who alone have hitherto cultivated it in the Carolinas & Georgia. they bake it in their bread, boil it with greens, enrich their broths &c. it is not doubted it will grow well as far North as Jersey, tho’ [[Bernard M'Mahon|Mc.Mahon]] places it among [[greenhouse]] plants.”

* <div id="Smith"></div>Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 1, 1809, describing Monticello (1906: 66, 68, 71–73, 75)<ref name="Smith 1906">Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At last we reached the summit, and I shall never forget the emotion the first view of this sublime scenery excited. Below me extended for above 60 miles round, a country covered with [[wood]]s, plantations and houses; beyond, arose the blue mountains, in all their grandeur. Monticellow rising 500 feet above the river, of a conical form and standing by itself, commands on all sides an unobstructed and I suppose one of the most extensive [[view]]s any spot on the globe affords. The sides of the mountain covered with [[wood]], with scarcely a speck of cultivation, present a fine contrast to its summit, crowned with a noble pile of buildings, surrounded by an immense lawn, and shaded her and there with some fine trees. . .
:“When we rose from table, a walk was proposed and he [Jefferson] accompanied us. He took us first to the garden he has commenced since his retirement. It is on the south side of the mountain and commands a most noble view. Little is as yet done. A [[terrace]] of 70 or 80 feet long and about 40 wide is already made and in cultivation. A broad grass [[walk]] leads along the outer edge; the inner part is laid off in [[bed]]s for vegetables. This [[terrace]] is to be extended in length and another to be made below it. The view it commands, is at present its greatest beauty. We afterwards walked round the first circuit. There are 4 roads about 15 or 20 feet wide, cut round the mountain from 100 to 200 feet apart. These circuits are connected by a great many roads and paths and when completed will afford a beautiful shady ride or [[walk]] of seven miles. The first circuit is not quite a mile round, as it is very near the top. It is in general shady, with openings through the trees for distant [[view]]s. We passed the outhouses for the slaves and workmen. They are all much better than I have seen on any other plantation, but to an eye unaccustomed to such sights, they appear poor and their cabins form a most unpleasant contrast with the palace that rises so near them. . .
:“When we descended to the hall, he asked us to pass into the Library, or as I called it his sanctum sanctorum, where any other feet than his own seldom intrude. This suit of apartments opens from the Hall to the south. It consists of 3 rooms for the library, one for his cabinet, one for his chamber, and a [[greenhouse|green house]] divided from the other by glass compartments and doors; so that the view of the plants it contains, is unobstructed. He has not yet made his collection, having but just finished the room, which opens on one of the [[terrace]]s. . . His cabinet and chamber contained every convenience and comfort, but were plain. His bed is built in the wall which divides his chamber and cabinet. He opened a little closet which contains all his garden seeds. They are in little phials, labled and hung on little hooks. Seeds such as peas, beans, etc. were in tin cannisters, but everything labeled and in the neatest order. . .
:“[[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. J.]] explained to me all his plans for improvement, where the roads, the [[walk]]s, the [[seat]]s, the little [[temple]]s were to be placed. There are two springs gushing from the mountain side; he took me to one which might be made very [[picturesque]]. As we passed the graveyard, which is about half way down the mountain, in a sequestered spot, he told me he there meant to place a small gothic building,—higher up, where a beautiful little mound was covered with a [[grove]] of trees, he meant to place a monument to his friend Wythe. . .
:“I looked on him with wonder as I heard him describe the improvements he designed in his grounds, they seemed to require a whole life to carry into effect, and a young man might doubt of ever completing or enjoying them.” [[#Smith_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="TJ_1809"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], October 10, 1809, in a letter from Monticello to the architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Henry Latrobe, October 10, 1809, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-01-02-0468 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“Your promised visit to Monticello, whenever it can be effected, will give me real pleasure, and I think could not fail of giving some to you. my essay in Architecture has been so much subordinated to the law of convenience, & affected also by the circumstance of change in the original design, that it is liable to some unfavorable & just criticisms. but what nature has done for us is sublime & beautiful and unique. you could not fail to take out your pencil & to add another specimen of it’s excellence in landscape to your drawing of the Capitol & Capitol hill. the difficulty would be in the choice between the different scenes, where a panorama alone could fully satisfy.” [[#TJ_1809_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="TJ_1811"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 8, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1944: 455)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>
: “I have an extensive flower [[border]], in which I am fond of placing ''handsome'' plants or ''fragrant''. those of mere curiosity I do not aim at, having too many other cares to bestow more than a moderate attention to them. in this I have placed the seeds you were so kind as to send me last. in it I have also growing the fine tulips, hyacinths, tuberoses & Amaryllis you formerly sent me. my wants there are Anemones, Auriculas, Ranunculus, Crown Imperials & Carnations: in the garden your fine gooseberries, Hudson & Chili strawberries: some handsome lillies.” [[#TJ_1811_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 6, 1814, in a letter from Poplar Forest plantation to his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Martha Jefferson Randolph, June 6, 1814, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-07-02-0298 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“if Wormly & Ned should get through the [[ha-ha|ha! ha!]] and cleaning all the grounds within the upper roundabout, they should next widen the Carlton road, digging it level and extending it upwards from the corner of the graveyard up, as the path runs into the upper Roundabout, so as to make the approach to the house from that quarter on the North side instead of the South.”

[[File:0080.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing an obelisk for his grave marker at Monticello [detail], n.d.]]
* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], pre-1826, description of his own tombstone planned for Monticello (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection: K162)
:“On the grave a plain die or cube of 3 feet without any moldings, surmounted by an [[obelisk]] of 6 f. height, each of a single stone: on the face of the [[Obelisk]] the following inscription, and not a word more: Here was buried / [[Thomas Jefferson]], / author of the Declaration of Independence / of the Statute of Virginia for religious freedom / & Father of the University of Virginia because by these, as testimonials that I have lived, I [w]ish most to be remembered. to be of the coarse stone of which my [[column|columns]] are made, that no one might be tempted hereafter to destroy it for the value of the materials. my bust by Ciracchi, with the pedestal and truncated [[column]] on which it stands, might be given to the University if they would place it in the Dome room of the Rotunda. on the Die of the [[obelisk]] might be engraved Born Apr. 2. 1763.O.S. / Died___" [Fig. 11]

* Bacon, Edmund, 1825 or after, describing Monticello (quoted in Martin 1991: 163)<ref>Martin 1991, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and shrubbery. There were [[walk]]s, and [[border]]s, and [[bower]]s, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early in the spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful [[lawn]] of two or three acres, where his [Jefferson’s] grandchildren used to play a great deal.”

* <div id="Smith_1828"></div>Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 12, 1828, describing Monticello (1906: 230)<ref name="Smith 1906"></ref>
:“I will, then, restrain my pen and carry you with me to the summit of the mountain, on which his [Jefferson’s] now desolate mansion stands. How different did it seem from what it did 18 years ago!. . . Ruin has already commenced its ravages—the inclosures, the [[terrace]]s, the outer houses.” [[#Smith_1828_cite|back up to History]]

* [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Monticello (Loudon 1850: 331)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', rev. ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>
: “849. ''Monticello'', the seat of Jefferson, is situated on the summit of an [[eminence]] commanding extensive [[prospect]]s on all sides.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0167.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.

Image:0077.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Drawing for a gate in Chinese lattice at Monticello, c. 1771.

Image:1095.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Study for an [[belvedere|observation tower]] for Monticello, c. 1771.

File:2162.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, ''Monticello: 1st version (elevation)'', probably before March 1771.

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.

Image:0072.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of an [[orchard]] at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0075.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a garden [[temple]] and [[dovecote]] at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0078.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Drawing for a gate in Chinese lattice at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0429.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, A [[temple]] for a garden at Monticello (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:0430.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, A garden [[temple]] at Monticello (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:1096.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Study for an [[belvedere|observation tower]] for Monticello, c. 1784.

