History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=K-lee History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en] 2026-05-09T22:20:51Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.35.2 https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Martha_Daniell_Logan&diff=36242 Martha Daniell Logan 2019-06-26T13:46:51Z

<p>K-lee: added minimum citation required for SC Historical Society image to caption. Doesn't agree with stylistic guidelines.</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2186.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Martha Daniell Logan's signature and seal, 1721, From the collections of the South Carolina Historical Society.]]<br /> '''Martha Daniell Logan''' (December 29, 1704&ndash;June 28, 1779) was an American-born horticulturalist, educator, and writer in Charleston, South Carolina. She operated a business dealing in seeds and [[nursery]] plants, and wrote an influential gardening advice column.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Financial necessity most likely compelled Martha Daniell Logan to pursue commercial opportunities that were unusual for a woman of her social station. Her father, Robert Daniell (1646&ndash;1718), a British merchant engaged in maritime trade with Barbados and Bermuda, had immigrated to the Carolinas in 1679. Granted the status of Landgrave, he became one of the largest landowners in the colony and served in prominent military and political roles, including as deputy governor.<ref>Michael K. Dahlman and Michael K. Dahlman Jr., ''Daniel Island'' (Charleston, Chicago, Portsmouth, and San Francisco: Arcadia Publishing, 2007), 31&ndash;35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DJ8B6SSX view on Zotero]; Walter B. Edgar and N. Louise Bailey, ''Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives'', 5 vols. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 2:180&ndash;82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G89DVTV3 view on Zotero]; Henry A. M. Smith, “The Baronies of South Carolina,” ''South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 13 (January 1912): 3&ndash;6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJA97W79, view on Zotero].</ref> Evidently concerned with the education of Martha and her siblings, he made provisions in a will of 1709 for their “schooling, and all other things necessary for [their] education.”<ref>Beaufort County Deed Book 1, part 1, Beaufort County, NC—Land & Deed Records, abstracted by Ysobel Dupree Litchfield and submitted to the State of North Carolina DAR for their annual GRC Reports by the Major Reading Blount Chapter of Washington. File contributed for use in [http://files.usgwarchives.net/nc/beaufort/deeds/p101-150.txt USGenWeb Archives] by Janice Tripp Gurganus.</ref> A year after Daniell’s death in May 1718, his widow married the planter Col. George Logan Sr. (1669&ndash;1721), and in July 1719 fourteen-year-old Martha married her stepbrother, George Logan Jr. (1695&ndash;1764).<ref>Martha Daniell Logan is often confused with her mother, Martha Wainwright Daniell Logan. Robert Daniell named the latter (his wife, not his daughter) as his executrix and heir to his plantation and other properties in his will of May 1, 1718. For an abstract of the will, see [http://www.genealogy.com/ftm/d/o/l/Jeff-Doles/GENE1-0002.html Robert Daniell Descendants]. See also Daniel J. Philippon, “Gender, Genius, and Genre: Women, Science, and Nature Writing in Early America,” in ''Such News of the Land: U.S. Women Nature Writers'', ed. Thomas S. Edwards and Elizabeth A. De Wolfe (Hanover: University Press of New Hampshire, 2001), 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DIX3BACP view on Zotero].</ref> They lived on the Wando River, ten miles from Charleston, where both the Daniell and the Logan families owned extensive property. For reasons that remain unclear, Martha Daniell Logan began the first of several moneymaking enterprises a few years after the birth of her eighth child in 1738. On March 20, 1742, she advertised her services as a teacher of reading, writing, and embroidery for “Any Persons desirous to board their Children” with her.<ref>Hennig Cohen, ''The South Carolina Gazette, 1735&ndash;1775'' (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1953), 31, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VQCXT377 view on Zotero]. See also Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley, ''Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), 154 n.4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFR499TP view on Zotero].</ref> She then relocated to the city of Charleston, where on March 6, 1750, she advertised plans to open a boarding school at her house on the [[green]] near Trotts Point.<ref>Ann Manigault and Mabel L. Webber, “Extracts from the ‘Journal of Mrs. Ann Manigault, 1754&ndash;1781 (Continued),’” ''South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 20 (July 1919): 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero]. Logan may have separated from her husband, who died at Daniel Island, Charleston, in 1764. John Bartram referred to her as a widow in 1760, and his error has been compounded in recent scholarship. See John Bartram, ''The Correspondence of John Bartram 1734&ndash;1777'', ed. Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992), 517&ndash;18, 530, 559, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan soon shifted her attention from teaching to horticulture. The early Charleston historian David Ramsay described her as “a great florist, and uncommonly fond of a garden,” recalling how, in 1809, she and her friend Sarah Ward Hopton (b. 1715) had “cultivated extensive gardens” in the city.<ref>David Ramsay, ''The History of South-Carolina: From Its First Settlement in 1670, to the Year 1808'', 2 vols. (Charleston: David Longworth, 1809), 2:228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D9NEJJM8 view on Zotero].</ref> Local artist [[Charles Fraser]] likewise remembered Logan’s garden for its size, noting that it “occupied a large space of ground on the north of Tradd-street” opposite “a vacant lot or [[green]].”<ref>Charles Fraser, ''Reminiscences of Charleston'' (Charleston: J. Russell, 1854), 27&ndash;28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VTRNRRX8 view on Zotero]. See also John Linnaeus Edward Whitridge Shecut, ''Shecut’s Medical and Philosophical essays. . . .The Whole of Which Are Designed as Illustrative of the Domestic Origin of the Yellow Fever of Charleston; And, as Conducing to the Formation of a Medical History of the State of South-Carolina'' (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1819), 21, 42, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6UHSW44 view Zotero].</ref> A notice published in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' in 1751 advertised “the house that Martha Logan lives in, to be let for the summer season; also a large garden separate from the house.”<ref>Loutrel Winslow Briggs, ''Charleston Gardens'' (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1951), 28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/A3NA59DZ view on Zotero].</ref> Before long, the garden would become too valuable to let, as Logan embarked on a career as a purveyor of botanical goods, selling seeds and plants at her house, initially under her son’s name. In addition to native plants, she dealt in imported specimens. An advertisement published in the ''Gazette'' on November 12, 1753, <span id="Gazette_cite"></span> announced the availability of “a parcel of very good seeds, flower roots, and fruit stones of several kinds” that were “just imported from London” ([[#Gazette|view text]]). Logan’s principal customers were Charleston neighbors, including Ann Manigault, who recorded in her diary on November 25, 1763, that she “went to Mrs. Logan’s to buy roots.”<ref>Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan’s horizons expanded following a chance encounter with Philadelphia botanist and nurseryman [[John Bartram]], who toured her garden during a visit to Charleston in 1760. For the next three years, Logan and [[John Bartram|Bartram]] eagerly engaged in a mutually beneficial exchange of seeds, plants, and information. “Her garden is her delight & she hath a fine [one],” [[John Bartram|Bartram]] informed his London agent, [[Peter Collinson]], in 1762.<ref>John Bartram to Peter Collinson, May 22, 1761, in Bartram 1992, 517, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> Logan sent items from her garden to [[John Bartram|Bartram]], as well as rare and unusual specimens he had admired in the gardens of her neighbors, such as [[Alexander Garden]], Mary Wood Wragg (1716&ndash;1767), and Susannah Holmes Bee (1739&ndash;1771).<ref>Bartram 1992, 522, 547&ndash;48, 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero]; Martha Daniell Logan, “Letters of Martha Logan to John Bartram, 1760&ndash;1763,” ed. Mary Barbot Prior, ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 59 (1958): 39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE6TPEQS view on Zotero]; Thomas Hallock, ''From the Fallen Tree: Frontier Narratives, Environmental Politics, and the Roots of a National Pastoral, 1749&ndash;1826'' (Columbia: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 143, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FPF3J5T9 view on Zotero].</ref> Logan was particularly keen to send [[John Bartram|Bartram]] Carolina plants which “may be New to you” and “be an adision [addition] to yr Collection.”<ref>Bartram 1992, 500, 520, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> In return, she asked [[John Bartram|Bartram]] to send bulbs and double-flowering plants that her London contacts had failed to procure or took too long to send.<ref>Martha Logan to John Bartram, December 20, 1760, and February 20, 1761, in Bartram 1992, 500, 506, 637, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan is generally credited with writing the section on [[kitchen garden]] cultivation in John Tobler’s ''South Carolina Almanack'', first advertised in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' on December 6, 1751, as a “Gardners Kalander [''sic''], done by a Lady of this Province, and esteemed a very good one.”<ref>Quoted in Mabel L. Webber, “South Carolina Almanacs to 1800,” ''South Carolina Genealogical and Historical Magazine'' 15 (1914): 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X783GDC4 view on Zotero].</ref> It was reprinted several times, and appeared posthumously under her name in annual editions of the ''Palladium of Knowledge: or, The Carolina and Georgia Almanac'' (1796&ndash;1804).<ref>Webber 1914, 80&ndash;81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X783GDC4 view on Zotero]; see also Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> According to David Ramsay, Logan also wrote a treatise on gardening at the age of seventy. In that work, he claimed, she “reduced the knowledge she had acquired by long experience, and observation, to a regular system which . . . to this day regulates the practice of gardens in and around Charleston.”<ref>David Ramsay, ''The History of South-Carolina: From Its First Settlement in 1670, to the Year 1808'', 2 vols. (Charleston: David Longworth, 1809), 2:228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D9NEJJM8 view on Zotero]; see also Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero]; see also Woodrow Wilson Harris Jr., “The Education of the Southern Urban Adult: Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia, 1790&ndash;1812,” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1979), 105, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P9M7AGMK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> —''Robyn Asleson''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Gazette"></div> ''South Carolina Gazette'', November 12, 1753 (quoted in Manigault and Webber 1919: 205n9)<ref>Manigault and Webber 1919, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gazette_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Just imported from London and to be sold by Daniel Logan, at his Mother’s house on the [[Green]], near Trotts point, a parcel of very good seeds, flower roots, and fruit stones of several kinds.”<br /> <br /> <br /> * Logan, Martha Daniell, 1756, “Directions for Managing a [[Kitchen Garden]] every month of the year. Done by a Lady” (quoted in Leighton 1976: 211&ndash;15)<ref>Ann Leighton, ''American Gardens in the Eighteenth-Century: “For Use or For Delight”'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8GQVKMVH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“June . . . Straw or Stable Litter well wetted and laid pretty thick upon the [[Bed]]s where Seeds are sown, in the Heat of the Day, and taken off at Night is a good expedient to forward the Growth.<br /> <br /> :“December. This Month being chiefly for the Management of the [[Orchard]], plant and prune all manner of Fruit Trees and the like, and prepare Ground for transplanting in the Spring.”<br /> <br /> <br /> * Logan, Martha Daniell, February 15, 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Spruill 1972: 278)<ref>Julia Cherry Spruill, ''Women’s Life and Work in the Southern Colonies'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2N8XTJC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Just imported in Capt. Lloyd from London and to be sold very reasonably by Martha Logan at her house in Meeting-street, three doors without the [[gate]]:<br /> :“A fresh assortment of very good garden seeds and flower roots, also many other sorts of flower shrubs and box for [[edging]] [[bed]]s, now growing in her garden.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [http://www.halseymap.com/Flash/gov-detail.asp?polID=92 Alfred O. Halsey Map Preservation Research Project, Preservation Society of Charleston]<br /> <br /> [http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-01136.html American National Biography Online]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category:People|Logan, Martha Daniell]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2186.jpg&diff=36241 File:2186.jpg 2019-06-26T13:45:11Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Martha Daniell Logan's signature and seal, From the George & Martha Logan Conveyance of Charles Town, 1721 (File 32-07-03), at the [https://schistory.org/archives/start-research/visual-materials/ South Carolina Historical Society].</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Martha_Daniell_Logan&diff=36240 Martha Daniell Logan 2019-06-26T13:41:43Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2186.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Martha Daniell Logan's signature and seal, 1721.]]<br /> '''Martha Daniell Logan''' (December 29, 1704&ndash;June 28, 1779) was an American-born horticulturalist, educator, and writer in Charleston, South Carolina. She operated a business dealing in seeds and [[nursery]] plants, and wrote an influential gardening advice column.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Financial necessity most likely compelled Martha Daniell Logan to pursue commercial opportunities that were unusual for a woman of her social station. Her father, Robert Daniell (1646&ndash;1718), a British merchant engaged in maritime trade with Barbados and Bermuda, had immigrated to the Carolinas in 1679. Granted the status of Landgrave, he became one of the largest landowners in the colony and served in prominent military and political roles, including as deputy governor.<ref>Michael K. Dahlman and Michael K. Dahlman Jr., ''Daniel Island'' (Charleston, Chicago, Portsmouth, and San Francisco: Arcadia Publishing, 2007), 31&ndash;35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DJ8B6SSX view on Zotero]; Walter B. Edgar and N. Louise Bailey, ''Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives'', 5 vols. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 2:180&ndash;82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G89DVTV3 view on Zotero]; Henry A. M. Smith, “The Baronies of South Carolina,” ''South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 13 (January 1912): 3&ndash;6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJA97W79, view on Zotero].</ref> Evidently concerned with the education of Martha and her siblings, he made provisions in a will of 1709 for their “schooling, and all other things necessary for [their] education.”<ref>Beaufort County Deed Book 1, part 1, Beaufort County, NC—Land & Deed Records, abstracted by Ysobel Dupree Litchfield and submitted to the State of North Carolina DAR for their annual GRC Reports by the Major Reading Blount Chapter of Washington. File contributed for use in [http://files.usgwarchives.net/nc/beaufort/deeds/p101-150.txt USGenWeb Archives] by Janice Tripp Gurganus.</ref> A year after Daniell’s death in May 1718, his widow married the planter Col. George Logan Sr. (1669&ndash;1721), and in July 1719 fourteen-year-old Martha married her stepbrother, George Logan Jr. (1695&ndash;1764).<ref>Martha Daniell Logan is often confused with her mother, Martha Wainwright Daniell Logan. Robert Daniell named the latter (his wife, not his daughter) as his executrix and heir to his plantation and other properties in his will of May 1, 1718. For an abstract of the will, see [http://www.genealogy.com/ftm/d/o/l/Jeff-Doles/GENE1-0002.html Robert Daniell Descendants]. See also Daniel J. Philippon, “Gender, Genius, and Genre: Women, Science, and Nature Writing in Early America,” in ''Such News of the Land: U.S. Women Nature Writers'', ed. Thomas S. Edwards and Elizabeth A. De Wolfe (Hanover: University Press of New Hampshire, 2001), 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DIX3BACP view on Zotero].</ref> They lived on the Wando River, ten miles from Charleston, where both the Daniell and the Logan families owned extensive property. For reasons that remain unclear, Martha Daniell Logan began the first of several moneymaking enterprises a few years after the birth of her eighth child in 1738. On March 20, 1742, she advertised her services as a teacher of reading, writing, and embroidery for “Any Persons desirous to board their Children” with her.<ref>Hennig Cohen, ''The South Carolina Gazette, 1735&ndash;1775'' (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1953), 31, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VQCXT377 view on Zotero]. See also Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley, ''Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), 154 n.4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFR499TP view on Zotero].</ref> She then relocated to the city of Charleston, where on March 6, 1750, she advertised plans to open a boarding school at her house on the [[green]] near Trotts Point.<ref>Ann Manigault and Mabel L. Webber, “Extracts from the ‘Journal of Mrs. Ann Manigault, 1754&ndash;1781 (Continued),’” ''South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 20 (July 1919): 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero]. Logan may have separated from her husband, who died at Daniel Island, Charleston, in 1764. John Bartram referred to her as a widow in 1760, and his error has been compounded in recent scholarship. See John Bartram, ''The Correspondence of John Bartram 1734&ndash;1777'', ed. Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992), 517&ndash;18, 530, 559, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan soon shifted her attention from teaching to horticulture. The early Charleston historian David Ramsay described her as “a great florist, and uncommonly fond of a garden,” recalling how, in 1809, she and her friend Sarah Ward Hopton (b. 1715) had “cultivated extensive gardens” in the city.<ref>David Ramsay, ''The History of South-Carolina: From Its First Settlement in 1670, to the Year 1808'', 2 vols. (Charleston: David Longworth, 1809), 2:228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D9NEJJM8 view on Zotero].</ref> Local artist [[Charles Fraser]] likewise remembered Logan’s garden for its size, noting that it “occupied a large space of ground on the north of Tradd-street” opposite “a vacant lot or [[green]].”<ref>Charles Fraser, ''Reminiscences of Charleston'' (Charleston: J. Russell, 1854), 27&ndash;28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VTRNRRX8 view on Zotero]. See also John Linnaeus Edward Whitridge Shecut, ''Shecut’s Medical and Philosophical essays. . . .The Whole of Which Are Designed as Illustrative of the Domestic Origin of the Yellow Fever of Charleston; And, as Conducing to the Formation of a Medical History of the State of South-Carolina'' (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1819), 21, 42, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6UHSW44 view Zotero].</ref> A notice published in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' in 1751 advertised “the house that Martha Logan lives in, to be let for the summer season; also a large garden separate from the house.”<ref>Loutrel Winslow Briggs, ''Charleston Gardens'' (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1951), 28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/A3NA59DZ view on Zotero].</ref> Before long, the garden would become too valuable to let, as Logan embarked on a career as a purveyor of botanical goods, selling seeds and plants at her house, initially under her son’s name. In addition to native plants, she dealt in imported specimens. An advertisement published in the ''Gazette'' on November 12, 1753, <span id="Gazette_cite"></span> announced the availability of “a parcel of very good seeds, flower roots, and fruit stones of several kinds” that were “just imported from London” ([[#Gazette|view text]]). Logan’s principal customers were Charleston neighbors, including Ann Manigault, who recorded in her diary on November 25, 1763, that she “went to Mrs. Logan’s to buy roots.”<ref>Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan’s horizons expanded following a chance encounter with Philadelphia botanist and nurseryman [[John Bartram]], who toured her garden during a visit to Charleston in 1760. For the next three years, Logan and [[John Bartram|Bartram]] eagerly engaged in a mutually beneficial exchange of seeds, plants, and information. “Her garden is her delight & she hath a fine [one],” [[John Bartram|Bartram]] informed his London agent, [[Peter Collinson]], in 1762.<ref>John Bartram to Peter Collinson, May 22, 1761, in Bartram 1992, 517, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> Logan sent items from her garden to [[John Bartram|Bartram]], as well as rare and unusual specimens he had admired in the gardens of her neighbors, such as [[Alexander Garden]], Mary Wood Wragg (1716&ndash;1767), and Susannah Holmes Bee (1739&ndash;1771).<ref>Bartram 1992, 522, 547&ndash;48, 617, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero]; Martha Daniell Logan, “Letters of Martha Logan to John Bartram, 1760&ndash;1763,” ed. Mary Barbot Prior, ''South Carolina Historical Magazine'' 59 (1958): 39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE6TPEQS view on Zotero]; Thomas Hallock, ''From the Fallen Tree: Frontier Narratives, Environmental Politics, and the Roots of a National Pastoral, 1749&ndash;1826'' (Columbia: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 143, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FPF3J5T9 view on Zotero].</ref> Logan was particularly keen to send [[John Bartram|Bartram]] Carolina plants which “may be New to you” and “be an adision [addition] to yr Collection.”<ref>Bartram 1992, 500, 520, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> In return, she asked [[John Bartram|Bartram]] to send bulbs and double-flowering plants that her London contacts had failed to procure or took too long to send.<ref>Martha Logan to John Bartram, December 20, 1760, and February 20, 1761, in Bartram 1992, 500, 506, 637, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZGMIACI view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> Logan is generally credited with writing the section on [[kitchen garden]] cultivation in John Tobler’s ''South Carolina Almanack'', first advertised in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' on December 6, 1751, as a “Gardners Kalander [''sic''], done by a Lady of this Province, and esteemed a very good one.”<ref>Quoted in Mabel L. Webber, “South Carolina Almanacs to 1800,” ''South Carolina Genealogical and Historical Magazine'' 15 (1914): 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X783GDC4 view on Zotero].</ref> It was reprinted several times, and appeared posthumously under her name in annual editions of the ''Palladium of Knowledge: or, The Carolina and Georgia Almanac'' (1796&ndash;1804).<ref>Webber 1914, 80&ndash;81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X783GDC4 view on Zotero]; see also Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> According to David Ramsay, Logan also wrote a treatise on gardening at the age of seventy. In that work, he claimed, she “reduced the knowledge she had acquired by long experience, and observation, to a regular system which . . . to this day regulates the practice of gardens in and around Charleston.”<ref>David Ramsay, ''The History of South-Carolina: From Its First Settlement in 1670, to the Year 1808'', 2 vols. (Charleston: David Longworth, 1809), 2:228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D9NEJJM8 view on Zotero]; see also Manigault and Webber 1919, 205n9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero]; see also Woodrow Wilson Harris Jr., “The Education of the Southern Urban Adult: Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia, 1790&ndash;1812,” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1979), 105, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P9M7AGMK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> —''Robyn Asleson''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Gazette"></div> ''South Carolina Gazette'', November 12, 1753 (quoted in Manigault and Webber 1919: 205n9)<ref>Manigault and Webber 1919, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EKDI4DIN view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gazette_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Just imported from London and to be sold by Daniel Logan, at his Mother’s house on the [[Green]], near Trotts point, a parcel of very good seeds, flower roots, and fruit stones of several kinds.”<br /> <br /> <br /> * Logan, Martha Daniell, 1756, “Directions for Managing a [[Kitchen Garden]] every month of the year. Done by a Lady” (quoted in Leighton 1976: 211&ndash;15)<ref>Ann Leighton, ''American Gardens in the Eighteenth-Century: “For Use or For Delight”'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8GQVKMVH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“June . . . Straw or Stable Litter well wetted and laid pretty thick upon the [[Bed]]s where Seeds are sown, in the Heat of the Day, and taken off at Night is a good expedient to forward the Growth.<br /> <br /> :“December. This Month being chiefly for the Management of the [[Orchard]], plant and prune all manner of Fruit Trees and the like, and prepare Ground for transplanting in the Spring.”<br /> <br /> <br /> * Logan, Martha Daniell, February 15, 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Spruill 1972: 278)<ref>Julia Cherry Spruill, ''Women’s Life and Work in the Southern Colonies'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2N8XTJC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Just imported in Capt. Lloyd from London and to be sold very reasonably by Martha Logan at her house in Meeting-street, three doors without the [[gate]]:<br /> :“A fresh assortment of very good garden seeds and flower roots, also many other sorts of flower shrubs and box for [[edging]] [[bed]]s, now growing in her garden.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [http://www.halseymap.com/Flash/gov-detail.asp?polID=92 Alfred O. Halsey Map Preservation Research Project, Preservation Society of Charleston]<br /> <br /> [http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-01136.html American National Biography Online]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category:People|Logan, Martha Daniell]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36239 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-26T13:35:15Z