File:2161.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Monticello: lodge and [[greenhouse]] designs, plan and elevation'', 1796.

File:1256.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Monticello: 2nd version (west elevation)'', recto, 1803.

Image:0091.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, General ideas for the improvement of Monticello [detail], c. 1804.

Image:0090.jpg|Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804

Image:0092.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, “Plan of Spring Roundabout at Monticello,” c. 1804.

Image:0969.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806.

Image:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower [[bed]]s [detail], 1807.

Image:0166.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at Monticello, June 7, 1807.

Image:0073.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at Monticello, May 23, 1808.

File:2163.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, ''Monticello: mountaintop (plat)'', 1809.

Image:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825.

Image:0080.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing an [[obelisk]] for his grave marker at Monticello [detail], n.d.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85087069.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://tclf.org/landscapes/monticello?destination=search-results The Cultural Landscape Foundation]

[https://www.monticello.org/ Monticello Official Website]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

<hr>

[[Category:Places]]

Bed

2021-02-11T14:24:02Z

M-Westerby: /* Associated */

See also: [[Border]], [[Flower garden]], [[Nursery]], [[Parterre]]

==History==

[[File:0016.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Asparagus bed” near the top of the plan.]]
Definitions of bed, ranging from [[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers's]] ''Cyclopaedia'' entry of 1741 to George William Johnson’s discussion of 1847, indicate that the word generally referred to, as the latter wrote, “the site on which any cultivated plants are grown.” As spaces for growing plants, beds were the basic building blocks of most [[kitchen_garden|kitchen]] and [[flower garden]]s, as well as [[parterre]]s.

[[File:0393.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “English [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 434, fig. 78. “''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds.”]]

As 17th-, 18th-, and 19th-century treatises and dictionaries explain, beds could be raised above the surface of the ground through the addition of extra soil or manure to distinguish them from surrounding walkways or turf and to allow better drainage and ease of maintenance. [[edging|Edgings]] of organic or inorganic materials also helped to shore up the raised surface as well as to establish the bed’s outline.

Treatise writers distinguished between different types of beds, each with a specific function, composition, and placement—such as hot bed, cold bed, kitchen bed, nursery bed, or flower bed.<ref>Hot beds, which used either an internal or external source for warming the soil, were particularly popular for raising young or exotic plants.</ref> The form and techniques of making specialized utilitarian beds, such as hot beds, changed little over the centuries. Oblong and rectangular forms were favored for utilitarian beds because such shapes allowed easy maintenance—especially when intersected by walkways. They were well suited to the general practice of subdividing [[kitchen garden]]s into [[square]]s or rectangles [Fig. 1]. In contrast, the shape and arrangement of ornamental flower beds changed dramatically between 1700 and 1850 [Fig. 2].

[[File:0172.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, David Heubner, attr., ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.]]
At the end of the 18th century, treatise writers such as Charles Marshall and [[Bernard M’Mahon]] dismissed the [[ancient style]] of [[flower garden]]s and its predilection for beds shaped in imitation of scroll work or embroidery. They advocated oblong or square beds framed with boards and separated by [[walk]]s or [[alley]]s. David Huebner’s watercolor of 1818, ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', is a stylized representation of the rectangular form of bed described by these two authors [Fig. 3].

In addition to specifying the form of beds, [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] (1806) also provided specific instructions for the arrangement of flowers within beds, separating bulbous from herbaceous plants for ease of maintenance. (This tradition of separating flowers into individual beds can be traced back to at least the 18th century, when British florists advocated such planting practices.) [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] did, however, allow for mixing species in order to ensure continuous blooms. Evidence indicates that separating plant types by bed was practiced in 19th-century America, as at [[Monticello]].

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.]]
During the second half of the 18th century, another pronounced shift in flower bed design developed in England, from geometric rectilinear beds to circular or irregular oval (or kidney-shaped) beds. The latter beds were sometimes planted in concentric circles with plants arranged according to height, from lowest at the edges to highest at the center of the bed.<ref>See Mark Laird, “Ornamental Planting and Horticulture in English Pleasure Grounds, 1700–1830,” in ''Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods'', ed. John Dixon Hunt (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992b), 243–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TR5C2WE view on Zotero], and Mark Laird, “‘Our Equally Favorite Hobby Horse’: The Flower Gardens of Lady Elizabeth Lee at Hartwell and the 2nd Earl Harcourt at Nuneham Courtenay,” ''Garden History'' 18 (Autumn 1990): 103–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7559CS8I view on Zotero]. For a synthetic history of the display of flowers in 18th-century British gardens, see Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> These practices, adopted in America, are well documented at Jefferson’s [[plantation]], which vividly illustrates the growing preference for oval or curved beds. Jefferson originally proposed rectangular beds to be encompassed by twin [[pavilion]]s [Fig. 4], but eventually he built oval beds [Fig. 5]. This oval shape was repeated in the beds located along the serpentine [[walk]] extending from the [[pavilion]] arms. While it is not known how the plants were arranged within these outlying beds, Jefferson noted that oval beds permitted him a greater variety of flowers, as compared to his strict arrangement by species in the beds nearest the house. Monticello also demonstrates how beds might be interspersed throughout the grounds, particularly along walkways, underneath windows, or outside doorways.

[[File:0968.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of [[Monticello]] with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807. “1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower beds as above. . .”]]
The accounts of treatise writers and observers of the American landscape confirm that circular or oval beds became the fashion in the first half of the 19th century [Fig. 6]. In the May 1835 issue of ''Horticultural Register'', James E. Teschemacher proposed situating oval beds, filled with herbaceous flowers arranged in graduated rows, in front of the house. Like Jefferson, Teschemacher also envisioned punctuating walks with beds tucked along the curves of the [[walk]] and set into the turfed [[lawn]]. In 1840, C. M. Hovey declared that circular beds set in the front [[lawn]] was the new mode, an observation attested to by such sites as the U.S. Capitol in Washington, DC, and the Hudson River estates of [[Montgomery Place]] and Highland Place.

[[File:1015.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.]]
While the pseudonymous Londoniensis, writing in October 1850 in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'', insisted that circular beds were universally adopted in the United States, alternate forms of bed designs also proliferated. In February 1840, for example, a writer in the same magazine proposed that beds be arranged in knot patterns for a [[flower garden]] featuring annuals; it also described [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing's]] employment of “arabesque” beds set into the lawn of his garden, as well as circular and irregular oval-shaped beds.

In his 1849 treatise on landscape gardening, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] provided a cogent explanation for the proliferation of different forms of bed designs at mid-century. He argued that different styles of gardens required different forms of beds. The architectural garden employed beds in the shape of circles, octagons, and squares, set off by [[edging|edgings]] of permanent or semi-permanent material; the irregular garden featured beds “varied in outline” cut into the turf; the French garden relied on beds executed in “embroidery” designs and separated by grass or gravel [[walk]]s; and the English [[flower garden]] utilized patterned beds of “irregular curved designs” (also known as arabesques) cut into the turf. Each corresponding style of garden and bed required different types of plants; for example, the French or embroidery garden employed “low-growing” herbaceous plants that allowed the design to be rendered distinctly. Moreover, each style was suited for a particular location. For example, the irregular garden was ideal for [[picturesque]] or rustic settings distant from the house, while the architectural garden was intended to be placed near the house, where it could be viewed from the windows.

Closely related to the issue of the shape of beds was that of how the feature might be edged. Treatise writers, from around 1700 to 1850, debated repeatedly whether beds should be edged with semi-permanent materials, such as boards and tile, or living materials, such as boxwood (see [[Edging]]). In general, the aim was to achieve the appearance of neatness, no matter what the shape, style, or planting arrangement of the bed. While questions of form, technique, and style of beds preoccupied the design profession, the social significance of flower beds was also considered. At least two treatise writers, Teschemacher (1835) and Walter Elder (1849), explicitly linked flower beds to women. Teschemacher recommended that women, probably from middle or upper classes, should supervise the arrangement of plants by color because of their presumed training in domestic arts and decoration. Elder, however, suggested that women were best suited to the task of weeding flower beds, similarly linking femininity and domestic order.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Grigg, William, October 4, 1736, describing the residence of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:32)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I the Subscriber oblidge myself for Consideration of forty pounds to be well & truly paid me by Thos. Hancock Doe undertake to layout the upper garden allys. Trim the '''Beds''' & fill up all the [[allies]] with such Stuff as Sd Hancock shall order. . .”

*Gardener, John Little, 1742, describing items in a garden in Boston, MA (Massachusetts Archives, Suffolk County Probate Records, 76456)

:{|
|12 Frames for hot '''Beds'''
|@30
|10 = =
|-
|1 basket of old Iron w.g. 82lb
|@6d
|2 = 1 =
|-
|36 Frames with Glass for the hot '''Beds'''
|20/
|36 = =
|}

*Lamboll, Thomas, February 16, 1761, describing his wife’s garden in Charleston, SC (quoted in Pinckney 1969: 12)<ref>Elise Pinckney, ''Thomas and Elizabeth Lamboll: Early Charleston Gardeners'', Charleston Museum Leaflet, No. 28 (Charleston, SC: Charleston Museum, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU97BPKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In Cold Weather she causes the Flower-'''Beds''' to be Covered and Sheltered, especially when they have begun to Sprout.”

*Drowne, Samuel, June 24, 1767, describing Redwood Farm, seat of Abraham Redwood Jr., Portsmouth, RI (Rhode Island Landscape Survey)

:“Mr. Redwood’s garden. . . is one of the finest gardens I ever saw in my life. In it grows all sorts of West Indian fruits, viz: Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Pineapples, and Tamarinds and other sorts. It has also West Indian flowers—very pretty ones—and a fine [[summer house]]. It was told my father that the man that took care of the garden had above 100 dollars per annum. It had [[Hot House]]s where things that are tender are put for the winter, and hot '''beds''' for the West India Fruit. I saw one or two of these gardens in coming from the beach.”

*[[Logan, Martha]], 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 30)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . flower shrubs and box for [[edging]] '''beds''', now growing in her garden.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray’s Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:276)<ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We at length came to a considerable [[eminence]], which was adorned with an infinite variety of '''beds''' of flowers and artificial groves of flowering shrubs.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 17, 1787, describing gardens of François André Michaux, Bergen, NJ (1987: 1:291)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>

:“They, however, showed me the Gardens, and were very complaisant. There were a considerable collection of exotic shrubs and plants, set in a kind of '''beds''' for transplanting.”

*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789[?], in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, discussing plans for [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I desire George when he is about it [digging a border] will put the Ranunculus roots in the same '''Bed''' in the same manner [planted at six or eight Inches from each other & about 5 or 6 inches deep].”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180, 373)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Strawberry '''beds''' are in the upper garden, & the whole divisions are not according to the plants they contain. The unnatural opening of the Branches of the trees is attempted with very bad effect. . .

:“By invitation from Mr Derby the Clergy spent this afternoon at the Farm in Danvers. We were regaled at our arrival, after the best liquors at the house, with a feast in his Strawberry '''beds'''. They were in excellent order, & great abundance. He measured a berry, which was 2 inches 1/2 in circumference.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass walk and is skirted on each side by '''beds''' devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 56)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a [[wall]] heated by flues—& 3 glazed [[wall]]s & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the [[wall]]s. In the flue [[wall]], or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot '''bed'''; into which the pots & tubs with plants, are plunged. This [[conservatory|Conservatory]] is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally.”

[[File:0166.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower beds at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “oval beds of flowering [[shrub]]s” (written on verso)]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 7, 1807, in a letter to his granddaughter, Anne Cary Randolph, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Betts and Perkins 1986: 36)<ref>Edwin M. Betts and Hazlehurst Bolton Perkins, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Flower Garden at Monticello'' (Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, University of Virginia, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/53FZXDN6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I find that the limited number of our flower '''beds''' will too much restrain the variety of flowers in which we might wish to indulge, and therefore I have resumed an idea. . . of a winding [[walk]] surrounding the lawn. . . with a narrow [[border]] of flowers on each side. . . I enclose you a sketch of my idea, where the dotted lines on each side. . . shew the [[border]] on each side of the [[walk]]. The hollows of the [[walk]] would give room for oval '''beds''' of flowering shrubs.” [Fig. 7]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 1, 1813, describing Poplar Forest, property of Thomas Jefferson, Bedford County, VA (quoted in Chambers 1993: 105)<ref>S. Allen Chambers Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Planted] large roses of difft. kinds in the oval '''bed''' in the N. front. dwarf roses in the N.E. oval. Robinia hispida in the N. W. do. Althaeas, Gelder roses, lilacs, calycanthus, in both [[mound]]s.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1828, describing Cincinnati, OH (1832: 1:87)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The water-melons, which in that warm climate furnish a delightful refreshment, were abundant and cheap; but all other melons very inferior to those of France, or even of England, when ripened in a common hot-'''bed'''.”

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''New England Farmer'' 7: 84)<ref>Anonymous, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''beds''' of the flowering or ornamental part compose broad belts laid out in a serpentine or waving direction, and [[edging|edged]] with thrift, (''statice armeria'').”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 48)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[nursery|nurseries]] may be established, the departments for culinary vegetables, fruit, and ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers, laid out and planted, a [[greenhouse|green house]] built, hot-'''beds''' formed.”

*Driver, George, 1838, describing his garden in Salem, MA (Peabody Essex Institute Phillips Library, Diaries of George Driver, MS 200, box 1, folder 1)

:“[6 March] Put the Glass on my hot '''bed'''. . .

:“[25 March] Hot [[Bed]] in fine order this morning finished fitting it up this morning and planted radishes, lattic, york cabbage and cucumber at noon. have put in about 12 inches of manure and 8 or 9 of loom appear to be in fine order. . .

:“[30 March] Have lost most of the under heat in my hot '''beds''' on account of storm the rain not having shower for three day and very cold. still they are in very good order today, have planted cucumber, Mellon, Cabbage, lattic, pepper grass, and radish seed.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residence of Charles Phelps, Esq., Stonington, CT (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 362)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] contains about a quarter of an acre, in front of the house, and between that and the road, and is walled in on the north and west side. It is tastefully laid out in small '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box; on the north side stands a moderately sized [[green-house]], about forty feet long.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, April 1840, describing the garden of Father George Rapp, Economy, PA (1842: 2:227)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''The Eastern and Western States of America'', 3 vols. (London: Fisher, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FFXTKXCI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [the garden] covered about an acre and half of ground, and was neatly laid out in [[lawn]]s, [[arbour]]s, and flower-'''beds''', with two prettily ornamented open octagonal [[arcade]]s, each supporting a circular dome over a [[fountain]].”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing Highland Place, estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403, 406, 409)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“4. Arabesque '''beds''' on the [[lawn]], for choice flowers, such as roses, geraniums, fuchsias, Sálvia pàtens, fúlgens, and cardinàlis, &c., to be turned out of [[pot]]s in the summer season, after being wintered in [[green-houses]] or frames. Such '''beds''' should be sparingly introduced, or they would give the [[lawn]] a frittered appearance by cutting it up to an extent which would destroy its breadth, which constitutes its greatest beauty. It is even considered by some landscape writers, rather an error to introduce any forms but the circle, unless the '''beds''' are looked down upon from an elevated [[terrace]], when these arabesque shapes will have a pretty appearance.