<p>K-lee: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, George Freeman, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, 1833.]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Mary Freeman Goldbeck, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, ca. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anthony Imbert after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826–28.]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Smith after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of St. John's Chapel, From the Park'', 1829.]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Alexander Jackson Davis, [United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering], [1834].]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Alexander Jackson Davis, Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Alexander Jackson Davis, Shore Seat for Montgomery Place, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York (elevation and plan), 1870–79.]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alexander Jackson Davis, Map of Blithewood, c. 1840s.]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36238 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-26T13:33:07Z

<p>K-lee: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, George Freeman, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, 1833.]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Mary Freeman Goldbeck, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, ca. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anthony Imbert after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826–28.]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Smith after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of St. John's Chapel, From the Park'', 1829.]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Alexander Jackson Davis, [United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering], [1834].]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36237 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-26T13:30:57Z

<p>K-lee: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, George Freeman, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, 1833.]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Mary Freeman Goldbeck, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, ca. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anthony Imbert after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826–28.]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Smith after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of St. John's Chapel, From the Park'', 1829.]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:0675.jpg&diff=36236 File:0675.jpg 2019-06-26T13:30:20Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Anthony Imbert after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826–28, lithograph, 11 x 17 11/16 in (28 x 45 cm). Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36235 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-26T13:30:07Z

<p>K-lee: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, George Freeman, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, 1833.]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Mary Freeman Goldbeck, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, ca. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anthony Imbert after Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826–28.]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36234 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-26T13:28:51Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, George Freeman, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, 1833.]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Mary Freeman Goldbeck, Portrait of Alexander Jackson Davis, ca. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, ]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:0248.jpg&diff=36233 File:0248.jpg 2019-06-25T19:49:21Z

<p>K-lee: edited caption</p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769, 43 x 53 cm., [Cartographic Items Maps K.Top.122.60.]. By permission of the British Library.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:0248.jpg&diff=36232 File:0248.jpg 2019-06-25T19:35:16Z

<p>K-lee: K-lee uploaded a new version of File:0248.jpg</p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769, 16 x 21 in. (40.7 x 53.3 cm). William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2197.jpg&diff=36229 File:2197.jpg 2019-06-20T18:48:39Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, residence of G. C. Verplank'', n.d., watercolor, [MssCol 734]. Alexander Jackson papers, 1791-1937. Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2197.jpg&diff=36228 File:2197.jpg 2019-06-20T18:47:51Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, residence of G. C. Verplank'', n.d., watercolor, MssCol 734. Alexander Jackson papers, 1791-1937. Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2197.jpg&diff=36227 File:2197.jpg 2019-06-20T18:47:18Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Gulian, residence of G. C. Verplank, n.d., watercolor, MssCol 734. Alexander Jackson papers, 1791-1937. Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Bernard_M%E2%80%99Mahon&diff=36226 Bernard M’Mahon 2019-06-20T14:16:17Z

<p>K-lee: /* Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.<br /> ==History==<br /> The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.<br /> <br /> [[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]<br /> Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]<br /> [[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]<br /> In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].<br /> The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).<br /> </ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].<br /> </ref><br /> <br /> Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).<br /> <br /> ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]). <br /> <br /> Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.<br /> <br /> Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].<br /> </ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).<br /> <br /> The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.<br /> :“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”<br /> <br /> *M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.<br /> :“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?<br /> :“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”<br /> <br /> *Anonymous, 1807, Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (''The Medical Repository'' vol. 4: 177-180)<ref>“Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'',” ''The Medical Repository'' 4 (1807): 174–80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UR9I39RN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Mr. M’Mahon has parcelled his work into twelve great divisions. These correspond to the months of the year. In each he prescribes the work to be done, and the way of doing it. In this manner he has constructed a Calendar, beginning with January, and proceeding regularly to June, and thence forward to December. By attending to this arrangement, the person who consults the volume can readily find the months, by casting his eye to the top of the pages, and below them the labour and preparation during each.<br /> :“Besides this distribution of his precepts and directions, according to the sun’s place in the zodiacal signs, the author has made a methodical disposition of the business of every month. The operations in the [[kitchen-garden]], fruit-garden, [[orchard]], vineyard, [[nursery]], [[flower-garden]], [[Greenhouse|green-house]], and [[hot-house]], are placed under distinct heads; and its is easy to find under one or another of these titles, whatever the Calendar contains for all the months of the year. By adverting thus to a division of his publication, into twelve parts or months, and these again into a subdivision of each into eight sections, Mr. M. has rendered it very easy to find any thing it contains. And, by attending to this, it is scarcely more difficult to examine the directions for the [[pleasure garden]] in September, the [[orchard]] in March, or the [[hot-house]] in December, &c. &c. Than to search for a word and its correlatives in the Encyclopaedia, or to examine passages in the Bible by the aid of a Concordance.<br /> :“The reader is not to expect that the work should be wholly original. The author does not pretend to this. A candid acknowledgement is made, that in writing the treatise, he consulted the best publications in the American States, and in the transatlantic countries, especially those extant in the English, French, and Latin tongues. To bring into one compendious tract the information scattered in many books, composed in different languages, hard and costly to procure, laborious to examine when procured, and requiring more literature than falls to the lot of the great body of cultivators, is a very laudable and useful undertaking. Our fellow citizens, we confidently believe, will concur with us in opinion, that he has done them worthy and acceptable service. He is perfectly aware that in some cases he may be mistaken, and in others may have made omissions; and these he is ready to amend as soon as they shall be discovered. But he has employed a good share of judgment in the directions he has given for the rearing of thorn-quicks and other plants for live [[fence]]s; for cultivating liquorice, manna-ash, and rhubarb for medicines; planting madder and weld for dyeing; cork tree, fuller’s teazel, tanner’s-sumac, and paper mulberry for the economical arts; sea-kale for the dining table; grapes for the preparation of wine; and mulberry trees and insects for the manufacture of silk. And, in addition to all his knowledge derived from preceding authors, Mr. M. lays claim to the attention of his readers, by the experimental skill derived from a large and extensive course of practical gardening, pursued for almost thirty years. . . .<br /> :“We were pleased to find that the American plants which beautify the woods, fields, and swamps, had not been overlooked or neglected by our author. Many of them are duly noticed, and the cultivator’s attention called to them among the instructions for the [[flower-garden]] in the month of August. And we were gratified also with a piece of convenient economy, by substituting oak leaves newly fallen in autumn, instead of tanner’s bark, as described in the section which relates to the [[hot-house]] department for October.<br /> :“But we forbear any further comments or criticisms. A book of such great extent, and various contents, cannot be easily analized [''sic''] in a general way further than we have gone. And to proceed more deeply into particulars would be inconsistent with our plan and limits: we therefore observe, that as the taste for gardening is increasing, and the appearance of the book is opportune, we expect it will be sought with avidity, and thereby become the incentive and the guide to capital improvements in that interesting art. And we shall be disappointed, if nursery-men, florists, and gentlemen of taste, leisure, and fortune, do not add to their libraries, however select and small, M’Mahon’s American Calendar.”<br /> <br /> *M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”<br /> <br /> *Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]<br /> :“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.<br /> :“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.<br /> :“BERNARD M’MAHON<br /> :“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.<br /> :“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.<br /> :“Dec. 22—if w10t”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.<br /> :“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].<br /> :“REAL ESTATE, &c.<br /> :“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,<br /> :“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,<br /> :“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:<br /> :“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.<br /> :“By order of the Court,<br /> :“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.<br /> :“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.<br /> :“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,<br /> :“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.<br /> :“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.<br /> :“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“Friday, August 22nd.<br /> :“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.<br /> :“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.<br /> :“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.<br /> :“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.<br /> :“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.<br /> :“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.<br /> :“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.<br /> :“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”<br /> <br /> *Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”<br /> <br /> *Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].<br /> </ref><br /> :“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<br /> <br /> *<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject. <br /> :“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.<br /> :“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)<br /> Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806<br /> Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806<br /> </gallery><br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> <br /> [http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]<br /> <br /> [https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]<br /> <br /> [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Elgin_Botanic_Garden&diff=36225 Elgin Botanic Garden 2019-06-20T14:12:18Z