:“5. Circular '''beds''' for petunias, verbenas, which now form one of the principal ornaments of the garden, ''P''hlóx Drummónd''ii'', nemophilas, nolanas, dwarf morning-glory, &c. . . .

:“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. It is laid out in circular '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box, with gravel [[walk]]s. . .

[[File:0878.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “4. Arabesque beds. . . 5. Circular beds.”]]
:“. . . the [[flower garden]] (18,) a small space laid out with seven circular '''beds'''; the centre one nearly twice as large as the outer ones: these were all filled with plants: a running rose in the centre of the large '''bed''', and the outer [[edging|edge]] planted with fine phloxes, Bourbon roses, &c.: the other six '''beds''' were all filled with similar plants, excepting the running rose, which would be of too vigorous growth for their smaller size. Under the arborvitae [[hedge]] here, on the south side of the garden, the [[green-house]] plants were arranged in rows, the tallest at the back.” [Fig. 8]

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From this lower [[terrace]], a long flight of steps leads to the upper one, upon which the building of the Capitol is placed: on the turf between the [[walk]]s, are oval and circular '''beds''', planted with shrubs and roses, and filled with dahlias and other annual flowers.”

*Moore, Mary Clara, April 26, 1843, in a letter to Frances Magill, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 493–94)<ref>Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Please make Martha sow some more mustard in the Garden for Greens and plant some of those black-eyed Peas. . . that the Negroes may have something to boil with . . . she can put some of them in the '''bed''' where I planted artichokes and many other places in the meantime.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), July 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing the garden of W. H. Corcoran, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 245)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 7 (July 1846): 241–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S9UVTJM3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Four of the '''beds''' on the turf were edged with basket work, and had the appearance of being filled with a profusion of flowers.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 159)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].

:“How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright [[parterre]]s of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the '''beds''' are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“East of the entrance is the private yard and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-'''beds''', seed-houses, &c.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443)<ref>Londoniensis, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co. Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [[lawn]] is encircled by a broad [[walk]], on the [[lawn]] side of which are circular '''beds''' of the choicest summer blooming plants. I did not much like this multitude of circular '''beds''', but it is the general style throughout the country.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The garden in which the monument is erected is beautifully laid on with flower and fruits. There is a small circle in the middle which is one solid '''bed''' of verbena, pinks, tulips, pinys and other flowers too tedious to mention and too beautiful for me to attempt a description.”

*Jackson, Sarah Y., April 10, 1852, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers, G-13-1)

:“We are making some few improvements in it this season, bricking round the '''beds''', and have had a supply of fine roses. We have now about fifty varieties of roses, some very fine.”

*[[Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the garden of Charles Norris, Philadelphia, PA (1867: 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It was laid out in [[square]] [[parterre]]s and '''beds''', regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 147)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson, 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To make a hot '''Bed''' in February, or earlier if you please, for the raising of ''Melons, Cucumbers, Radishes, Coleflowers'', or any other tender Plants or Flowers, you must provide a warm place defended from all Windes, by being inclosed with a Pale, or [[Hedge]] made of ''Reed'' or ''Straw'', about six or seven foot high . . . within which you must raise a '''Bed''' of about two or three foot high, and three foot over, of new Horse-dung. . . [[edging|edged]] round with boards, lay of fine, rich mould about three or four inches thick, and when the extream heat of the '''Bed''' is over. . . than plant your Seeds.”

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gardener'' (1694; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Beds''''' are plots of dressed Ground, which in digging, are wrought into such a form by the Gard'ner, as is most convenient to the temper and situation of the Earth in that place, and to the nature of the Plants to be sown or planted in it. They are of two sorts, ''Cold and Hot''.

:“''Cold '''Beds''''' are made either of ''Natural Earth'', or mixed and improved ''Mold'', and are in moist Grounds raised higher than the Paths, to keep them moderately dry, and in rising and dry Grounds, laid lower than the Paths, that they may on the contrary retain moisture so much the better, and profit so much the more by the Rain that falls.

:“''Hot '''Beds''''', are '''''Beds''''' composed of ''Long New Dung'', well packt together, to such a height and breadth as is prescribed in the Body of the Book, and then covered over to a certain thickness, with a well tempered Mold, in order to the planting or sowing such plants in them, as are capable of being by Art, forced to grow, and arrive to maturity even in the midst of ''Winter'', or at least a considerable while before their natural Season.

:“How these '''''Beds''''' are differently made for ''Mushrooms'', and how for other Plants, See in the work itself.

:“''Deaf '''Beds''''' are such ''Hot '''Beds''''' as are made hollow in the Ground, by taking away the natural Earth to such a certain depth, and filling the place with Dung, and then covering it with ''Mold'', till it rise just even with the Surface of the Ground. They are used for ''Mushrooms''.

:“''Kernel '''Beds''''' are ''Nursery '''Beds''''', wherein the Seed or Kernels of Kernel Fruit are sown in order to raise Stocks to Graff upon.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1728, ''Dictionarium Botanicum'' (1728: 2:n.p.)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''Dictionarium Botanicum, or A Botanical Dictionary for the Use of the Curious in Husbandry and Gardening'', 2 vols. (London: Printed for T. Woodward and J. Peele, 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AH42HTTW view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It is an Error to lay the Flower-'''Beds''' in [[Parterre]] Works high in the Middle, or round, as the Gardeners call it; I would rather advise that such '''Beds''' be made concave, so as lie hollow in the Middle; for as these shou’d chiefly be furnish’d with annual Flowers in the Summer, and the most fiberous Rooted Plants, and perhaps Ever-greens, likewise, by this Means the wateuring they may require in the scorching Seasons, will be effectual to them. . . There is indeed some Beauty in the roundness of a '''Bed''', and that Roundness is necessary, when we design a '''Bed''' only for our finest bulbous Roots, because their chiefest Growing-time is in the moister Seasons of the Year.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:[vol. 1] “'''BED''', in gardening, a piece of made-ground, raised above the level of the adjoining ground, usually [[square]] or oblong, and enriched with dung or other amendments; intended for the raising of herbs, flowers, seeds, roots, or the like.

:“''Hot''-'''BED'''. See the article HOT-'''''Bed'''''. . .

:“HOT-'''''BED''''', a piece of earth or soil plentifull enriched with manure, and defended from cold winds, &c. to forward the growth of plants, and force vegetation, when the season or the climate of itself is not warm enough. . .

:[vol. 2] “[[PARTERRE]], in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into '''beds''', encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN. . .

:“PLAT-BAND, in gardening, a [[border]], or '''bed''' of flowers, along a [[wall]], or the side of a [[parterre]]; frequently edged with box, &c. See [[PARTERRE]], [[EDGING]], &c.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED'''. ''n.s.'' [''beb'', Sax.]. . .

:“4. Bank of earth raised in a garden. . .

:“HO'T'''BED'''. ''n.s''. A '''bed''' of earth made hot by the fermentation of dung.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . bank of earth raised in a garden. . . the place where any thing is generated; a layer, a stratum.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 8:682)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“HOT-'''BEDS''', in gardening, '''beds''' made with fresh horse-dung, or tanner’s bark, and covered with glasses to defend them from cold winds.

:“By the skilful management of hot-'''beds''', we may imitate the temperature of warmer climates; by which means, the seeds of plants brought from any of the countries within the torrid zone may be made to flourish even under the poles.

:“The hot-'''beds''' commonly used in [[kitchen-garden]]s, are made with new horse dung.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening,'' 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''[[flower garden]]'' (properly so called) should be rather ''small'' than large; and if a portion of ground be separately appropriated for this, only the ''choicest'' gifts of ''Flora'' should be introduced, and no trouble spared to cultivate them in the best manner. The '''beds''' of this garden should be narrow, and consequently the [[walk]]s numerous; and not more than one half or two thirds the width of the '''beds''', except one principal walk all round, which may be a little wider. . .