<p>K-lee: /* Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769&ndash;1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan. <br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> '''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/><br /> '''Site Dates:''' 1801&ndash;1811<br/><br /> '''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769&ndash;1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/><br /> '''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774&ndash;1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/><br /> '''Location:''': New York, NY<br/><br /> '''Condition:''' demolished<br/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]<br /> While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of &pound;300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7&ndash;10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]<br /> Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3]. <br /> [[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]<br /> <br /> <span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1&ndash;4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]<br /> Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788&ndash;1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808&ndash;9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August&ndash;October 1807): 123&ndash;31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).<br /> [[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]<br /> <br /> <span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790&ndash;1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789&ndash;1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211&ndash;12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3&ndash;4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219&ndash;22, 275&ndash;76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784&ndash;1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803&ndash;1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii&ndash;iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.<br /> [[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]<br /> <br /> The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants&mdash;operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])&mdash;failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79&ndash;84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15&ndash;19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97&ndash;98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> —''Robyn Asleson''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix&ndash;xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7&ndash;8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.<br /> <br /> :“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.<br /> <br /> :“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing&mdash;it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep&mdash;and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen&mdash;my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply&mdash;request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants&mdash;I will supply him anything I possess.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3&ndash;7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .<br /> <br /> :“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.<br /> <br /> :“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.<br /> <br /> :“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return&mdash;in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal&mdash;Poisonous&mdash;those useful in the arts&mdash;in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri&mdash;Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River&mdash;that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions&mdash;if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America&mdash;he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you&mdash;under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:&mdash;it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum&mdash;for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood&mdash;an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston&mdash;New York&mdash;Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics&mdash;I believe much may be done upon this subject&mdash;four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring&mdash;it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October&mdash;Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year&mdash;John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool&mdash;I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york&mdash;might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed&mdash; <br /> <br /> :“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460&ndash;61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498&ndash;1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . . <br /> <br /> :“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89&ndash;91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.<br /> <br /> :“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53&ndash;54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.<br /> :::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.<br /> :::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.<br /> :::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]<br /> *<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1&ndash;4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .<br /> <br /> : <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.<br /> <br /> :“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .<br /> <br /> :“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.<br /> <br /> :“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . . <br /> <br /> :“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.<br /> <br /> :“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.<br /> <br /> :“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . . <br /> <br /> :“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.<br /> <br /> :“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116&ndash;17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.<br /> <br /> :“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 287: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Victoria Johnson, ''American Eden: David Hosack, Botany, and Medicine in the Garden of the Early Republic'' (New York: Liveright, 2019), 229–30; B, “Botanic Garden: Letter from Mr. B to His Friends in Albany,” ''The Columbian,'' October 3, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7TQZT8DG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.<br /> <br /> :“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes, <br /> <br /> :“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’<br /> <br /> :“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the [[Greenhouse|green-house]]. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.<br /> <br /> :“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (''Columbian'' 297: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Johnson 2019, 230; D, “Botanic Garden: Answers of Mr. D. of Albany, to Mr. B.’s Letter, on the Botanic Garden,” ''The Columbian,'' October 15, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EWWDTGX6 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. [[Jet|Jet d’eaus]] [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v&ndash;x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.<br /> <br /> :<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.<br /> <br /> :“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.<br /> <br /> :“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.<br /> <br /> :“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .<br /> <br /> : <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14&ndash;15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1&ndash;4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .<br /> <br /> :“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .<br /> <br /> :“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .<br /> <br /> :“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158&ndash;159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.<br /> <br /> :“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .<br /> <br /> :“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162&ndash;66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162&ndash;66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .<br /> <br /> :“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.<br /> <br /> :“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency&mdash;the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466&ndash;67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45&ndash;46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;&mdash;and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref><br /> <br /> :“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.<br /> <br /> :“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.<br /> <br /> :“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.<br /> <br /> :“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .<br /> <br /> :“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.<br /> <br /> :“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292&ndash;93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref><br /> <br /> :“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds&mdash;this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].&mdash;This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images== <br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806. <br /> <br /> Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.<br /> <br /> Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.<br /> <br /> Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.<br /> <br /> Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.<br /> <br /> Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.<br /> <br /> Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806&ndash;15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.<br /> <br /> Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Map==<br /> {{#display_map: <br /> 40.7586, -73.9788<br /> | service=google<br /> | enablefullscreen=yes<br /> }}<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: Places]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Elgin_Botanic_Garden&diff=36224 Elgin Botanic Garden 2019-06-20T14:09:27Z

<p>K-lee: /* Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769&ndash;1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan. <br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> '''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/><br /> '''Site Dates:''' 1801&ndash;1811<br/><br /> '''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769&ndash;1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/><br /> '''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774&ndash;1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/><br /> '''Location:''': New York, NY<br/><br /> '''Condition:''' demolished<br/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]<br /> While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of &pound;300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7&ndash;10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]<br /> Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3]. <br /> [[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]<br /> <br /> <span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1&ndash;4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]<br /> Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788&ndash;1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808&ndash;9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August&ndash;October 1807): 123&ndash;31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).<br /> [[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]<br /> <br /> <span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790&ndash;1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789&ndash;1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211&ndash;12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3&ndash;4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219&ndash;22, 275&ndash;76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784&ndash;1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803&ndash;1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii&ndash;iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.<br /> [[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]<br /> <br /> The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants&mdash;operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])&mdash;failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79&ndash;84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15&ndash;19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97&ndash;98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> —''Robyn Asleson''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix&ndash;xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7&ndash;8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.<br /> <br /> :“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.<br /> <br /> :“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing&mdash;it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep&mdash;and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen&mdash;my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply&mdash;request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants&mdash;I will supply him anything I possess.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3&ndash;7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .<br /> <br /> :“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.<br /> <br /> :“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.<br /> <br /> :“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return&mdash;in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal&mdash;Poisonous&mdash;those useful in the arts&mdash;in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri&mdash;Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River&mdash;that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions&mdash;if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America&mdash;he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you&mdash;under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:&mdash;it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum&mdash;for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood&mdash;an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston&mdash;New York&mdash;Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good&mdash;<br /> <br /> :“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics&mdash;I believe much may be done upon this subject&mdash;four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring&mdash;it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October&mdash;Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year&mdash;John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool&mdash;I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york&mdash;might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed&mdash; <br /> <br /> :“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460&ndash;61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498&ndash;1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . . <br /> <br /> :“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89&ndash;91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.<br /> <br /> :“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53&ndash;54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref><br /> <br /> :“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.<br /> :::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.<br /> :::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.<br /> :::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]<br /> *<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1&ndash;4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .<br /> <br /> : <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.<br /> <br /> :“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .<br /> <br /> :“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.<br /> <br /> :“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . . <br /> <br /> :“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.<br /> <br /> :“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.<br /> <br /> :“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . . <br /> <br /> :“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.<br /> <br /> :“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116&ndash;17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.<br /> <br /> :“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 287: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Victoria Johnson, ''American Eden: David Hosack, Botany, and Medicine in the Garden of the Early Republic'' (New York: Liveright, 2019), 229–30; B, “Botanic Garden: Letter from Mr. B to His Friends in Albany,” ''The Columbian,'' October 3, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7TQZT8DG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.<br /> <br /> :“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes, <br /> <br /> :“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’<br /> <br /> :“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the [[Greenhouse|green-house]]. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.<br /> <br /> :“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (''Columbian'' 297: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Johnson 2019, 230; D, “Botanic Garden: Answers of Mr. D. of Albany, to Mr. B.’s Letter, on the Botanic Garden,” ''The Columbian,'' October 15, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EWWDTGX6 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v&ndash;x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.<br /> <br /> :<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.<br /> <br /> :“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.<br /> <br /> :“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.<br /> <br /> :“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .<br /> <br /> : <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14&ndash;15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .<br /> <br /> :“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1&ndash;4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .<br /> <br /> :“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .<br /> <br /> :“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .<br /> <br /> :“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158&ndash;159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.<br /> <br /> :“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .<br /> <br /> :“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162&ndash;66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162&ndash;66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .<br /> <br /> :“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.<br /> <br /> :“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency&mdash;the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466&ndash;67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]<br /> <br /> :“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45&ndash;46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .<br /> <br /> :“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;&mdash;and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref><br /> <br /> :“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.<br /> <br /> :“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.<br /> <br /> :“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.<br /> <br /> :“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .<br /> <br /> :“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.<br /> <br /> :“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292&ndash;93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref><br /> <br /> :“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds&mdash;this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref><br /> <br /> :“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> :“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].&mdash;This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images== <br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806. <br /> <br /> Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.<br /> <br /> Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.<br /> <br /> Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.<br /> <br /> Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.<br /> <br /> Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.<br /> <br /> Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806&ndash;15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.<br /> <br /> Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Map==<br /> {{#display_map: <br /> 40.7586, -73.9788<br /> | service=google<br /> | enablefullscreen=yes<br /> }}<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: Places]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Rosedown_Plantation&diff=36223 Rosedown Plantation 2019-06-20T13:46:47Z