:“''Figured [[parterre|parterres]]'' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the '''beds''' are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner|''Chinese'' manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet square, is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserves to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these '''beds''', or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 107)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“CROCUSES, RANACULUSES, ANEMONES AND OTHER BULBS.

:“These flowers may be planted this month [January] (when the weather is mild) in '''beds''' and borders of dry light earth well dug and broke.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 66, 71–72)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . . '' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These [[parterre|[parterres]]] were bounded by a long '''bed''', or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were [[edging|edged]] with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.

:“The partitions or '''beds''' were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of the flowers was past. . .

:“The form of this [[flower garden|[flower-garden]]] ground may be either [[square]], oblong, or somewhat circular; having the boundary embellished with a collection of the most curious flowering-shrubs; the interior part should be divided into many narrow '''beds''', either oblong, or in the manner of a [[parterre]]; but plain four feet wide '''beds''' arranged parallel, having two feet wide alleys between '''bed''' and '''bed''', will be found most convenient, yet to some not the most fanciful.

:“In either method, a [[walk]] should be carried round the outward boundary, leaving a [[border]] to surround the whole ground, and within this, to have the various divisions or '''beds''', raising them generally in a gently rounding manner, [[edging]] such as you like with dwarf-box, some with thrift, pinks, sisyrinchium, &c. by way of variety, laying the [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s with the finest gravel. Some '''beds''' may be neatly edged with boards, especially such as are intended for the finer sorts of bulbs, &c.

:“In this division you may plant the finest hyacinths, tulips, polyanthus-narcissus, double jonquils, anemones, ranunculus’s, bulbous-iris’s, tuberoses, scarlet and yellow amaryllis’s, colchicums, fritillaries, crown-imperials, snowdrops, crocus’s, lilies of various sorts, and all the different kinds of bulbous, and tuberous-rooted flowers, which succeed in the open ground; each sort principally in separate '''beds''', especially the more choice kinds, being necessary both for distinction sake and for the convenience of giving, such as need it, protection from inclement weather; but for particulars of their culture, see the respective articles in the various months.

:“Likewise in this division should be planted a curious collection of carnations, pinks, polyanthus’s, and many other beautiful sorts, arranging some of the most valuable in '''beds''' separately; others may be intermixed in different '''beds''', forming an assemblage of various sorts.

:“In other '''beds''', you may exhibit a variety of all sorts, both bulbous, tuberous, and fibrous rooted kinds, to keep up a succession of bloom in the same '''beds''' during the whole season.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 5–6)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[January] FORMATION OF HOT-'''BEDS'''.

:“Take fresh horse-dung with plenty of long litter in it; shake the dung well and place it on a piece of ground the size of the '''bed''' you want to make; the first layer or two should have more litter than the others;—beat the dung well down with your fork as you proceed with the layers, till your '''bed''' is the height you want it. Different vegetables require '''beds''' of different heights—but the mode of making them is the same. The '''bed''' being thus made, place a frame light over it’ and in six or eight days the '''bed''' will be in strong fermentation.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED''', ''n.'' [Sax. '''''bed'''''; D. '''''bed'''''; G. ''bett'' or ''beet''; Goth. ''badi''. The sense is a lay or spread, from laying or setting.] . . .

:“4. A [[plat]] or level piece of ground in a garden, usually a little raised above the adjoining ground. ''Bacon''.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87, 155)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box.''—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden [[walk]]s and flower '''beds'''. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country. . .

:“DIRECTIONS for the ''Culture of Bulbous and Tuberous Flower Roots.''

:“The '''beds''' should be raised from four to six inches above the level of the [[walk]]s, and moderately arched, which will give an opportunity for all superfluous moisture to run off; some sand strewed in the trenches, both before and after placing the roots, would be of advantage.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110–11)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Generally speaking, a [[Flower Garden]] should not be upon a large scale; the '''beds''' or [[border]]s should in no part of them be broader than the cultivater can reach to, without treading on them: the shape and number of the '''beds''' must be determined by the size of the ground, and the taste of the person laying out the garden. Much of the beauty of a [[pleasure garden]] depends on the manner in which it is laid out; a great variety of figures may be indulged in for the Flower '''bed'''. Some choose oval or circular forms, others [[square]]s, triangles, hearts, diamonds, &c., and intersected winding gravel [[walk]]s.”

*Fessenden, Thomas, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 109–10)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Sowing and planting''. . . The '''beds''' should be raised three or four inches above the level of the [[walk]]s.”

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, James E. Teschemacher, “A [[green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.]]

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159–60)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The three oval '''beds''' may be used for flowers in masses; for instance, that in the centre for varieties of roses planted at sufficient distance to enable a mixture of the monthly and sanguinea species which have been protected during the winter, thus maintaining a succession. . . . On the right, opposite to the principal chamber window, are three curved '''beds''', each four and a half feet wide, [[edging|edged]] with box and divided by narrow [[walk]]s three or three and half feet in width, for the purpose of permitting examination, intended for choice herbaceous flowers; observing that the tall growing species, as dahlia, lofty delphinium, &c. should be placed in the '''bed''' most distant from the house, and those of the lowest growth in front. Here may be a fine collection of Paeonia, Iris, Trigidia, Lychnis fulgens and chalcedonica, Phloxes, particularly the white, Ornothera, Pentstemon, Lilum flavum, Gentians, with any others; it will add much to their charm if the colors are so blended as to harmonize well; for instance, by bringing the blues and yellows or whites and scarlets into immediate contrast, as may be observed in many striped flowers; those who wish to imbibe true principles of taste will achieve more by observing and studying forms and arrangements of colors presented by nature, than by any artificial rules that can be offered; this department however may safely be entrusted to the superintendence of the ladies, who naturally possess a finer tact in these matters, and to whom it will prove a constant fund of amusement. In the original formation of these '''beds''' great attention should be paid not to have the plants too near each other, for then confusion ensues and it is almost impossible to keep them neat, on which much of their effect depends.” [Fig. 9]

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 229)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The separate '''beds''' for distinct flowers may be formed behind the turnings of the walk so as to come upon them unexpectedly; for instance, at a bend the eye may fall suddenly on a '''bed''' eight or ten feet long of scarlet turban Ranunculus, and from thence pass on to others containing mixed Ranunculus and mixed Anemone,—one for tulips, another for pinks, a '''bed''' of peat filled with Gentiana acaulis—if the experiment making this year prove it able to be cultivated here—makes a most magnificent shew.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''beds''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should also be well proportioned, and not too much cut up into small figures, which when bordered with box [[edging]], have the appearance of so many figures formed for the amusement of children more than for the purpose of growing flowers.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 51–52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 2 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The laying out of a flower knot, or system of '''beds''' in a [[flower garden]], is one of the first feats in which the young gardener undertakes to show off his abilities; and being one which affords the most ample scope for the play of fancy, is therefore, perhaps, the one in which he is most likely to manifest the display of a bad taste. Even where the design is of the most happy conception, and the plotting beautiful upon paper, the difficulty of defining and preserving accurately the outline of the figure, when practically applied, will often quite destroy the anticipated pleasing effect. [[edging|Edge]]-boards of wood, so thin as to be easily bent to the required form, are commonly the first material employed. These soon warped out of shape, or quickly rot, and impart a deleterious principle to the soil in contact with them; and a very common fault is to have them too wide, so that the plants in the '''beds''' suffer from drought, while the paths between them resemble gutters more than [[walk]]s for pleasure.