<p>K-lee: /* Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Rosedown Plantation''' is one of the best-preserved and best-documented [[plantation]] gardens of early nineteenth-century Louisiana. Built and maintained with the profits from and labor of uncompensated enslaved people, the ornamental gardens of the cotton [[plantation]] synthesized local ideas about the spatial organization of agricultural and residential landscapes with [[picturesque]] principles and horticultural specimens popularized in New York and Philadelphia.<br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> '''Alternate Names:''' Rose Down<br/><br /> '''Site Dates:''' 1834–present<br/><br /> '''Site Owner(s):''' Martha and Daniel Turnbull (1834–1896); Sarah Turnbull Bowman (1896–1914); Nellie, Empsie, Isa, and Maggie Bowman (The Misses Bowman) (1914–1956); Milton Underwood and Catherine Fondren Underwood (1956–); Gene Raymond Slivka (1994–2000); the State of Louisiana (2000–present)<br/><br /> '''Associated People:''' Samuel Richardson (landscape gardener); Moses; Charles; Ben; Primus; Augustus; Dave; Jane; Jim (enslaved gardeners)<br/><br /> '''Location:''' St. Francisville, West Feliciana Parish, LA<br/><br /> '''Condition:''' altered<br/><br /> [https://goo.gl/maps/dJkR3wMC1DG2 View on Google Maps]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Located several miles inland on the eastern bank of the Mississippi river, the 3,455 acres of Rosedown Plantation were formed from seven tracts of land that Daniel Turnbull (1796–1861) and Martha Hilliard Barrow Turnbull (1809–1896) purchased between 1829 and 1861. The first of these purchases, which had been owned by members of Martha’s family, already contained an existing cotton [[plantation]] built and maintained by 74 enslaved people.<ref>Nesta Jean Anderson, “Comparing Alternative Landscapes: Power Negotiations in Enslaved Communities in Louisiana and the Bahamas, an Archaeological and Historical Perspective” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2004), 123, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref> Profits from the Turnbull’s other [[plantation]]s, Inheritance, Desoto, and Styopa, helped fund the construction and upkeep of Rosedown. In the 1840s and 1850s, just under 450 enslaved people worked without pay on the largest [[plantation]]s owned by Daniel and Martha Turnbull.<br /> <br /> Most information about the built landscape of Rosedown Plantation is preserved in Martha Turnbull’s garden diary, edited and annotated by the historian of landscape architecture Suzanne Turner, which documents a period from 1836 to 1895.<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Martha’s diary provides insights into the plantings, maintenance, and design, of the [[kitchen garden]], [[orchard]], [[greenhouse]]s, and ornamental gardens located closest to the main house, as well as a separate [[plantation]] garden in which she grew vegetables for the enslaved residents of Rosedown.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 145, (plantation cabbages), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> It largely ignores, however, other landscapes on the [[plantation]], which included cotton fields, fields for fodder crops, pastures for livestock, and probably a [[cemetery]].<ref>Turnbull 2012, 217, (graveyard), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2202.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Frances Benjamin Johnston, Lattice summerhouse at Rosedown Plantation, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.]]<br /> Like other early nineteenth-century garden diaries, such as that of the Hudson River head gardener [[James Francis Brown]], Martha Turnbull’s records of her garden are focused on weather and largely devoid of the stylistic terms that characterized prescriptive gardening literature. Later historians of gardens, however, have characterized the design of the ornamental gardens at Rosedown as an early and innovative southern example of [[picturesque]] elements inserted within a flat, symmetrical, axial plan that was typical of the region.<ref>Donna Fricker and Suzanne Turner, “Rosedown Plantation,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (Baton Rouge: Division of Historic Preservation, 2005), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]. See also Elaine Ware, “Formal Ornamental Gardens in the Ante-Bellum South,” ''Studies in Popular Culture'' 19, no. 2 (1996): 49–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NLRQ2WFK view on Zotero].</ref> An [[avenue]] lined with oak trees connected the main house to the road, bisecting a rectangular garden that visitors could navigate via gently curving [[walk]]s. Around the Turnbull house, geometric [[flower garden]]s featured [[parterre]]s bordered with boxwoods and flowering shrubs.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 92 (avenue), 106 (partarre [''sic'']), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> A [[kitchen garden]] and an [[orchard]] added in 1838 provided food for the Turnbulls to consume and sell at a local market. A variety of functional and recreational structures dotted the gardens. These included two [[greenhouse]]s, one built before 1836 and the other completed in 1855, hot [[bed]]s used to cultivate tropic fruits like pineapple, and cold [[bed]]s.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 109 (pineapple), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> A lattice [[summerhouse]] [Fig. 1], first mentioned in an 1858 entry but possibly built as early as 1835, stood among the [[flower garden]]s.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 124, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero]; Fricker and Turner 2005, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]. Two later summerhouses of uncertain date were placed in the north and south gardens on either side of the oak-lined avenue. Fricker and Turner, 18 (dated to before 1861), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]; Richard Koch, “[https://www.loc.gov/item/la0045/ Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana],” Historic American Buildings Survey (New Orleans, LA, June 1958), 2 (dated to 1895), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FKU7UJBS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Around the edges of these gardens, the grounds of Rosedown Plantation contained living [[quarter]]s and a church for enslaved people, a doctor’s office, a barn, and a milkshed.<ref>The church was moved relocated farther from the main house of the plantation in the mid-twentieth century. Thomas J. Durant, Jr., “The Enduring Legacy of an African-American Plantation Church,” ''The Journal of Negro History'' 80, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 81–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/S4D4MTVJ view on Zotero].</ref> Based on historic aerial photos, oral histories, and archaeological finds dateable to the period between 1820 and 1860, archaeologist Nesta Jean Anderson located the site of Rosedown’s slave [[quarter]]s in a depression to the northwest of the Turnbull house, between the main drive of the [[plantation]] and Alexander Creek.<ref>Anderson 2004, “Comparing Alternative Landscapes,” 127 (location), 161-162 (dateable ceramics), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Early inspiration for the Rosedown Plantation gardens would have come from a variety of descriptions, images, and firsthand experiences. Turner has revealed that the Turnbulls owned general works on gardening and agriculture by such notable figures as [[John Claudius Loudon]], and [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], and may also have been familiar with gardening literature adapted for the American South by Jacques-Felix Lelièvre (1795–1854), in French, and the nurseryman and plantation owner Thomas Affleck (1812–1868), in English.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Their library also contained more specialized works, like Robert Leuchars’s ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hot-Houses'', first printed in 1850.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 112, (Leuchars), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> The entrance hall of the main house was decorated with a panoramic Joseph Dufour wallpaper that depicted a dramatic landscape, one of many French imports that may also have shaped the taste of Martha and Daniel Turnbull.<ref>The wallpaper has been replaced at least twice, and the original subject matter of the panorama is unknown. Ola Mae Word, ''Reflections of Rosedown'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SHL4LDKA view on Zotero].</ref> They must also have found ideas in firsthand experience of leisure landscapes, which the Turnbulls encountered in their seasonal travels. To escape the Louisiana heat and outbreaks of yellow fever, the Turnbulls summered in Saratoga Springs, New York, and after 1850 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2204.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, “Italian walk,” in [[J. C. Loudon]], ''The Villa Gardener'' (1850), p. 182.]]<br /> In 1851, the Turnbull family embarked on a tour of Europe that reflected their taste in garden design and informed Martha’s approach to the Rosedown Plantation gardens in following years. Their itinerary included Liverpool Botanic Garden, Versailles, and Florence, offering them the opportunity to visit a variety of public and palatial gardens. Possibly inspired by one of [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon’s]] illustrations of an “Italian walk,” [Fig. 2], Martha purchased twelve statues for the garden from F. Leopold Pisani in Florence, maker of marble and alabaster sculptures for wealthy travelers, which she installed throughout the garden upon her return.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 86; Ola Mae Word 1979, Reflections of Rosedown (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 25. For Leopold (or Leopoldo) Pisani see Giuseppe Formigli, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N3QM15fKOyYC&lpg=PA258&dq=Guida%20della%20citta%CC%80%20di%20Firenze%20e%20suoi%20contorni%20leopoldo%20pisani&pg=PA258#v=onepage&q=pisani%20leopoldo&f=false Guida per la città di Firenze e suoi contorni]'' (Firenze: Presso i F. Carini e Giuseppe Formigli, 1849), 258, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B7ZGAYSS view on Zotero].</ref> These included mythological figures as well as female allegorical personifications of Asia, Africa [Fig. 3], Europe, and America.<ref>The marble sculptures, several of which were photographed in the Carnegie Survey of the Architecture of the South, were removed by Gene Raymond Slivka. Cast-iron garden decorations from Rosedown appeared at Cakebread Auction (April 25–26, 2015).</ref> The seashell-encrusted [[rockery]] that Martha added in 1858 was probably also inspired by features that she observed on her journey.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 125, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2203.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Frances Benjamin Johnston, Statue of the personification of Africa, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.]]<br /> Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, most of the construction and maintenance of Rosedown Plantation was undertaken by enslaved people. <span id="ForeignGardner_cite"></span> An anecdote in Frederic Law Olmsted's travelogues, published first as ''A Journey in the Back Country'' and later as ''The Cotton Kingdom'', reveals that it was "all the fashion" for rich [[plantation]] owners like the Turnbulls to hire European immigrant landscape gardeners ([[#ForeignGardner|view text]]). The only professional gardener who can be identified in Martha Turnbull’s diary is Samuel Richardson, a landscape gardener who lived in Bayou Sara in the 1840s and left the service of Martha Turnbull in November of 1847.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Richardson_cite"></span>His advertisements in the local newspaper cite the Turnbulls of Rosedown among his references, as well as Isaac Johnson (1803–1853), the governor of Louisiana and owner of Fairview Plantation on Bayou Sara, David Austin at Bayou Sara, and Martha’s nephew Robert Hilliard Barrow (1824–1878), owner of the Rosale Plantation near St. Francisville ([[#Richardson|view text]]). By 1868, a gardener’s house stood on the [[plantation]] grounds, although Martha’s diary never mentions the title of head gardener.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 183, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> With the exception of her children Sarah (1831–1914) and William (1829–1856), most of the people named in Martha’s diary prior to the Civil War can be identified with enslaved individuals listed in an 1858 succession document: Moses (age 21), Charles (17); or an 1862 inventory of enslaved people: Ben, Primus (28), Augustus (16?), Dave (17?), Jane (28 or 31), and Jim (65 or 66?).<ref>Anderson 2004, 225-227 (1858), 57-63 (1862), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero]. Jane may in fact have been recaptured after fleeing enslavement in 1849, although it is not clear if the escaped woman is the same individual mentioned by Martha Turnbull.</ref> Charles may have specialized in propagating and potting [[greenhouse]] plants, <span id="Budding_cite"></span>Jane and Moses grafted fruit trees using a technique known as budding ([[#Budding|view text]]), and <span id="Strawberries_cite"></span>Ben sold vegetables and other produce at a nearby town market ([[#Strawberries|view text]]). Daniel Turnbull’s journal entries from 1860 frequently mention “invalids in garden,” suggesting that the enslaved people whom the Turnbulls regularly forced to work in the gardens at Rosedown had disabilities or illnesses that precluded more physically demanding tasks.<ref>Fricker and Turner 2005, 30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Early gardening literature from the region suggests that the number of enslaved people forced to work in the Turnbull gardens was atypically high, perhaps a consequence of the size and wealth their plantations. <span id="ExtraHeavy_cite"></span>Daniel Turnbull ranked among the “extra heavy” plantation owners of West Feliciana, one of the richest parishes in Louisiana, in which enslaved African Americans outnumbered white people five to one ([[#ExtraHeavy|view text]]). Thomas Affleck, owner of a [[nursery]] in Washington, Mississippi outside of Natchez, asserted in the 1851 edition of his ''Southern Rural Almanac and Plantation and Garden Calendar'', “Very rarely is any assistance given by the plantations hands, the whole [[kitchen garden|[kitchen] garden]] being kept in fine order by house-servants, during their leisure time.”<ref>Thomas Affleck, ''Affleck’s Southern Rural Almanac, and Plantation and Garden Calendar, for 1851'' (New Orleans: Office of the “Picayune,” 1850), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7SIH9KQH view on Zotero]. Via Turnbull 2012, 102, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Contrary to Affleck’s claims, large groups of enslaved people carried out labor intensive tasks in the gardens at Rosedown, especially during the busiest spring and fall months. <span id="Strawberries_cite"></span>One entry from April 1856 in Martha’s diary states “I had 18 negroes picking strawberries” ([[#Strawberries|view text]]), <span id="15Hands_cite"></span>while another from March 1860 records “Jim has had 15 hands cleaning Garden for a month” ([[#15Hands|view text]]).<br /> <br /> Martha Turnbull acquired the plants and seeds for her gardens from both long distance and local sources. The [[nursery]] of [[Robert Buist]] in Philadelphia was a preferred source for many of the seeds and plants for Rosedown, possibly by way of local nurserymen and importers in Louisiana, but Martha also bought from the [[nursery]] of Colonel Hebron near Vicksburg, Mississippi; Makenzie in Philadelphia; William Prince in Flushing, New York; and a nursery in Long Island.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 21 (Buist and Prince), 114 (Makenzie), 127 (Hebron), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Other plants and cuttings she acquired through exchanges with the owners of neighboring [[plantation]]s, including Mrs. Mathews of Oakley Plantation, Mr. Fort of Catalpa Plantation, and possibly Judge Thomas Butler of the Cottage Plantation, each of whom also had extensive gardens.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 41 (Judge Thomas Butler), 89 (Mrs. Mathews and Mr. Fort), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero]. For more about the gardens of Thomas Butler at his plantation, the Cottage, see Suzanne Louise Turner, “Plantation Papers as a Source for Landscape Documentation and Interpretation: The Thomas Butler Papers,” ''Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology'' 12, no. 3 (1980): 28–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3DVEFUZC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Martha participated in the economy of plants and ideas that emerged in Philadelphia and New York, her diary reveals that her own ideas about gardening were mediated by local practicalities and regional preferences. Martha and Daniel Turnbull subscribed to the ''Horticulturist'', published by nurseryman and theorist [[A. J. Downing]]’s publications beginning in the 1840s. Yet as Turner notes, the phrase “[[pleasure ground]]s” does not appear in Martha’s garden diary until 1872, twenty years after [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] death, and several of Martha’s planting and maintenance decisions disregard [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] guidelines for producing [[picturesque]] landscapes.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 75 (trimming trees), 110-111 (lombardy poplars), 216 (pleasure ground), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MossHouse_cite"></span>A moss house that an enslaved man named Jim built in January of 1849 ([[#MossHouse|view text]]), could equally have been inspired by one of [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] publications, <span id="Richardson_cite"></span>or by the local landscape gardener Samuel Richardson, who mentioned such features by name in newspaper advertisements that appeared the same month ([[#Richardson|view text]]).<br /> <br /> Martha Turnbull continued to maintain the gardens following the death of Daniel Turnbull in 1861, the American Civil War, and the emancipation of her enslaved workforce. While some formerly enslaved gardeners, particularly Ben and Augustus, are also mentioned in entries dated after the war in 1865, <span id="Sharecroppers_cite"></span>the emergence of a sharecropping economy at Rosedown was reflected by a new group of paid laborers who appear in the garden diary ([[#Sharecroppers|view text]]). As a consequence of the economic hardship that the [[plantation]] faced, entries written after 1867 demonstrate a new and systematic emphasis on garden-related expenses.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 171, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Following Martha’s death in 1896, the gardens survived largely unaltered, if somewhat neglected, until the property was acquired by Catherine Fondren Underwood in 1956. Underwood sponsored a restoration of the gardens overseen by Ralph Ellis Gunn, but she demolished the remains of slave [[quarter]]s north of the gardens in which many of Martha’s gardeners would have resided.<ref>Anderson 2004, 143, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref> Gunn’s restoration has been praised for its historical accuracy, although it altered the planting and design with the addition of several [[fountain]]s, one built on foundations that originally supported a [[greenhouse]].<ref>Fricker and Turner 2005, 9, 19–20 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero].</ref> In 2000, the State of Louisiana purchased Rosedown, which it operates it as a State Historic Site.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Richardson"></div>Richardson, Samuel, January 13, 1849, advertisement for landscape and ornamental gardening services (''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', issue 161)<ref>Samuel Richardson, “Landscape and Ornamental Gardening,” ''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', January 13, 1849, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/YASNYULR view on Zotero]. Also printed in issues published January 2, 1849 and January 10, 1849.</ref> [[#Richardson_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL GARDENING<br /> :“THE undersigned respectfully tenders his services in the above line of work, and in building of MOSS and [[Rustic style|RUSTIC]] houses. Garden [[Seat]]s, will give places for [[greenhouse|Green-houses]], [[Conservatory|Conservitorys]], &c., in his depart- as a practical Gardener.<br /> :“REFERENCES<br /> :“His Excellency Isaac Johnson, Gov. of La.<br /> :“Daniel Turnbull, Esqr., ‘Rosedown,’ W.F.<br /> :“David Austin, Esqr., Bayou Sara.<br /> :“Robert H. Barrow, Esqr., near St. Francisville, where extensive specimens of his work will be seen.<br /> :“Communications to me, to the care of Mr. B. Marshall, Commission Merchant, will be immediately attended to.<br /> :“SAMUEL RICHARDSON<br /> :“Bayou Sara, Dec. 9, 1848.—Dec. 29–4t”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="MossHouse"></div>Turnbull, Martha, January 4–February 1, 1849, describing the construction of moss house (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 65–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MossHouse_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Jany. 1849 4 we have spaded all the Garden today—the first time. Sewed Peas, Irish Potatoes. Set out the [[Orangery]] today.<br /> :“6 cleaning & trimming our [[Orchard]] over the creek—done all the other triming & putting out cuttings—set out all the flowers that were sewed in October<br /> :“14th still rainy walks very grassy. Putting down box, sewed Tomattoes—burnt off strawberry bed—Jim is mossing the house—Egg Plant<br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach [[hedge]] to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—<br /> :“25 all cuttings, triming done, & gone to general gardening—still wet as water—forked asparagus [[bed]]—<br /> :“February 1st Sticking Peas—planting more Irish Potatoes—finished the walks on one side of garden—began on the other—got half of Moss house done mossing—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Daniel, November 17, 1849 (''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', Issue 84)<ref>Daniel Turnbull, “$500 Reward,” Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette, November 17, 1849, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JPBWWWFL view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“$500 REWARD!!<br /> :“RUNAWAY, or was enticed away on the evening of the 6th instant, girl JANE; she is a likely mulatto, 19 or 20 years old, five feet, four or five inches in height, she cannot straighten one of her small fingers, and one thumb is deformed from a whitlow, it is believed to be on the right hand; one of her large toes is also disfigured from the same cause; she has a good deal of fine clothing with her.<br /> :“I will give for her apprehension if secured in jail, so that I can get her, one hundred dollars if taken in this State, and two hundred dollars if taken out of the State; three hundred dollars for the apprehension and conviction of the person or persons who have abducted or conspired her abduction.<br /> :“DANIEL TURNBULL<br /> :“Rosedown, W. F. Nov. 10, 1849.<br /> :“P.S.—It is possible she may have been sent by steamboat up the river.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, November 1, 1852, describing work in the gardens at Rosedown mentioning several enslaved people, including Jane, Jim, and Primus, and Martha’s twenty-one-year-old daughter Sarah Turnbull, who had responsibility for half of the garden (Turnbull: 87–89)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 87–89, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Nov 1st Jane is sticking down all kinds of cuttings—Jim fixing hot [[bed]]—it was cool this morning—but really hot in the sun—& looks like too much fair weather—arranging all my shrubs that are too close—gathering hay—manure all hauled on Sarah’s side—Primus tying up the roses—& trimming the [[hedge]]s—& shrubs into shapes”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, July 4–July 8, 1853, describing some of the many pulses, vegetables, and fruit in her [[kitchen garden]] and [[orchard]] (Turnbull: 94–96)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 94–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“July 4th the first rain for six weeks—put down layers of many [[greenhouse]] plants & put down Tomattoes slips—Lettuce seed, Arbor beans, Snap, Watermelons, Cauliflower seed Cabbage & Celery set out & put down seed, Carrots, Parsnips, Salsify, Corn, & all sewed. My garden looked deplorable my violets I feared were gone—but everything now revived—My Paris Artichokes seed not good, also saved some of my old kind.<br /> :“8 A continuation of rains, too wet to plough or work in my garden—set out Celery & Cabbage plants—My Cuttings are much improved—<br /> :“July We had on the creek [[Orchard]] many Peach trees—8 Blue Figs—2 Pear Trees—11 apples—9 quince—30 Azelia’s—13 Heliotrope—15 Red flower from coast.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Budding"></div>Turnbull, Martha, September 1855, describing the autumnal tasks assigned to skilled enslaved workers in the garden (Turnbull: 101–103)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 101–103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Budding_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Sept. 2nd Made two small Strawberry [[bed]]s & planted them down Sewed Carrots, Parsnips, Salsify—Turnips—Leeks Onions Beets Spinage &c—Mr. T. sewed his grass seed from Carolina—I had to put out all my servants in the Garden, it was overgrown with grass, weeds, &c—Jane & Moses budded many Peach, Pear, Roses Japonicas—2 whole days at it—very cloudy, threatening &—I have no Tomattoes, snap beans, Arbor beans, &c to eat—I gave a new Gardners line out—Charles is constantly potting off & put out many verbenas that he had in [[pot]]s during the summer—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Strawberries"></div>Turnbull, Martha, April 1–26, 1856, describing flowers and an abundant strawberry harvest (Turnbull: 122)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 122, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Strawberries_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“April 1st—My Chrysanthemums are beautiful—All new shrubs are exausted & I think will die—The Geraneams are beautiful I cut down—<br /> :“April 20 I shall put down all my Chrysanthemums in the ground—I am eating Peas for two weeks—Strawberries are very abundant—picked off of one 3rd of the [[bed]] enough for 30 people—& still the [[bed]] red—<br /> :“24 I picked 17 Quarts of Strawberries off 1 third of the [[bed]]<br /> :“25th I had 18 negroes picking strawberries until 11 O & did not go over but ½ the [[bed]]—I now have 8 Watering [[Pot]]s—2 Engines.<br /> :“26 I gathered 2 ½ bushels Strawberries—Ben made 9$—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="15Hands"></div>Turnbull, Martha, March 18–August 21, 1860, mentioning more than fifteen enslaved workers active in the gardens (Turnbull: 127)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#15Hands_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“18th All my Paris Artichokes to 6 killed—It look like an abundant Spring garden—Jim has had 15 hands cleaning Garden for a month—but since drouth it is getting clean—Charles is propigating.<br /> :“April One shower only—a drouth—Myrtle [[hedge]] &c all come up & things look better than I expected—I never had such a fine garden notwithstanding drouths—No more rain until July 7th a good shower—No more rain until August 21st such a drouth never saw before—Dave planted out Cauliflower, Broccoli, Celery & how he has managed to keep it alive I cannot tell.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="ExtraHeavy"></div>Anonymous (“Tourist”), May 21, 1860, “Louisiana in Slices. Parish of West Feliciana” mentioning Daniel Turnbull among the owners of the largest [[plantation]]s in Louisiana (''New Orleans Daily Crescent'', vol. 13, no. 66: 1)<ref>“Louisiana in Slices: Parish of West Feliciana,” ''New Orleans Daily Crescent'', May 21, 1860, Morning edition, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3RHHZ4ZI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#ExtraHeavy_cite|Back up to History]] <br /> :“West Feliciana is one of the wealthiest parishes of the State, being high among the second rates in wealth and population. [. . . .] The total population of the parish is 12,000, in round numbers, of which about 2000 are whites and about 10,000 slaves, the free negroes being few. [. . . .] Cotton is the principal product. Of the 227,367 acres forming its entire area, about 35,000 are in cotton, 5000 in cane and 19,000 in corn, leaving some 165,000 or 170,000 uncultivated. [. . . .] Many of the planters grown both cotton and cane, but they are generally engaged exclusively in raising either one or the other rather than both. Some of the planters of this parish rank among the largest in the State, and among the extra heavy men may be mentioned Mssrs. Joseph A. S. Acklen, David Barrow, Wm. Ruffin Barrow, Sr., Wm. J. Fort, John Scott Smith, Wm. H. Stirling, Daniel Turnbull, etc.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="ForeignGardner"></div>Frederick Law Olmsted, 1861, ''The Cotton Kingdom'' (Olmsted 1861: 163–164)<ref>Frederick Law Olmsted, [https://archive.org/details/cottonkingdomtra00olms/page/n5 ''The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller’s Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States''], vol. 2 (New York: Mason Brothers, 1861), 163–64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RM4AZRBH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#ForeignGardner_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“‘Do you remember a place you passed?’ [describing the locality].<br /> :“‘Yes,’ said I; ‘a pretty cottage with a large garden, with some [[statue]]s or [[Vase/Urn|vases]] in it.’<br /> :“‘I think it likely. Got a foreign gardener, I expect. That’s all the fashion with them. A nigger isn’t good enough for them. Well, that belongs to Mr. A. J. Clayborn.[?] He’s got to be a very rich man. I suppose he’s got as many as five hundred people on all his places. He went out to Europe a few years ago, and sometime after he came back, he came up to Natchez. I was there with my wife at the same time, and as she and Mrs. Clayborn came from the same section of country, and used to know each other when they were girls, she thought she must go and see her. Mrs. Clayborn could not talk about anything but the great people they had seen in Europe. She was telling of some great nobleman’s castle they went to, and the splendid [[park]] there was to it, and how grandly they lived. For her part, she admired it so much, and they made so many friends among the people of quality she said, she didn’t care if they always stayed there. In fact, she really wanted Mr. Clayborn to buy one of the castles, and be a nobleman himself. “But he wouldn’t,” says she; “he’s such a strong Democrat, you know.” Ha! Ha! Ha! I wonder what old Tom Jeff. would have said to these swell-head Democrats.’”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 1863, describing the impact of the Civil War on her gardens at Rosedown Plantation (Turnbull: 151–152)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 151–152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Jany. 1864—Up to this time, since the Federals landed in May neither field or garden has been worked, the garden is a [[wilderness]], sedge grass. It looks melancholly—My vegetable garden being plowed—I have commenced work, but slowly—before Christmas I put out trees &c—fixed up hot [[bed]]—& filled it with Pine Apple—continued rains & very hard—Celery very good—Spinage very good—put out a number of trees—put out the Strawberries I could find left in the [creek]—made my new road in field—all plow lines made—began to plow 5th—with 15 plows—making up fences, cutting wood, going in swamp, all plows, chains &c fixed up in Dec. by Old Joe—I have 30 lbs. of Pork & beef together—36 barrels Molasses & 8 hogshead of Sugar for the year—50 head of small cattle—8 old sheep &c—It is intensely cold, ground all frozen—creek higher than it has been for years—so soon as water falls it freezes. Thermometer at 12 O (clock) in the day 27°. [2nd Jan] It was 17 at sunrise [on Gallery]—22° in Study at 8 O morning—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Sharecroppers"></div>Turnbull, Martha, March 4, 1869, mentioning the paid gardeners whom Martha employed following the emancipation of her enslaved gardeners (Turnbull: 188)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 188, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sharecroppers_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[March] 4th Planted, Corn, Spinach, Ben hawling manure, John plowing Penny Lancaster & Bob helped me two days—Bicks, James, & Truckpatch Orchard contains 8 acres—I suppose I cultivate in vegetables 5 acres—Trees 3 acres—[[Flower garden]]—5 acres—Big Ben Prenter & John are to cultivate it—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, April 15, 1872, the first entry in which Turnbull uses the term “[[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]]” rather than “gardens” to describe part of Rosedown Plantation (Turnbull: 216)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 216, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“[April] 15 Augustus worked two days for himself—& Ben in [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]], cleaning [[Statue|Stattues]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:2204.jpg|Anonymous, “Italian walk,” in [[J. C. Loudon]], ''The Villa Gardener'' (1850), p. 182, fig. 93. <br /> <br /> File:2202.jpg| Frances Benjamin Johnston, Lattice summerhouse at Rosedown Plantation, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.<br /> <br /> File:2203.jpg|Frances Benjamin Johnston, Statue of the personification of Africa, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Map==<br /> {{#display_map: <br /> 30.797698, -91.371521<br /> | service=google<br /> | enablefullscreen=yes<br /> }}<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://www.crt.state.la.us/louisiana-state-parks/historic-sites/rosedown-plantation-state-historic-site/index Louisiana State Historic Sites– Rosedown Plantation]<br /> <br /> [https://www.loc.gov/item/la0045/ Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) Documentation]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr/><br /> <br /> [[Category:Places]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Geometric_style&diff=36189 Geometric style 2019-06-13T15:37:16Z