:“Bricks, or tiles moulded expressly for the purpose, are next resorted to, and if sunk so that the earth in the '''beds''' shall not be more than from one to two inches above the level of the paths, they serve pretty well for some time. But so soon as they begin to crumble from the influence of frost, or are covered with green mould or moss, as they soon will be in moist or shady exposures, they become offensive to the eye, though not, like the first, injurious to the soil. A living margin, therefore, becomes the next and last expedient; and indeed it may be regarded as one of the last steps in the march of horticultural refinement. To adapt such a line of vegetation to the size and form of the '''bed''', and make it harmonize in every point of reference with the group of plants within, requires a cultivated delicacy of perception, a sound judgement, and an accurate knowledge of all the principles of natural and [[gardenesque]] beauty, as well as of the characters of the plants or materials which are necessary, with a due arrangement, to produce it.

:“It is probably as difficult to fix upon the most suitable plant for the [[edging]] of a flower '''bed''', as it is to determine the best shrub for a [[hedge]] around fields. For the [[border]]s of main [[avenue]]s, or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best; but for small [[parterre]]s, or the flower '''beds''' in a front door yard, it seems much less suitable. They can commonly be taken in at one glance of the eye, and notwithstanding all that has been said of the artificial or [[geometric style]], it is the proper one for such places; for symmetry, or a perfect balance of corresponding parts, greatly strengthens the impression of such a scene, taken as a whole, or single mass of objects. The '''beds''', therefore, will not only be small, but when there is the proper variety in the form of them, some, at least, must have quite acute angles.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), March 1840, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 84–85)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 3 (March 1840): 84–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ETMJJXR6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We are glad to learn that our observations have been the means of drawing attention to the subject, and that they have, in some instances, induced amateurs to adopt the style of planting small grass [[plot]]s, and forming upon them circular, or other shaped '''beds''', for flowers. In front gardens to small suburban villas, nothing can be prettier than this plan of occupying the ground, and the method is, generally, to be much preferred to the old, and almost universally followed system, of forming gravelled [[walk]]s, with board, grass, or box [[edging]]s, and dug [[border]]s. This is particularly so, when the object is to have a neat garden, and kept in order at the least expense.”

[[File:0835.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6. ]]

*Anonymous, May 1840, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 186–88)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers; with a Description of Some of the More Recently Introduced Species and Varieties, and a List of the Most Beautiful and Desirable Kinds for Cultivation,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 175–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QC94QDP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the two plans annexed, we have supposed the [[flower garden]] to be situated directly in front of the [[green-house]] and to be just the same length, (thirty-two feet, the ordinary length of a common sized house,) and width; the '''beds''' should be laid out with care, as on their precision much of their beauty depends: the '''beds''' may be surrounded with box [[edging]], and gravel [[walk]]s between, or they may be edged with what we have found to answer a good purpose, Iceland moss. This forms a perpetual green, and, if kept neatly trimmed, is full as desirable an [[edging]] around such common '''beds''' as the box: supposing this to be all completed, we next come to the planting of the '''beds'''. This, as we have just observed, may be devoted wholly to annuals, to annuals and perennials, and to both, with the addition of tender plants, such as verbenas, &c. &c.; but we shall at present speak of them as only to be filled with annuals. . .

:“The first plan . . . may be planted as follows: In the centre circular [[bed]] may be planted marigolds, Marvel of Peru, tall branching larkspurs, and German asters, placing the tallest in the centre; or a dahlia or two may be planted in the same place, and on the outer edge a few dwarf plants may be planted; the eight small '''beds''' next to this may be planted with a miscellaneous collection of sorts, growing from a foot to two feet high, placing the dwarfest at the outer edge of the '''bed'''; the four larger '''beds''' next, may be also planted with miscellaneous kinds, growing about a foot high; and the four corner '''beds''' may be planted with very dwarf or trailing sorts, such as the nemophilas, nolanas, Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia pulehélla and élegans, Chrysèis cròcea, Silène multiflòra, pansies, &c. [Fig. 10]

[[File:1750.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.]]

:“The second plan. . . admits of a greater display of plants, and, in particular, when it is desirable to have them in masses of one color, viz: the centre may be wholly planted with the finest double German asters in mixed colors: two of the four oval '''beds''', those opposite each other, may be planted with Clárk''ia'' élegans, C. élegans ''r''òsea, and C. pulchélla, placing the latter at the outer [[edging|edge]]; and the other, two with rocket larkspurs in mixed colors, to be succeeded with German astors, brought forward and reserved for the purpose. Two of the four large '''beds''' between the oval ones may be planted with Chrysèis cròcea and califórnica mixed, and the other two with crimson and white petunias mixed together: the four small [[bed]]s may be filled with Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia élegans, Nemóphila insígnis, and Nolàna atriplicifòlia, each kind in separate '''bed''', and the two latter opposite to each other.” [Fig. 11]

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 84, 165, 304–8)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED''' is a comprehensive word, applicable to the site on which any cultivated plants are grown. It is most correctly confined to narrow divisions, purposely restricted in breadth for the convenience of hand weeding or other requisite culture. . .

:“[[CONSERVATORY]]. This structure is a [[greenhouse]] communicating with the residence, having [[border]]s and '''beds''' in which to grow its tenant plants. . .

:“HOT-'''BED'''. When a temperature of 45°, moisture, and atmospheric air occur to deaden vegetable matters, these absorb large quantities of oxygen, evolving also an equal volume of carbonic acid. As in all other instances where vegetable substances absorb oxygen gas in large quantities, much heat is evolved by them when putrefying; and advantage is taken of this by employing leaves, stable-litter, and tan, as sources of heat, or hot-'''beds''', in the gardener’s forcing department.

:“A hot-'''bed''' is usually made of stable-dung. . .

:“In making the '''beds''', they must be so situated as to be entirely free from the overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c., and having an aspect rather a point eastward of the south. A reed [[fence]] surrounding them on all sides is a shelter that prevents any reverberation of the wind, an evil which is caused by paling or other solid inclosure. This must be ten feet high to the northward or back part, of a similar height at the side, but in front only six. . . An inclosure of this description, one hundred feet in length and sixty broad, will be of a size sufficiently large for the pursuit of every description of hot-'''bed''' forcing.

:“To prevent unnecessary labour, this inclosure should be formed as near to the stable as possible. . .

:“The breadth of a '''bed''' must always be five feet. . .

:“The roots of plants being liable to injury from an excessive heat in the '''bed''', several plans have been devised to prevent this effect. If the plants in pots are plunged in the earth of the '''bed''', they may be raised an inch or two from the bottom of the holes they are inserted in by means of a stone. But a still more effectual mode is to place them within other [[pot]]s, rather larger than themselves.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 443–44)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . our own taste leads us to prefer the modern [[English style]] of laying out flower gardens upon a ''ground work of grass'' or turf, kept scrupulously short. Its advantage over a [[flower garden]] composed only of '''beds''' with a narrow [[edging]] and gravel [[walk]]s, consists in the greater softness, freshness and verdure of the green turf, which serves as a setting to the flower '''beds''', and heightens the brilliancy of the flowers themselves. Still, both these modes have their merits, and each is best adapted to certain situations, and harmonizes best with its appropriate scenery. . .

:“One of these [defects] is the common practice, brought over here by gardeners from England, of forming raised ''convex'' '''beds''' for flowering plants. This is a very unmeaning and injurious practice in this country, as a moment’s reference to the philosophy of the thing will convince any one. In a ''damp'' climate, like that of England, a '''bed''' with a high convex surface. . . by throwing off the superfluous water, keeps the plants from suffering by excess of wet, and the form is an excellent one. In this country, where most frequently our flower gardens fail from drouth, what sound reason can be given for forming the '''beds''' with a raised and rounded surface of six inches in every three feet, so as to throw off four-fifths of every shower? The true mode, as a little reflection and experience will convince any one, is to form the surface of the '''bed''' nearly level. . . so that it may retain its due proportion of all the rains that fall.”

*Valk, William W., June 1848, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“I send you a plan for a geometrical [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.

:“When the nature of the ground will admit, the French [[parterre]], or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers throughout the season. . . The [[parterre]] gives great facilities. Planting in masses produces the most imposing effect; arrangement of the [[bed]]s, and contrasting of colours, is the chief thing to be considered. . .

:“The above plan would look best with gravel [[walk]]s and small box [[edging]]s in front of a [[greenhouse|green-house]] or a dwelling. In planting the [[bed]]s, very much will depend upon the proprietor’s taste with regard to his favorite flowers. Nevertheless, if the [[bed]]s be planted in the following manner, very general pleasure and satisfaction will be given.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the ''flower-'''beds''''', it is desirable, in any place of considerable extent, to set apart a portion of ground for them; of which some of the windows of the house command a sight, and through which one might go to a grapery or a [[green-house]]. But a very beautiful way, is to cut them in circles, or other graceful shapes, upon the [[edging|edges]] of the [[walk]]s, making the soil rich and deep.”

[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “The Irregular [[Flower_Garden|Flower-garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. “The flower-beds ''b''.”]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 427–37)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In almost all the different kinds of [[flower-garden]]s, two methods of forming the '''beds''' are observed. One is, to cut the beds out of the green turf, which is ever afterwards kept well-mown or cut for the [[walk]]s, and the [[edging|edges]] pared; the other, to surround the '''beds''' with [[edging]]s of verdure, as box, etc., or some more durable material, as tiles, or cut stone, the [[walk]]s between being covered with gravel. . .

:“The ''irregular'' [[flower-garden]] is surrounded by an irregular belt of trees and ornamental [[shrub]]s of the choicest species, and the '''beds''' are varied in outline, as well as irregularly disposed, sometimes grouping together, sometimes standing singly, but exhibiting no uniformity of arrangement. . . [Fig. 12]

:“Where the [[flower-garden]] is a spot set apart, of any regular outline, not of large size, and especially where it is attached directly to the house, we think the effect is most satisfactory when the '''beds''' or [[walk]]s are laid out in symmetrical forms. Our reasons for this are these: the [[flower-garden]], unlike distant portions of the [[pleasure-ground]] scenery, is an appendage to the house, seen in the same [[view]] or moment with it, and therefore should exhibit something of the regularity which characterizes, in a greater or less degree, all architectural compositions; and when a given scene is so small as to be embraced in a single glance of the eye, regular forms are found to be more satisfactory than irregular ones, which, on so small a scale, are apt to appear unmeaning.

:“The ''[[French style|French]]'' [[flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. . . The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the '''beds''' are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of [[flower-garden]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the '''beds''', or ''parterres of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height.

:“In the [[English style|English]] [[flower-garden]], the '''beds''' are either in symmetrical forms and figures, or they are characterized by irregular ''curved'' outlines. The peculiarity of these gardens, at present so fashionable in England, is, that each separate '''bed''' is planted with a single variety, or at most two varieties of flowers. Only the most striking and showy varieties are generally chosen, and the effect, when the selection is judicious, is highly brilliant. Each '''bed''', in its season, presents a mass of blossoms, and the contrast of rich colors is much more striking than in any other arrangement. No plants are admitted that are shy bloomers, or which have ugly habits of growth, meagre or starved foliage; the aim being brilliant effect, rather than the display of a great variety of curious or rare plants. To bring about more perfectly, and to have an elegant show during the whole season of growth, hyacinths and other fine bulbous roots occupy a certain portion of the '''beds''', the intervals being filled with handsome herbaceous plants, permanently planted, or with flowering annuals and green-house plants renewed every season. . .

:“The ''mingled'' [[flower-garden]], as it is termed, is by far the most common mode of arrangement in this country, though it is seldom well effected. The object in this is to dispose the plants in the '''beds''' in such a manner, that while there is no predominance of bloom in any one portion of the '''beds''', there shall be a general admixture of colors and blossoms throughout the entire garden during the whole season of growth.

:“To promote this, the more showy plants should be often repeated in different parts of the garden, or even the same parterre when large, the less beautiful sorts being suffered to occupy but moderate space. The smallest plants should be nearest the [[walk]], those a little taller behind them, and the largest should be furthest from the eye, at the back of the border, when the latter is seen from one side only, or in the centre, if the '''bed''' be viewed from both sides. A neglect of this simple rule will not only give the '''beds''', when the plants are full grown, a confused look, but the beauty of the humbler and more delicate plants will be lost amid the tall thick branches of sturdier plants, or removed so far from the spectator in the walks, as to be overlooked.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 34, 65)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“EVERY cottage garden in America might have its hot '''bed'''. Make the sash six feet long, and three feet wide; the outer frame three inches broad, the laths all running lengthwise, seven inches apart; glaze it with glass seven by nine inches, the panes to lap each other a quarter of an inch, so as to carry off the rains without leaking through; make a box to fit the sash, three feet deep at back, and twenty-eight inches in front, the sides sloping, and a piece of scantling in each corner to nail the boards on and keep it firm. . .

:“KEEPING THE FLOWER-'''BEDS''' CLEAN.

:“THIS is a branch in the keeping of the cottage garden properly belonging to the fair sex; and those of a good disposition take much pleasure in attending to it. Pull out the weeds from among the flowers in the patches, and hoe and rake the '''beds''' every two weeks.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1849, “Design for a Suburban Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 380)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the end of this [[wall]], we come to the semicircular ''Italian [[arbor]]'', D. This [[arbor]], which is very light and pleasing in effect, is constructed of slender posts, rising 8 or 9 feet above the surface, from the tops of which strong transverse strips are nailed, as shown in the plan. The grapes ripen on this kind of Italian [[arbor]] much more perfectly than upon one of the common kind, thickly covered with foliage.

:“Beyond this [[arbor]], and at the termination of the central [[walk]], is a [[vase]], [[rustic style|rustic]] basket, or other ornamental object, ''e''. The semi-circle, embraced within the [[arbor]], is a space laid with regular [[bed]]s.”

*Jaques, George, January 1852, “Landscape Gardening in New-England” (''Horticulturist'' 7: 36)<ref>George Jaques, “Landscape Gardening in New-England,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A man of refinement would in these days, scarcely tolerate a geometrical arrangement of grounds of this extent. Such places admit of a winding carriage-way, leading through a fine [[lawn]] studded with groups of trees, irregularly circuitous [[walk]]s, bordered with various [[shrubbery]]; here and there a massive forest tree, standing in its full development singly upon the [[lawn]]; a [[summerhouse]] embowered in the midst of a little retired grove; arabesque forms of flower '''beds''' occasionally inserted in the midst of the smooth green of a grass-[[plot]]; a [[vase]], pretty even when empty, but better over-flowing with water, which it costs not much to bring in a leaden pipe from some neighboring hill:—such are among the charms which almost seem to make a little paradise of home.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Asparagus '''bed'''” near the top of the plan.

Image:0090.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. See detail.

Image:0090a.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. “'''Beds'''” marked at the foot of the terrace.

Image:2259.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807. Harvard University Herbaria and the Botany Libraries, Cambridge, Mass. “H. Hot-'''beds'''.”

Image:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of [[Monticello]] with oval and round flower '''beds''' [detail], 1807. “1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower '''beds''' as above. . .”

Image:0166.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Sketch of the garden and flower '''beds''' at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “Oval '''beds''' of flowering [[shrub]]s,” (written on verso)

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), 33, pl. 1. “The Hot-'''bed''' Ground, No. 1.”

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s_Horticultural_and_Botanical_Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828. “F. Hot beds.”