<p>K-lee: /* Attributed */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Ancient style]]<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:0370.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14. ]]<br /> [[File:0017.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].]]<br /> The term geometric style came into use only when it was necessary to make a distinction between the traditional mode of laying out gardens and the newer [[Modern_style|modern]], [[Natural style|natural]], or irregular style. Geometric, ancient, and formal were terms used interchangeably to describe gardens laid out symmetrically in straight lines, with strong axial circulation paths and geometrically regular [[bed]]s [Fig. 1] (see [[Ancient style]]). The style was associated with French, Anglo-Dutch, and Italian traditions of gardening (see [[Dutch style]] and [[French style]]). In America, the geometric style continued to be popular long after the [[Natural style|natural]] or modern style was introduced. As part of a larger landscaped garden, the flower garden was a feature that lent itself to regular shapes. Early public buildings such as the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia [Fig. 2], and Governor’s House in New Bern, North Carolina [Fig. 3], were laid out in a geometric style although, again, the term was used only after the modern style had become popular. The geometric style continued to be used in public places because of its long-standing association with centers of government. <br /> <br /> [[File:0248.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.]]<br /> [[File:1675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 17. ]]<br /> The geometric style was also used well into the 19th century for domestic landscapes throughout the colonies. Often found in town gardens, this style suited the orthogonal layout of street plans and small lots.<ref>For a discussion of geometric layouts of Louisiana gardens, see Suzanne Turner, “Roots of a Regional Garden Tradition: The Drawings of the New Orleans Notarial Archives,” in ''Regional Garden Design in the United States'', ed. T. O’Malley and M. Treib (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995), 163–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQB5TZTU view on Zotero].</ref> It was equally prevalent in the [[plantation]] landscape throughout the South [Fig. 4].<ref>For a discussion of the geometrical principles of plantation layouts, see C. Allan Brown, “Eighteenth-Century Virginia Plantation Gardens: Translating an Ancient Idyll,” in ''Regional Garden Design in the United States'', 125–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IT2UBCXX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]’s description of [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia explained the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the geometric mode, listing the standard features of the style with its artificial [[plantation]]s and highly regularized gardens. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) contains a miniature vignette of the two main modes of garden design [Fig. 4]. Downing’s descriptions of earlier American gardens, such as [[Lemon Hill]], were respectful from a historical point of view. However, he denigrated his compatriots who continued to practice this mode. His English contemporary, [[Jane Loudon]], whose work he was the first to publish in this country, described the geometric style succinctly without the negative tone found in garden writings such as Downing’s. Mrs. Loudon offered the style as an alternative, suitable and appropriate wherever symmetrical architecture existed. The term “artificial” was often used synonymously with “geometric,” especially when opposed to the so-called [[Natural style|natural]] (or [[modern style]]), as in the quotations of George Watterston and Downing. <br /> <br /> —''Therese O’Malley''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3 (1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[Dr. Hosack]]’s [[seat]], [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the ancient or '''geometric style''' may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *W., February 1842, describing Lowell Cemetery, Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8 (1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In laying out these grounds, the skill of the designer has been displayed, in combining somewhat the ‘ancient or '''geometric style'''’ with the [[Natural_style|natural]] or irregular. In some parts, the regular forms and right lines are well adapted to the location of the ground, while in others, the varied and gradually curving forms give an air of grandeur and boldness, and in combining these with the natural scenery, cannot fail to call forth, in the minds of visitors, impressions of love and veneration.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia (1849; repr., 1991: 43)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the Fairmount waterworks of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the '''geometric''' mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jets-d’eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the Schuylkill, admirable; and its liberal proprietor, [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.”<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1005–6, 1020–21)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“7205. ''In planting in the '''geometric style''''', the first consideration is the nature of the whole or general design; and here, as in the ground, '''geometric''' forms will still prevail, and while the masses reflect forms from the house, or represent [[square]]s, triangles, or trapeziums, the more minute parts, characterised by lines rather than forms, such as [[avenue]]s, rows, [[clump]]s, and stars, &c. are contained in parallelograms, squares, or circles. In regard to the parts, masses and [[avenue]]s should extend from the house in all directions, so far as to diffuse around the character of design; and as much farther in particular directions as the nature of the surface admits of, the distant beauties suggest, and the character of the mansion requires. In disposing these masses, whether on a flat or irregular surface, regard will be had to leave uncovered such a quantity of [[lawn]] or turf as shall, at all events, admit a free circulation of air, give breadth of light, and display the form of the large masses of wood. Uniformity and variety as a whole, and use as well as beauty in the parts, must be kept constantly in [[view]]. [[Avenue]]s, [[alley]]s, and [[vista]]s, should serve as much as possible as roads, [[walk]]s, lines of [[fence]]s, or screens of shelter or shade; but where this is not the case, they should point to some distant beauties, or near artificial objects, to be seen at or beyond their termination. The outer extremities of artificial [[plantation]]s may either join natural [[wood]]s, other artificial scenes, cultivated lands, or barren heaths or [[common]]s. . . . <br /> :“7262. ''The [[lawn]]'', or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending in different directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the '''geometric style''', varied by architectural forms, levels, and [[slope]]s; and in the modern by a [[picturesque]] or painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and throw the [[lawn]] into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the lawn may embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of [[terrace]]-scenery, and may be separated from the [[park]], or park-like field, by a light wire [[fence]]; but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a [[terrace]], or some avowedly artificial architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk wall, as a distant separation, will be more dignified and permanent than any iron [[fence]]. The [[park]] may come close up to the [[terrace]]-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is considerable. . . . <br /> :“7265. ''The [[park]]''. . . . In the '''geometric style''', the more distant or concealed parts were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad stripes or double rows, enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s, and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with [[wood]], enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The uniformity produced by straight [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s bordered by regular rows of trees, another characteristic of the old or '''geometrical style''', though pleasing at first, soon becomes tiresome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1753.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], “A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the Geometrical Style,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 530, fig. 200. ]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838: 529–31)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the '''Geometrical Style'''.''—The object in this case is to produce a splendid effect at a moderate expense of annual keeping, but with no regard to profit. The general form of the ground is that of a parallelogram, and its disposition is so clearly shown in the isometrical view. . . that it will require little or no description. The entrance is through a straight [[avenue]] to a flight of steps, which leads to a raised platform on which the house stands. To the right and left of the [[avenue]] are double rows of trees, which may be fruit-bearing kinds, such as the apple, pear, cherry, and plum. Beyond these, on each side, are two small [[kitchen-garden]]s, intended for gooseberries, strawberries, and other small fruits, and for pot-herbs, tart rhubarb, spinach, kidneybeans, and a few such vegetables as are desirable to have always at hand. The house and these [[kitchen-garden]]s occupy about half the entire residence.The other half is laid out in the form of a sunk [[flower-garden]], consisting of a variety of curvilinear [[bed]]s, bordered by a kerb of stone, and surrounded by turf. From the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s there are four descents to this garden, each consisting of a double flight of steps. Each [[bed]] is supposed to be planted with one kind of herbaceous plant, so as to produce large masses of colour. The mode of selecting plants for this purpose, as well as lists of suitable plants, have been already given (p. 217 to p. 226), and further resources will be found in our catalogue. The sloping [[border]] between the sunk area and the [[flower-garden]] may either be planted with low evergreen [[shrub]]s, with roses kept low, or it may be in turf, or in [[rockwork]]: in the latter case, it may be covered with a collection of rock plants. Perhaps the most appropriate disposition of this sloping [[border]] would be to vary it with ornaments of box, on a ground of turf, so as to give it the appearance of an architectural moulding. In the centre there is a [[fountain]]. In situations where so much turf was not desirable, the [[walk]]s between the [[bed]]s might be of gravel or paved; but they will produce the best effect in turf.” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“It is probably as difficult to fix upon the most suitable plant for the [[edging]] of a flower bed, as it is to determine the best [[shrub]] for a [[hedge]] around fields. For the borders of main [[avenue]]s, or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best; but for small [[parterre]]s, or the flower [[bed]]s in a front door [[yard]], it seems much less suitable. They can commonly be taken in at one glance of the eye, and notwithstanding all that has been said of the artificial or '''geometric style''', it is the proper one for such places; for symmetry, or a perfect balance of corresponding parts, greatly strengthens the impression of such a scene, taken as a whole, or single mass of objects. The [[bed]]s, therefore, will not only be small, but when there is the proper variety in the form of them, some, at least, must have quite acute angles. Box, if thrifty, (and, sickly, it would be an eyesore any where,) soon takes up too much space in breadth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Watterston, George, May 1844, “Landscape Gardening” (1844: 307–8, 310–11)<ref>George Watterston, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10 (May 1844): 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Dutch style]], introduced by William III., and which prevailed in England for about fifty years was not much better, and was distinguished for sloped [[terrace]]s formed of grass, land and water made into regular shapes by art, and adorned with trees in [[pot]]s, or ‘planted alternately and clipped to preserve the most perfect regularity of shape’— and leisure, ‘in trim gardens, took his pleasure.’ ‘The compass and the square,’ says Walpole, ‘were of more use than the nurseryman. The measured [[walk]], the quincunx and the étoile imposed their unsatisfying sameness on every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed and their sides pared away; many French [[grove]]s seem green chests set upon poles. Seats of marble, [[arbor]]s and [[summer house]]s terminated every [[vista]], and symmetry, even when the space was too large to permit its being remarked at one [[view]], was so essential, that, as Pope observed, <br /> <br /> ::‘[[Grove]] nods to ''[[grove]]'', each [[alley]] has a brother <br /> ::And half the platform just reflects the other.’ <br /> <br /> :This formal, or '''geometric style''' was all the rage at the commencement of the 17th century in those parts of Europe where ornamental gardening prevailed, and the most distinguished artist of that age, if artist he could be called, was ''Le Notre''. . . . <br /> :“In passing from the [[ancient style|ancient]], or '''geometric style''', to the [[Modern_style|modern]], or [[Natural style|natural]], the first improvers fell, perhaps, into an opposite extreme. This is the danger in all sudden transitions. They seemed to conceive that crooked lines, serpentine windings and carelessness were true objects of beauty, and declared that nature ''abhorred a straight line''; and thus fatigued the eye by incessant curves. They did not seem to be aware, that in her sublimest works nature prefers the straight line, as is shown in the apparent horizon of the ocean and the rays of the sun.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 221–22)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''GEOMETRIC''' GARDENS.—This style of gardening is that in which the shape of the ground, of the [[bed]]s, of the [[walk]]s, and even of the [[shrub]]s, is regular, or symmetrical; such as may be formed on paper by a rule and compass. The ground, if originally flat, is reduced to a general level surface, over which the [[bed]]s, or [[border]]s, are distributed so as to form figures, either simply regular, such as [[square]]s and parallelograms, repeated one after another—or [[square]]s and parallelograms, and circles or ovals, or other curvilinear figures,—so arranged as to be symmetrical; that is to say, that one-half of the figure formed by the whole shall correspond with the other half. When the surface is naturally irregular or on a [[slope]], it is thrown into different levels, which are joined by steep slopes called [[terrace]]s, generally covered with turf, and ascended and descended by stone steps. Each of the levels is laid out either regularly or symmetrically, in the same manner as if the whole were only one [[bed]]; but the figures are of course smaller. Small trees or evergreen [[shrub]]s are distributed among the figures, and especially on each side of the main [[walk]]s; and these trees or [[shrub]]s ought, in strict accordance with the style, to be cut or clipped into regular shapes; such as cones, pyramids, balls, candelabra, [[statue]]s of men or animals, [[arcade]]s, [[column]]s, or other architectural figures. In modern practice, this is generally neglected; but its omission is a defect, for cut trees are as essential to the '''geometric style''', as having the ground cut or shaped into artificial surfaces.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Nearly all the [[flower garden]]s of the country are laid out in '''geometrical''' lines; a style, it is true much better adapted to the small piece of ground allotted to flowers, than to the larger landscape garden composed of trees, [[lawn]]s, and sheets of water. With a wish however, to encourage a more graceful, pleasing, and [[picturesque]] mode of laying out even the small [[flower garden]] in connexion with the [[shrubbery]], we have given the above plan, which nearly explains itself.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3 (May 1848): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The old '''geometric''' [[flower garden]]s, laid out with long [[bed]]s, bordered with box, and separated by stiff gravel [[walk]]s, are fast giving place to those more tasteful combinations of masses of gay, perpetual flowering plants, arranged upon turf, in the arabesque or [[English style]]. <br /> :“In the former, you have a miscellaneous collection of plants, of all sizes and habits of growth, only a small part of which are seen in bloom at one time; while at almost all seasons naked stalks of plants, and bare dry soil borders, appear here and there, almost in spite of the best efforts of the gardener, to disfigure and mar the general elegance of the scene. <br /> :“In the latter, you have always the rich setting of the soft green turf, (which, of course mown once a fortnight, is short and velvet-like) and contrasting and enhanced in effect by this, are seen the [[bed]]s of dwarfish plants, grown in masses, so as to give breadth and brilliancy of effect; these being composed only of plants almost perpetually in bloom, unite to form a floral picture, when well managed, as beautiful as the art of gardening will permit.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.]]<br /> *Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I send you a plan for a '''geometrical''' [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind. <br /> :“When the nature of the ground will admit, the French [[parterre]], or '''geometrical''' [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers.” [Fig. 6] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If [the rich man’s [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''geometrical style''', the trees will stand in lines or figures; some cut into different shapes and forms, from a [[seat]] to a [[temple]].” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 4)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Landscape Gardening]] was, formerly, the imitation of '''geometric''' figures; hence the [[ancient style|ancient]] mode of it is called the '''geometric style''' of gardening.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 21–22, 27, 91–93, 531)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“All late authors agree in these two distinct and widely different modes of the art; 1st, the [[ancient style|Ancient]], Formal, or '''Geometric Style'''; 2d, the [[Modern_style|Modern]], [[Natural style|Natural]], or Irregular Style. <br /> :“THE [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials; an arrangement the more striking, as it differed most widely from nature. And in an age when costly and stately architecture was most abundant, as in the times of the Roman empire, it is natural to suppose, that the symmetry and studied elegance of the palace, or the villa, would be transferred and continued in the surrounding gardens. . . . <br /> :“Pliny’s garden, of which a pretty minute account remains,—filled with cypresses and bay trees, planted to form a coursing place or hippodrome, adorned with ''vis-à-vis'' figures of animals cut in box trees, and decorated with [[fountain]]s and marble [[alcove]]s, shaded by vines—seems, indeed, to have been the true classical type of all the later efforts of modern continental nations in their '''geometric''' gardens. . . . <br /> [[File:0371.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17. ]]<br /> :“It would appear to be an undeniable fact in the history of ornamental gardening that, from the time of William the Conqueror down to the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne, and the beginning of that of George I., nothing was considered garden scenery except [if] it was in the formal and ''geometric style''. . . . <br /> :“One of the favorite fancies of the '''geometric''' gardener was the [[Labyrinth]] . . . of which a few celebrated examples are still in existence in England, and which consisted of a multitude of trees thickly planted in impervious [[hedge]]s, covering sometimes several acres of ground. . . . [Fig. 7] <br /> :“It has been remarked, that the '''geometric style''' would always be preferred in a new country, or in any country where the amount of land under cultivation is much less than that covered with natural [[wood]]s and forests; as the inhabitants being surrounded by scenery abounding with natural beauty, would always incline to lay out their gardens and [[pleasure-ground]]s in regular forms, because the distinct exhibition of art would give more pleasure by contrast, than the elegant imitation of beautiful nature. That this is true as regards the mass of uncultivated minds, we do not deny. But at the same time we affirm that it evinces a meagre taste, and a lower state of the art, or a lower perception of beauty in the individual who employs the '''geometrical style''' in such cases. . . . : <br /> :“The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the [[Ancient_style|ancient]] or '''geometric style''', or in the symmetrical [[terrace]] [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1753.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the Geometrical Style,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 530, fig. 200. <br /> <br /> File:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67. <br /> <br /> File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 17. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].<br /> <br /> File:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.<br /> <br /> File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.<br /> <br /> File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.<br /> <br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> <br /> File:0371.jpg|Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 91, fig. 17. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Garden Styles]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Geometric_style&diff=36188 Geometric style 2019-06-13T15:37:03Z

<p>K-lee: /* Attributed */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Ancient style]]<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:0370.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14. ]]<br /> [[File:0017.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].]]<br /> The term geometric style came into use only when it was necessary to make a distinction between the traditional mode of laying out gardens and the newer [[Modern_style|modern]], [[Natural style|natural]], or irregular style. Geometric, ancient, and formal were terms used interchangeably to describe gardens laid out symmetrically in straight lines, with strong axial circulation paths and geometrically regular [[bed]]s [Fig. 1] (see [[Ancient style]]). The style was associated with French, Anglo-Dutch, and Italian traditions of gardening (see [[Dutch style]] and [[French style]]). In America, the geometric style continued to be popular long after the [[Natural style|natural]] or modern style was introduced. As part of a larger landscaped garden, the flower garden was a feature that lent itself to regular shapes. Early public buildings such as the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia [Fig. 2], and Governor’s House in New Bern, North Carolina [Fig. 3], were laid out in a geometric style although, again, the term was used only after the modern style had become popular. The geometric style continued to be used in public places because of its long-standing association with centers of government. <br /> <br /> [[File:0248.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.]]<br /> [[File:1675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 17. ]]<br /> The geometric style was also used well into the 19th century for domestic landscapes throughout the colonies. Often found in town gardens, this style suited the orthogonal layout of street plans and small lots.<ref>For a discussion of geometric layouts of Louisiana gardens, see Suzanne Turner, “Roots of a Regional Garden Tradition: The Drawings of the New Orleans Notarial Archives,” in ''Regional Garden Design in the United States'', ed. T. O’Malley and M. Treib (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995), 163–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQB5TZTU view on Zotero].</ref> It was equally prevalent in the [[plantation]] landscape throughout the South [Fig. 4].<ref>For a discussion of the geometrical principles of plantation layouts, see C. Allan Brown, “Eighteenth-Century Virginia Plantation Gardens: Translating an Ancient Idyll,” in ''Regional Garden Design in the United States'', 125–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IT2UBCXX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]’s description of [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia explained the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the geometric mode, listing the standard features of the style with its artificial [[plantation]]s and highly regularized gardens. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) contains a miniature vignette of the two main modes of garden design [Fig. 4]. Downing’s descriptions of earlier American gardens, such as [[Lemon Hill]], were respectful from a historical point of view. However, he denigrated his compatriots who continued to practice this mode. His English contemporary, [[Jane Loudon]], whose work he was the first to publish in this country, described the geometric style succinctly without the negative tone found in garden writings such as Downing’s. Mrs. Loudon offered the style as an alternative, suitable and appropriate wherever symmetrical architecture existed. The term “artificial” was often used synonymously with “geometric,” especially when opposed to the so-called [[Natural style|natural]] (or [[modern style]]), as in the quotations of George Watterston and Downing. <br /> <br /> —''Therese O’Malley''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3 (1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[Dr. Hosack]]’s [[seat]], [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the ancient or '''geometric style''' may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *W., February 1842, describing Lowell Cemetery, Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8 (1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In laying out these grounds, the skill of the designer has been displayed, in combining somewhat the ‘ancient or '''geometric style'''’ with the [[Natural_style|natural]] or irregular. In some parts, the regular forms and right lines are well adapted to the location of the ground, while in others, the varied and gradually curving forms give an air of grandeur and boldness, and in combining these with the natural scenery, cannot fail to call forth, in the minds of visitors, impressions of love and veneration.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia (1849; repr., 1991: 43)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the Fairmount waterworks of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the '''geometric''' mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jets-d’eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the Schuylkill, admirable; and its liberal proprietor, [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.”<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1005–6, 1020–21)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“7205. ''In planting in the '''geometric style''''', the first consideration is the nature of the whole or general design; and here, as in the ground, '''geometric''' forms will still prevail, and while the masses reflect forms from the house, or represent [[square]]s, triangles, or trapeziums, the more minute parts, characterised by lines rather than forms, such as [[avenue]]s, rows, [[clump]]s, and stars, &c. are contained in parallelograms, squares, or circles. In regard to the parts, masses and [[avenue]]s should extend from the house in all directions, so far as to diffuse around the character of design; and as much farther in particular directions as the nature of the surface admits of, the distant beauties suggest, and the character of the mansion requires. In disposing these masses, whether on a flat or irregular surface, regard will be had to leave uncovered such a quantity of [[lawn]] or turf as shall, at all events, admit a free circulation of air, give breadth of light, and display the form of the large masses of wood. Uniformity and variety as a whole, and use as well as beauty in the parts, must be kept constantly in [[view]]. [[Avenue]]s, [[alley]]s, and [[vista]]s, should serve as much as possible as roads, [[walk]]s, lines of [[fence]]s, or screens of shelter or shade; but where this is not the case, they should point to some distant beauties, or near artificial objects, to be seen at or beyond their termination. The outer extremities of artificial [[plantation]]s may either join natural [[wood]]s, other artificial scenes, cultivated lands, or barren heaths or [[common]]s. . . . <br /> :“7262. ''The [[lawn]]'', or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending in different directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the '''geometric style''', varied by architectural forms, levels, and [[slope]]s; and in the modern by a [[picturesque]] or painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and throw the [[lawn]] into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the lawn may embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of [[terrace]]-scenery, and may be separated from the [[park]], or park-like field, by a light wire [[fence]]; but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a [[terrace]], or some avowedly artificial architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk wall, as a distant separation, will be more dignified and permanent than any iron [[fence]]. The [[park]] may come close up to the [[terrace]]-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is considerable. . . . <br /> :“7265. ''The [[park]]''. . . . In the '''geometric style''', the more distant or concealed parts were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad stripes or double rows, enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s, and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with [[wood]], enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The uniformity produced by straight [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s bordered by regular rows of trees, another characteristic of the old or '''geometrical style''', though pleasing at first, soon becomes tiresome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1753.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], “A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the Geometrical Style,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 530, fig. 200. ]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838: 529–31)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the '''Geometrical Style'''.''—The object in this case is to produce a splendid effect at a moderate expense of annual keeping, but with no regard to profit. The general form of the ground is that of a parallelogram, and its disposition is so clearly shown in the isometrical view. . . that it will require little or no description. The entrance is through a straight [[avenue]] to a flight of steps, which leads to a raised platform on which the house stands. To the right and left of the [[avenue]] are double rows of trees, which may be fruit-bearing kinds, such as the apple, pear, cherry, and plum. Beyond these, on each side, are two small [[kitchen-garden]]s, intended for gooseberries, strawberries, and other small fruits, and for pot-herbs, tart rhubarb, spinach, kidneybeans, and a few such vegetables as are desirable to have always at hand. The house and these [[kitchen-garden]]s occupy about half the entire residence.The other half is laid out in the form of a sunk [[flower-garden]], consisting of a variety of curvilinear [[bed]]s, bordered by a kerb of stone, and surrounded by turf. From the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s there are four descents to this garden, each consisting of a double flight of steps. Each [[bed]] is supposed to be planted with one kind of herbaceous plant, so as to produce large masses of colour. The mode of selecting plants for this purpose, as well as lists of suitable plants, have been already given (p. 217 to p. 226), and further resources will be found in our catalogue. The sloping [[border]] between the sunk area and the [[flower-garden]] may either be planted with low evergreen [[shrub]]s, with roses kept low, or it may be in turf, or in [[rockwork]]: in the latter case, it may be covered with a collection of rock plants. Perhaps the most appropriate disposition of this sloping [[border]] would be to vary it with ornaments of box, on a ground of turf, so as to give it the appearance of an architectural moulding. In the centre there is a [[fountain]]. In situations where so much turf was not desirable, the [[walk]]s between the [[bed]]s might be of gravel or paved; but they will produce the best effect in turf.” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“It is probably as difficult to fix upon the most suitable plant for the [[edging]] of a flower bed, as it is to determine the best [[shrub]] for a [[hedge]] around fields. For the borders of main [[avenue]]s, or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best; but for small [[parterre]]s, or the flower [[bed]]s in a front door [[yard]], it seems much less suitable. They can commonly be taken in at one glance of the eye, and notwithstanding all that has been said of the artificial or '''geometric style''', it is the proper one for such places; for symmetry, or a perfect balance of corresponding parts, greatly strengthens the impression of such a scene, taken as a whole, or single mass of objects. The [[bed]]s, therefore, will not only be small, but when there is the proper variety in the form of them, some, at least, must have quite acute angles. Box, if thrifty, (and, sickly, it would be an eyesore any where,) soon takes up too much space in breadth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Watterston, George, May 1844, “Landscape Gardening” (1844: 307–8, 310–11)<ref>George Watterston, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10 (May 1844): 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Dutch style]], introduced by William III., and which prevailed in England for about fifty years was not much better, and was distinguished for sloped [[terrace]]s formed of grass, land and water made into regular shapes by art, and adorned with trees in [[pot]]s, or ‘planted alternately and clipped to preserve the most perfect regularity of shape’— and leisure, ‘in trim gardens, took his pleasure.’ ‘The compass and the square,’ says Walpole, ‘were of more use than the nurseryman. The measured [[walk]], the quincunx and the étoile imposed their unsatisfying sameness on every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed and their sides pared away; many French [[grove]]s seem green chests set upon poles. Seats of marble, [[arbor]]s and [[summer house]]s terminated every [[vista]], and symmetry, even when the space was too large to permit its being remarked at one [[view]], was so essential, that, as Pope observed, <br /> <br /> ::‘[[Grove]] nods to ''[[grove]]'', each [[alley]] has a brother <br /> ::And half the platform just reflects the other.’ <br /> <br /> :This formal, or '''geometric style''' was all the rage at the commencement of the 17th century in those parts of Europe where ornamental gardening prevailed, and the most distinguished artist of that age, if artist he could be called, was ''Le Notre''. . . . <br /> :“In passing from the [[ancient style|ancient]], or '''geometric style''', to the [[Modern_style|modern]], or [[Natural style|natural]], the first improvers fell, perhaps, into an opposite extreme. This is the danger in all sudden transitions. They seemed to conceive that crooked lines, serpentine windings and carelessness were true objects of beauty, and declared that nature ''abhorred a straight line''; and thus fatigued the eye by incessant curves. They did not seem to be aware, that in her sublimest works nature prefers the straight line, as is shown in the apparent horizon of the ocean and the rays of the sun.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 221–22)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''GEOMETRIC''' GARDENS.—This style of gardening is that in which the shape of the ground, of the [[bed]]s, of the [[walk]]s, and even of the [[shrub]]s, is regular, or symmetrical; such as may be formed on paper by a rule and compass. The ground, if originally flat, is reduced to a general level surface, over which the [[bed]]s, or [[border]]s, are distributed so as to form figures, either simply regular, such as [[square]]s and parallelograms, repeated one after another—or [[square]]s and parallelograms, and circles or ovals, or other curvilinear figures,—so arranged as to be symmetrical; that is to say, that one-half of the figure formed by the whole shall correspond with the other half. When the surface is naturally irregular or on a [[slope]], it is thrown into different levels, which are joined by steep slopes called [[terrace]]s, generally covered with turf, and ascended and descended by stone steps. Each of the levels is laid out either regularly or symmetrically, in the same manner as if the whole were only one [[bed]]; but the figures are of course smaller. Small trees or evergreen [[shrub]]s are distributed among the figures, and especially on each side of the main [[walk]]s; and these trees or [[shrub]]s ought, in strict accordance with the style, to be cut or clipped into regular shapes; such as cones, pyramids, balls, candelabra, [[statue]]s of men or animals, [[arcade]]s, [[column]]s, or other architectural figures. In modern practice, this is generally neglected; but its omission is a defect, for cut trees are as essential to the '''geometric style''', as having the ground cut or shaped into artificial surfaces.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Nearly all the [[flower garden]]s of the country are laid out in '''geometrical''' lines; a style, it is true much better adapted to the small piece of ground allotted to flowers, than to the larger landscape garden composed of trees, [[lawn]]s, and sheets of water. With a wish however, to encourage a more graceful, pleasing, and [[picturesque]] mode of laying out even the small [[flower garden]] in connexion with the [[shrubbery]], we have given the above plan, which nearly explains itself.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3 (May 1848): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The old '''geometric''' [[flower garden]]s, laid out with long [[bed]]s, bordered with box, and separated by stiff gravel [[walk]]s, are fast giving place to those more tasteful combinations of masses of gay, perpetual flowering plants, arranged upon turf, in the arabesque or [[English style]]. <br /> :“In the former, you have a miscellaneous collection of plants, of all sizes and habits of growth, only a small part of which are seen in bloom at one time; while at almost all seasons naked stalks of plants, and bare dry soil borders, appear here and there, almost in spite of the best efforts of the gardener, to disfigure and mar the general elegance of the scene. <br /> :“In the latter, you have always the rich setting of the soft green turf, (which, of course mown once a fortnight, is short and velvet-like) and contrasting and enhanced in effect by this, are seen the [[bed]]s of dwarfish plants, grown in masses, so as to give breadth and brilliancy of effect; these being composed only of plants almost perpetually in bloom, unite to form a floral picture, when well managed, as beautiful as the art of gardening will permit.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.]]<br /> *Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I send you a plan for a '''geometrical''' [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind. <br /> :“When the nature of the ground will admit, the French [[parterre]], or '''geometrical''' [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers.” [Fig. 6] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If [the rich man’s [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''geometrical style''', the trees will stand in lines or figures; some cut into different shapes and forms, from a [[seat]] to a [[temple]].” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 4)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Landscape Gardening]] was, formerly, the imitation of '''geometric''' figures; hence the [[ancient style|ancient]] mode of it is called the '''geometric style''' of gardening.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 21–22, 27, 91–93, 531)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“All late authors agree in these two distinct and widely different modes of the art; 1st, the [[ancient style|Ancient]], Formal, or '''Geometric Style'''; 2d, the [[Modern_style|Modern]], [[Natural style|Natural]], or Irregular Style. <br /> :“THE [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials; an arrangement the more striking, as it differed most widely from nature. And in an age when costly and stately architecture was most abundant, as in the times of the Roman empire, it is natural to suppose, that the symmetry and studied elegance of the palace, or the villa, would be transferred and continued in the surrounding gardens. . . . <br /> :“Pliny’s garden, of which a pretty minute account remains,—filled with cypresses and bay trees, planted to form a coursing place or hippodrome, adorned with ''vis-à-vis'' figures of animals cut in box trees, and decorated with [[fountain]]s and marble [[alcove]]s, shaded by vines—seems, indeed, to have been the true classical type of all the later efforts of modern continental nations in their '''geometric''' gardens. . . . <br /> [[File:0371.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17. ]]<br /> :“It would appear to be an undeniable fact in the history of ornamental gardening that, from the time of William the Conqueror down to the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne, and the beginning of that of George I., nothing was considered garden scenery except [if] it was in the formal and ''geometric style''. . . . <br /> :“One of the favorite fancies of the '''geometric''' gardener was the [[Labyrinth]] . . . of which a few celebrated examples are still in existence in England, and which consisted of a multitude of trees thickly planted in impervious [[hedge]]s, covering sometimes several acres of ground. . . . [Fig. 7] <br /> :“It has been remarked, that the '''geometric style''' would always be preferred in a new country, or in any country where the amount of land under cultivation is much less than that covered with natural [[wood]]s and forests; as the inhabitants being surrounded by scenery abounding with natural beauty, would always incline to lay out their gardens and [[pleasure-ground]]s in regular forms, because the distinct exhibition of art would give more pleasure by contrast, than the elegant imitation of beautiful nature. That this is true as regards the mass of uncultivated minds, we do not deny. But at the same time we affirm that it evinces a meagre taste, and a lower state of the art, or a lower perception of beauty in the individual who employs the '''geometrical style''' in such cases. . . . : <br /> :“The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the [[Ancient_style|ancient]] or '''geometric style''', or in the symmetrical [[terrace]] [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1753.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “A Villa Residence of Two Acres, within a regular Boundary, laid out in the Geometrical Style,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 530, fig. 200. <br /> <br /> File:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67. <br /> <br /> File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 17. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].<br /> <br /> File:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.<br /> <br /> File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.<br /> <br /> File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.<br /> <br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834]<br /> <br /> File:0371.jpg|Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 91, fig. 17. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Garden Styles]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36187 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T15:35:00Z