Image:1705.jpg|J. C. Loudon, Kitchen garden, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “Hot-bed ground (''b'').”

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “4. Arabesque '''beds'''. . . 5. Circular beds.”

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “Flower '''beds''', at ''i''.”

Image:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. '''Beds''' at ''c, k, l, m, n, o , p''.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280. “4.4.4 Range of Hot '''beds'''.”

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25. “Small arabesque '''beds''' near the house.”

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. “''d'', hot-'''beds'''.”

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular [[Flower_garden|Flower-garden]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. “The flower-'''beds''' ''b''.”

Image:0392.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]] at Dropmore,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 431, fig. 77. Shown alongside a list of the plants which occupy each of the '''beds'''.

Image:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “English [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 434, fig. 78. “''c'', ''d'', are the flower-'''beds'''.”

Image:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of [[conservatory]] designed for gentleman’s country [[seat]], in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 95, fig. 32. “''A, A, A, A, A, A'', '''Beds'''.”

Image:1664.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, One method of heating in a [[hothouse]], in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 198, fig. 38. “''g''. . . shows the '''bed'''.”

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower '''beds''' and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0073.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower '''beds''' at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.

Image:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, “A [[Greenhouse|green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric_style|Geometric]] [[Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''“The Duke’s Plan,” A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East [[View]] of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0240.jpg|Andreas Anton Lawatsch, “Prospect of Bethabara,” Salem, NC, c. 1759.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk’s plan of the Governor’s House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

image:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “[[View]] of the [[Seat]] of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp. 648.

Image:2274.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Courthouse [[Square]] in Esperanza, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, 1795, HM 2028.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

Image:0241.jpg|Anonymous, ''Anstalt Haus in Salem'', 1798.

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800-20.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the plantation of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0570.jpg|Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, ''Plan of Fort Erie, in Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale'' (Paris: A. Bertrand, 1826).

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''[[Vauxhall Garden]] 1803'', 1856.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0044.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

Image:0172.jpg|David Heubner, attr., ''House with Six-'''Bed''' Garden'', 1818.

Image:0242.jpg|W. T. Neuhauser, ''Salem in Nord Carolina von der Süd West-Seite'', c. 1819.

Image:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

Image:0493.jpg|Thomas Whelpley, ''Cleveland, Ohio. From the Corner of Bank and S<sup>t</sup> Clair St<sup>r</sup> Looking East'', 1833–34.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–47.

Image:0033.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841. Horizontal beds are seen in the gardens left of the center of the plan.

Image:0034.jpg|Robert Mills, Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0892.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Henry Coit’s villa, 1841–44.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846. A bed can be seen in the center-right of the image.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847. The bed is located in the center of the image between the two buildings.

Image:0701.jpg|Lewis Miller, [[Botanic garden]] at Princeton College, 1847, in ''Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles'' (1966), 134. “. . . [W]ent. . . to the [[Botanic garden]].”

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys’ School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855. A large [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] is visible in the left-center and on the right hand side, behind the [[fence]].

Image:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''[[Belvedere]]'', c. 1858.

Image:0114.jpg|Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858–60.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur (c. 1830), ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

Image:0555a_detail2.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street [detail], 1797 . Register Mesne Conveyance, Charleston County, S.C.

Image:0555a.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797. Register Mesne Conveyance, Charleston County, S.C.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

2021-01-11T20:04:06Z

M-Westerby: /* Associated */

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Lewis Miller, “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. (George) Gregory|G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view text]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report'' (Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the [[view]] of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view text]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union [[Square]] [[Park]].]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington [[Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view text]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in Francis Guy’s chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at Green-Wood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view text]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as walls. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view text]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape [[View]] of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, William Halfpenny, “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Acute angular Paleing” and “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as Westover, on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1849) and William H. Ranlett (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, “A [[view]] of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Casnovia,” c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''[[View]] Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view text]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by William and John Halfpenny (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view text]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view text]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in Francis Guy’s 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[square]]s, roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view text]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view text]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone. . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted. . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view text]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing'''. . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*Penn, William, c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance. . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted. . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner. . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees. . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting. . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.” [[#Anburey_cite|back up to History]]

*Washington, George, 1785, diary entries (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4: 199)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978">Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, eds., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:[March 11] “Planted. . . 13 Yellow Willow trees alternately along the Post and Rail '''fence''' from the Kitchen to the South [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|ha-haw]] and from the Servants’ Hall to the Smith’s Shop. . .

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.” [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to History]]

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the President’s House:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.” [[#Waln_cite|back up to History]]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.” [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to History]]

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants. . . '', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.” [[#Watson_cite|back up to History]]

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . .
:“GARDENING. . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.” [[#Gregory_cite|back up to History]]

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>

:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work. . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.” [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to History]]

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20] [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to History]]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]]. . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.” [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.” [[#Sayers_cite|back up to History]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live Hedges” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 4 (April 1838): 121–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . The European hawthorn. . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll. . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Johnson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America. . . '', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): 211–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 7 (January 1850): 310–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Anonymous, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|Lewis Miller, “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale '''fence''',” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|Lewis Miller, “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a '''fence''' of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front '''Fences''',” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

File:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm '''fence''', in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0788.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Elevations and profiles of wood '''fences''', in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787—92.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), "[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia," 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Yale College. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern [[View]] of the Public [[Square]] or [[Green]] in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. p. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at Green-Wood [[Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after p. 94.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697. Fence is the zigzag line running vertically in center.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725—1757)'', c. 1742—46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748—50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Acute angular Paleing” and “A [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768) . A Prospective [[View]] of part of the '''Commons''', 1902. Boston Pictorial Archive, Boston Public Library.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on '''Fence''', 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.<ref name="Sothebys">Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787—93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,'' c. 1785. A '''fence''' is visible near the point indicated with the letter "f".

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, ''A [[View]] of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States'', 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a '''Fence''', c. 1791.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “[[View]] at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. [[view]] of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:2251.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798. Bennington Museum, Bennington, Vermont.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, ''Map of Deming [[Orchard]]'', after 1798.

Image:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800. Worm-fence in foreground.

Image:2277.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:2277_detail.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'' [detail], 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “[[View]] on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], [[seat]] of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''[[View]] of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800—20.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''[[Vauxhall Garden]] 1803'', 1856.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805—25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.

Image:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from Belmont Pennsyla. the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808).

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811—13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''[[View]] of the Water Works at Centre [[Square]] Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of fRing'' (January 2012): 27.

File:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail '''fence''', c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813. A fence is seen across the left side horizon.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

Image:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, “A [[view]] of Col. Lincoln’s [[seat]], Caznovia,” c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall [[Park]] From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825—30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “[[View]] of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|Hugh Bridport, ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''[[View]] Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington [[Square]]'', 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape [[View]] of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

Image:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A [[View]] of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Fence located along the perimeter of the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union [[Square]] New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many '''Fences''''', c. 1847.

Image:0406.jpg|Henry Howe, "Ohio University, at Athens," 1848.

Image:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:1131.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''Leedom Farm'', 1849.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] [[Fountain]],” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “''[[View]] of Washington'',” c. 1850.

Image:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, ''Front Elevation on Live Oak Street'', 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, [[View]] Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861. A fence can be seen along right edge of the house grounds.

Image:2260_detail1.jpg|Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt [detail], Unknown maker, Massachusetts, United States, 1800-1850, Oil on panel (white pine), 1964.2101, Bequest of Henry Francis du Pont, Courtesy of Winterthur Museum.

Image:2260.jpg|Painting of a Landscape with a Stag Hunt, Unknown maker, Massachusetts, United States, 1800-1850, Oil on panel (white pine), 1964.2101, Bequest of Henry Francis du Pont, Courtesy of Winterthur Museum.

</gallery>

<hr>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]