<p>K-lee: /* Images */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, ]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, ]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, ]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:2207.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834].<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> File:2208.jpg|E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36186 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T15:31:59Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, ]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, ]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, ]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:2207.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2207.jpg&diff=36185 File:2207.jpg 2019-06-13T15:31:06Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering]'', [1834], ink, watercolor, and wash on paper, [ADE - UNIT 2464, no. 6 (C size) [P&P]]. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington D.C.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2207.jpg&diff=36184 File:2207.jpg 2019-06-13T15:30:34Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> Alexander Jackson Davis, United States Capitol, Washington D.C. East front elevation, rendering, [1834], ink, watercolor, and wash on paper, [ADE - UNIT 2464, no. 6 (C size) [P&P]]. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington D.C.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2207.jpg&diff=36183 File:2207.jpg 2019-06-13T15:25:28Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36182 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T15:08:06Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, ]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, ]]<br /> [[File:0675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, ]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:0035.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0854.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36181 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T13:35:53Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:2205.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, ]]<br /> '''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> [[File:2206.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, ]]<br /> [[File:0811.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, ]]<br /> [[File:?.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, ]]<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Figs. 1 & 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 3], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 4]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> [[File:0035.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, ]]<br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2208.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, ]]<br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, ]]<br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> [[File:0855.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, ]]<br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, ]]<br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> [[File:1253.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 10, ]]<br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0425.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, ]]<br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36180 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T13:23:53Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) [Fig. 1] was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Fig. 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 4], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 3]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36179 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-13T13:23:35Z

<p>K-lee: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis [Fig. 2] was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 4], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 3]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 5].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The concept and format seem to have been modeled on the British architect and artist John Buonarotti Papworth's 1818 publication with the strikingly similar title ''Rural Residences, Consisting of a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottages, Small Villas, and Other Ornamental Buildings.'' As in Papworth's work, the floorplans within Davis's ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs. Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the landscape as a design factor in terms of the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 6].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 7], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 8], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 9], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 10]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 11]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2208.jpg&diff=36178 File:2208.jpg 2019-06-12T20:52:25Z

<p>K-lee: added caption</p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> E. Jones, F. [Fanny] Palmer, and E. Palmer (lithographers), Alexander Jackson Davis (architect), ''Suburban Gothic Villa, Murray Hill, N.Y. City. Residence of W. C. Waddell, Esq. 5th Avenue, Between 37 & 38th Street. Below, Plans of First and Second Floors'', n.d., color lithograph, 14.7 x 25.6 cm. The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public Library Digital Collections.</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:2208.jpg&diff=36177 File:2208.jpg 2019-06-12T19:49:44Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Orangery&diff=36176 Orangery 2019-06-12T18:43:11Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>(Orangerie) {{break}}<br /> See also: [[Conservatory]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Hothouse]], [[Nursery]]<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:1833.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0629.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.]]<br /> [[File:0180.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. The orangery is located to the left and rear of the main house.]]<br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> The term orangery described both a [[grove]] of orange trees and a structure in which citrus trees were cultivated. [[William Bartram]] used the term in 1791 to describe a [[grove]] of native trees left standing within a cleared ground and incorporated into a designed [[plantation]], and, therefore, a natural feature in the landscape. [[Samuel Johnson]] (1755) and [[Noah Webster]] (1848) defined an orangery as an area where orange trees were planted, or as [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741–43) wrote, “used for the [[parterre]].” John Evelyn, in his 1693 translation of Jean de La Quintinie, used the term to refer to any place stocked with orange trees, whether indoors or out. The most common usage, however, refers to the architecture of plant-keeping houses, often synonymous with [[greenhouse]], [[hothouse]], or [[conservatory]]. In this sense, the orangery could be a separate building, or a structure that was either part of or attached to a [[greenhouse]] in which citrus and other exotic fruits and flowers were kept [Fig. 1]. <br /> <br /> The term “orangery” originated in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries when citrus fruit was highly valued. The orangery was a showcase for the nobility with the best-known examples found at Versailles, St. Petersburg, and Vienna. In 18th-century America, however, the term seems to have been used rarely outside garden treatises. Perhaps its aristocratic associations made Americans reluctant to use it. The more generic terms “[[greenhouse]]” and “[[conservatory]]” replaced it, as did specific names used to describe its precise contents, such as “pinery” (for pineapples), “peachery,” and “grapery” or “vinery.” <br /> <br /> [[File:1779.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130.]]<br /> [[File:1645.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14.]]<br /> Although several imported treatises contain the term “orangery,” it is conspicuously absent in major American publications by [[Bernard M’Mahon]], [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]], and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]—except when describing 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s. For example, in 1837 [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey]] used orangery to describe [[William Bartram|Bartram's]] by-then venerable century-old greenhouse in Philadelphia. In his “Historical Sketches,” [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] described the 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s at [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] seat, [[The Woodlands]], as orangeries. These colonial [[greenhouse]]s were called orangeries in the 19th century because they represented an older building type that was characterized by unglazed roofs. This earlier type of plant-keeping structure, built of stone or brick with large windows and a solid, unglazed roof was found at [[Wye House]] [Fig. 2]; Fairhill [Fig. 3]; and Lt. Gov. James Hamilton’s estate, Bush Hill, near Philadelphia. This type had an architectural style consistent with the main house, with a regular entablature and cornice and large windows that were often roundheaded, separated by [[column]]s or piers. At the time they were built, they were most probably [[greenhouse]]s, [[hothouse]]s, or [[conservatories]], although it is clear that they were used for keeping citrus trees (see [[Greenhouse]] and [[Hothouse]] for a discussion of heating systems). <br /> <br /> [[File:0340.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.]]<br /> This type of [[greenhouse]] construction fell out of fashion once gardeners began to realize the benefits of increased light and perpendicular light for growing plants. As a greater proportion of glazing became technically possible with cast-iron construction, the design of plant houses shifted from the shingle-roofed brick or stone orangery to the glasshouse [Fig. 4]. With these changes in structure and material, [[J. C. Loudon]], writing in the early 19th century, concluded that the orangery was the [[greenhouse]] of the previous century [Fig. 5]. Thus, 19th-century authors writing about historical [[greenhouse]]s distinguished them from the cast-iron and glass structures by calling them orangeries. 20th-century garden historians and archaeologists have continued this practice. The orangery, however, did not completely disappear as an option in new construction. [[Jane Loudon]] provided a late reference in 1845 when she wrote that the orangery was a house with an opaque roof intended only for orange trees. She asserted the suitability of non-[[greenhouse]] construction to that use. Further evidence of the orangery’s continued use is in Robert B. Leuchars’s 1850 ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'', in which he described John Hopkins’s very large structure at Clifton Mansion [Fig. 6]. <br /> <br /> Scholars have pointed out that in the early colonial period, several [[greenhouse]]s for citrus cultivation were built by wealthy families who had access to international trade networks. It took skill and money to build a good [[greenhouse]] for citrus because glass was expensive, servants were required to maintain it, and skilled gardeners needed to cultivate the fruit.<ref> Anne Yentsch, “The Calvert Orangery in Annapolis, Maryland: A Horticultural Symbol of Power and Prestige in an Early Eighteenth Century Community,” in ''Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology'', ed. William M. Kelso and Rachel Most (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J4R38J9C view on Zotero].</ref> Therefore, they were associated with the privileged and cultured elite [Fig. 7]. Archaeologist Carmen Weber has argued that this association was so well established in the colonial period that in a portrait of Margaret Tilghman Carroll by [[Charles Willson Peale]] the simple inclusion of orange leaves was sufficient to symbolize and convey her control of property and considerable wealth.<ref>Carmen A. Weber, “The Greenhouse Effect: Gender-Related Traditions in Eighteenth-Century Gardening,” in ''Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape'', ed. Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/92DA3QAZ/ view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> —''Therese O’Malley''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Shippen, Thomas Lee, 1790, describing Stratford, estate of Thomas Lee, Westmoreland County, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:68)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“It was with difficulty that my Uncles, who accompanied me, could persuade me to leave the hall to look at the gardens, vineyards, '''orangeries''' and [[lawn]]s which surround the house.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Marshall Plantation, on the San Juan River, FL (1928: 84)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the afternoon, the most sultry time of the day, we retired to the fragrant shades of an orange grove. The house was situated on an [[eminence]], about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. On the right hand was the '''orangery''', consisting of many hundred trees, natives of the place, and left standing, when the ground about it was cleared. These trees were large, flourishing, and in perfect bloom, and loaded with their ripe golden fruit. On the other side was a spacious garden, occupying a regular [[slope]] of ground down to the water; and a pleasant [[lawn]] lay between.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1837, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 210)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Nurseries and Private Gardens, visited in the early part of March,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 6 (June 1837): 201–13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3AJ3MAG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the '''orangery''' attached to the large [[greenhouse]] are a great number of very old orange and lemon trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1900.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161. The orangery is the shed roofed building on the left.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], December 1839, describing Cheshunt Cottage, property of William Harrison, near London, England (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15: 644)<ref>J. C. Loudon, “Descriptive Notices of Select Suburban Residences, with Remarks on Each; Intended to Illustrate the Principles and Practices of Landscape-Gardening,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 633–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5WDEBI9 view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“3. The '''orangery'''. The paths are of slate, and the centre [[bed]], or pit, for the orange trees, is covered with an open wooden grating, on which are placed the smaller [[pot]]s; while the larger ones, and the boxes and tubs, are let down through openings made in the grating, as deep as it may be necessary for the proper effect of the heads of the trees. This house, and that for Orchidàceæ, are heated from the boiler. . . . “ [Fig. 8]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 4, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on [[Rosedown Plantation]], Lousiana (Turner, ed., 2012: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Jany. 1849 4 we have spaded all the Garden today—the first time. Sewed Peas, Irish Potatoes. Set out the '''Orangery''' today.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1849; repr. 1991: 42)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . at a time when the introduction of rare exotics was attended with a vast deal of risk and trouble, the extensive [[green-house]]s and '''orangeries''' of this [[seat]] contained all the richest treasures of the exotic flora.”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''''Orangery''''' is a place stocked with Orange Trees, whether within doors or without.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3: 113, 115–16)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“when I consider how much the Beauty and Advantage of the '''''Orangery''''' is owing to the good Condition of the ''Conservatory'', I am the less surprized to meet every Day with valuable Collections of Trees half poison’d with Charcoal, or pinch’d to Death with the Frosts. . . . <br /> :“[referring to Plate II] D D are the Benches for the most hardy [[Green-House]] Plants, such as ''Orange'', ''Limons'', ''Myrtles'', &c. they are so disposed, as to admit of [[Walk]]s about them, for convenience of Watering. . .. <br /> :“I leave every one to judge how great an Ornament this will be, as well in Winter, when the Plants are in the House; and in Summer, when the House will be made a Room of Entertainment.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–98)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . . <br /> :“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to . . . and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, of small Meadows, Hop-Gardens, '''Orangeries''', Melon-Grounds, Vineyards, [[Orchard]]s, [[Nurseries]], Physick-Gardens, Warrens, Paddocks of Deer, Sheep, Cows, ''&c''. with the rural Enrichments of Hay-Stacks, Wood-Piles, ''&c''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''', a gallery in a garden, or [[parterre]], exposed to the south, but well closed with a glass window, to preserve oranges in, during the winter season. The '''''orangery''''' of Versailles is the most magnificent that ever was built: It has wings, and is decorated with a Tuscan order. <br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is also used for the [[parterre]], where the oranges are exposed in kindly weather.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''O’RANGERY'''. ''n.s''. [''orangerie'', Fr.] [[Plantation]] of oranges.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 811–14)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“6161. ''The [[hot-house]]s of floriculture'' are the frame, glasscase, [[green-house]], '''orangery''', [[conservatory]], dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the [[flower-garden]], or [[pleasure-ground]]; and the pit and hot-[[bed]] in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial heat with the least labor and expense. . . . <br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> :“6171. ''The '''orangery''''' is the [[green-house]] of the last century, the object of which was to preserve large plants of exotic evergreens during winter, such as the orange tribe, myrtles, sweet bays, pomegranates, and a few others. . . . The '''orangery''' was generally placed near to or adjoining the house, and its elevation corresponded in architectural design with that of the mansion. From this last circumstance has arisen a prejudice highly unfavorable to the culture of ornamental exotics, namely, that every plant-habitation attached to a mansion should be an architectural object, and consist of windows between stone piers or [[column]]s, with a regular cornice and entablature. By this mode of design, these buildings are rendered so gloomy as never to present a vigorous vegetation, and vivid glowing colors within; and as they are thus unfit for the purpose for which they are intended, it does not appear to us, as we have already observed at length (1590.), that they can possibly be in good taste. Perhaps the only way of reconciling the adoption of such apartments with good sense, is to consider them as lounges or [[promenade]] scenes for recreation in unfavorable weather, or for use during fêtes, in either of which cases they may be decorated with a few scattered tubs of orange-trees, camellias, or other evergreen coriaceous-leaved plants from a proper [[greenhouse]], and which will not be much injured by a temporary residence in such places, which, as Nicol has observed, ‘often look more like tombs or places of worship, than compartments for the reception of plants; and, we may add that the more modern sort look like a combination of shop-fronts, of which that at Claremont is a notable example.’ Sometimes structures of this sort are erected to conceal some local deformity, of which, as an instance, we may refer to that . . . erected by Todd, for J. Elliot, Esq., at Pimlico. ‘This building was constructed for the purpose of preventing the [[prospect]] of some offices from the dwelling-house. The architectural ornaments, and the roof, not being of glass, are points in the construction not generally to be recommended; but, as it was built for the purpose above mentioned, the objections were overruled. There are three circular stages to this house, which are made to take out at pleasure. The ceiling forms part of a circle, and the floor is paved with Yorkshire stone. It is fifty feet long, and thirteen feet six inches wide, and heated by one fire, the flue from which makes the circuit of the house under the floor.’ (''Plans of Green-Houses'', &c. p. 10)” [Fig. 9] <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 302–3)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY'''.—A house intended only for Orange trees may be opaque at the back, and even the roof, with lights only in front, provided the plants be set out during summer. In fact, so that the plants are preserved from the frost, they will do with scarcely any light during winter; and in many parts of the Continent, they are kept in a cellar.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth (1847), 404, fig. 104.]]<br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 404)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is a [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]] devoted to the cultivation of the genus Citrus. The best plan for the construction of such a building is that erected at Knowsley Park, and thus described by the gardener, Mr. J. W. Jones. . . . [Fig. 10] <br /> :“‘Measured inside, this house is fourteen and a half yards long, eight broad, and six high. In the centre of the house are eight [[border]]s, in which the oranges, &c., are planted; these borders are all marked ''a''. The two [[border]]s against the back wall are sixteen inches broad, and three feet deep. The six borders immediately in the centre of the house are fourteen inches broad, and three feet deep; the paths are marked ''c'', the front [[wall]] ''d'', and the back one ''e''; ''p, p, p'', represent ornamental cast iron [[pillar]]s, which, besides supporting the roof, serve also to support light wire [[trellis]]es; there is one of these [[pillar]]s in each row for each rafter. The house is entirely heated by smoke flues, two furnaces being placed at ''f''. The dotted lines along the central path show the direction of the flues beneath, from the back to the front entrance, when they diverge, the one entering a raised flue, ''g'', on the right, the other also entering a raised flue on the left. These flues again cross the house at each end, and the smoke escapes by the back [[wall]]; it being found inconvenient to place the furnaces in any other situation. <br /> :“‘Two stoves immediately connected with each end of the '''orangery''' contain the collection of tropical plants bearing fruit. The communication between these stoves and the '''orangery''' is uninterrupted by any glass or other division, so that the orange tribe are subjected to nearly as high a temperature as the tropical plants. The central borders of the '''orangery''', as may be seen in the section, are raised a little above each other, as they recede from the front of the house. The oranges, citrons, &c., are all trained as [[espalier]]s; a light wire [[trellis]] being stretched from [[pillar]] to [[pillar]] parallel with the [[border]]s, and about eight feet high. The spaces, b, between the [[border]]s being about three feet wide, permit a person to walk along between the plants, for the purpose of pruning, watering, &c. These spaces are of the same depth as the [[border]]s, and were originally filled with tan; but part of this is now removed, and its place is filled with good soil. In this some fine climbing plants have been turned out, amongst which are several plants of ''Passiflora quadrangularis'', which bear an abundant crop of fine fruit. Besides these, there are also two fine plants of the beautiful new ''Gardenia Sherbourniae''. These, are other climbers, are trained up the rafters, &c., in such a manner as not to materially intercept the light from the orange. The great advantage of having the trees trained on the [[trellis]] system is, that every part of the tree is fully exposed to the light, and by planting them in rows one behind the other, a larger surface is obtained for the trees to cover than could be got by adopting any other plan; and consequently, for the space, a larger quantity of fruit is procured. The trees being hung loosely and irregularly to the wires, assume as natural an appearance as circumstances will permit, and the introduction here and there of large plants in [[pot]]s has a tendency to prevent formality. Two plants are placed in each [[border]].’—''Gard. Chron.''” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 776)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', revised and enlarged (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''OR’AN-GER-Y''', ''n''. [Fr. ''orangerie''.] <br /> :“A place for raising oranges; a [[plantation]] of orange-trees.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1770.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570. <br /> <br /> File:1773.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Section and plan for a building to house orange trees, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 974, fig. 785a and b. <br /> <br /> File:1779.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130. <br /> <br /> File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 642, fig. 159. <br /> <br /> File:1844.jpg|[[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth, (1847), 404, fig. 104.<br /> <br /> File:1645.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1900.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. <br /> <br /> File:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.<br /> <br /> File:1833.jpg|Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.<br /> <br /> File:0629.jpg|E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Glass Houses]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Hedge&diff=36175 Hedge 2019-06-12T18:14:52Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Border]], [[Espalier]], [[Fence]], [[Shrubbery]]<br /> <br /> ==History== <br /> [[File:1009.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.]]<br /> Throughout the history of American gardens, hedges were used for a variety of practical and ornamental purposes. The feature created divisions within the garden, protected tender plants from cross-winds, formed barriers against both animal and human intruders, screened unsightly [[view]]s, outlined ornamental [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s [Fig. 1], and brought flowering variety to the garden. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>According to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1838), hedges were ideal for these purposes because their architectural form functioned much like a [[fence]] or [[wall]], while their organic material allowed them to harmonize with planting arrangements and to articulate other forms of architecture to the landscape ([[#Downing|view citation]]). <span id="Deane_cite"></span>As [[Samuel Deane]] noted in 1790, live hedges were preferable to [[fence]]s and “dead hedges” (wattle [[fence]]s using woven plant material) because the living plants created a “perpetual fence” whose posts never decayed and stakes never failed ([[#Deane|view citation]]). Their versatility also made them adaptable to any scale, whether enclosing a field, screening a privy, or edging a [[bed]] (see [[Fence]]). <br /> <br /> <div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to texts.]]]]<br /> Hedges were found throughout America, but the plant materials employed in them varied, depending on the purpose of the hedge and the climate of its particular region. <span id="Prince_cite"></span>In 1828, William Prince praised hedges, particularly of buckthorn and maclura, as windbreaks affording protection in areas subject to severe winds ([[#Prince|view citation]]). Fast-growing evergreens were recommended for hedges needed to screen an area, although they were not advised for situations calling for trimmed effect or where a long shadow was undesirable. In these cases, the arborvitae, which grows quickly and densely, was the most common choice. At times, the screening effect does not appear to have been intentional; <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>in 1839, for example, [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] described the fish [[pond]] of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] in Salem, Massachusetts, as being entirely surrounded by an eight-foot high impenetrable hedge ([[#Hovey|view citation]]). Where such an effect was desired, various types of thorn were effective as impenetrable barriers. [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that “there are few creatures, however bold, who care to ‘come to the ''scratch''’ twice with such a foe.”<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist'' 1 (February 1847): 346.</ref> Cacti were similarly used at the California missions to create barriers around fields. Plants for ornamental hedges, however, were selected for their foliage, blossoms, and berries. For instance, a wild rose hedge was planted at [[Mount Vernon]], while the deep green foliage of the privet was admired at [[Oatlands]], D. P. Manice’s residence in Hempstead, New York. Because of their combination of flowering beauty and edible produce, fruit trees, such as apple, peach, and orange, were sometimes planted as [[espalier]] hedges (see [[Espalier]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] capitalized on the many uses of hedges: he designed thorn hedges to enclose his [[orchard]] and garden area [Fig. 2], planned hedgethorn and privet or cedar to line his [[slope]]s, and, in a proposal of 1771, used a hedge to screen his [[icehouse]] from view [Fig. 3].<ref>Jefferson purchased much of his plant material for Monticello from Thomas Main, a nurseryman and author of an 1807 work on hedges. See Brenda Bullion, “Early American Farming and Gardening Literature: ‘Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States,’” ''Journal of Garden History'' 12, no. 1 (1992): 37–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5MKAGJ2V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0167.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.]]<br /> Climate was also a factor in plant choice for hedges. In warmer regions ornamental hedges were composed of orange, yucca, Cherokee rose, and gardenia, while cedar, spruce, and juniper were used in colder areas such as New England. Prince recommended maclura or osage orange for Philadelphia and areas to the south. <span id="Hooper_cite"></span>Edward James Hooper, in ''The Practical Farmer'' (1842), maintained that buckthorn was suited to New England’s climate while European hawthorn did better in the west, although other descriptions suggest that the use of thorn varieties was not regionally specific ([[#Hooper|view citation]]). <br /> <br /> [[File:0932.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.]]<br /> Early evidence of hedges in the American landscape may be found in books of instruction on the delineation or division of arable fields, a practice taken directly from European agricultural tradition. Hedges created by close planting and interweaving of [[shrub]]s to create a dense barrier were categorized in many horticultural and agricultural treatises as a type of [[fence]], rather than identified with other planting arrangements such as [[thicket]], [[grove]], and group. The discourse about the advantages of hedges over [[fence]]s was particularly rich in the American agricultural literature of the early 19th century. Proponents of the new “scientific agriculture,” such as John Adams and Ezekiel Hersey Derby, reported their experiments with different plant varieties and techniques for forming hedges [Fig. 4].<ref>For example, see Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn . . . for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29. For a discussion of scientific farming in the Boston area, see Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), chapters 2 and 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The aesthetic treatment of garden hedges was discussed and debated throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries. Authors and gardeners variously praised and dismissed both trimmed and untrimmed hedges, depending upon the prevailing taste and the particular situation of the hedge. <span id="Stiles_cite"></span>[[Ezra Stiles]] admired the spruce hedges at [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, which were cut into beautiful figures in 1754 ([[#Stiles|view citation]]), and in 1762 <span id="Callender_cite"></span>[[Hannah Callender Sansom]] described a hedge [[labyrinth]] at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], [[William Peters|Judge William Peters's]] estate near Philadelphia ([[#Callender|view citation]]). <span id="Ware_cite"></span>In contrast, [[Isaac Ware]], writing in 1756, praised the “natural hedge . . . mimicking savage nature” ([[#Ware|view citation]]). In 1832, both [[H. A. S. Dearborn]] and [[Thomas Bridgeman]] commended trimmed and trained hedges while other writers, such as [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] and [[Jane Loudon]], allowed the merits of both formal and [[natural style|naturalistic]] styles. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>In 1845 [[Jane Loudon|Loudon]] praised evergreen hedges “neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s,” while in the [[flower garden]] she proposed a less “stiff and formal” appearance that would “harmonize . . . with the flowers” ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>In the 1849 edition of his treatise, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that trimmed hedges were “elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s,” while irregular or [[picturesque]] hedges were handsome additions to a landscape of the “[[natural style]]” ([[#Downing_1849|view citation]]).<br /> <br /> —''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation) <br /> :“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound [[fence]] . . . or with an '''hedge''' two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such '''hedge''', a rail [[fence]] of two foot and half high, the '''hedge''' or [[fence]] being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful [[fence]],) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Grove, William Hugh, 1732, describing Virginia (quoted in Stiverson and Butler 1977: 35)<ref>Gregory A. Stiverson and Patrick H. Butler III, eds., “Virginia in 1732: The Travel Journal of William Hugh Grove,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 85 (1977): 18–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ACNK9DG9 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“They also make strong '''hedges''' of Peach plants in their gardens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'') <br /> :“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper; . . . a very good [[Kitchen Garden]], at the Rear of which is a Grass-[[plat]], with a Prim '''Hedge''' round and pale’d, situate on level Up Land.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, describing the vicinity of Philadelphia (1937: 1:47)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[fence]]s and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[wood]]s for future times, have begun to plant quick '''hedges''' round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the property of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'') <br /> :“With in a few weeks will be raffled for, A LOT . . . belonging to ''[[Alexander Garden|Alexander Gordon]], Esq''. . . . Together with a garden, genteelly laid out in [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s, with flower-knots, &c. laid round with bricks, having also several kinds of fruit trees now bearing, and many orange trees now growing like-wise, cassini and other '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stiles"></div>Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (1892: 375)<ref>“Ezra Stiles in Philadelphia, 1754,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16 (1892): 375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T7C8P48I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stiles_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“. . . besides the beautiful [[walk]], ornamented with evergreens, we saw . . . Spruce '''hedges''' cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> : “. . . on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of '''hedge''' and low ceder with spruce . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:102, 115)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[March 14] Planted the 9 young peach Trees which I brought from Mr. Cockburns in the No. Garden—viz . . . 2 in the [[border]] of the Walk leading from the [[Espalier]] '''hedge''' towards the other cross [[walk]]. . . . <br /> :“[April 8] The ground being too wet . . . I was unable to touch that which I had been preparing for grass; and therefore began to hoe that wch. lyes between the New circular ditches, & the Wild rose '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. P. Brissot de Warville|Brissot de Warville, J. P.]], September 6, 1788, describing the enclosure of pastures in America (1792: 253)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Mr. L. thinks it best to replace them [wooden rail [[fence]]s] by ditches six feet deep, of which he throws the earth upon his [[meadow]]s, and [[border]]s the sides with '''hedges'''; and thus renders the passage impracticable to the cattle. This is an agricultural operation, which cannot be too much recommended to the Americans.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Strickland, William, October 9, 1794, describing the country from Fishkill, NY, to Poughkeepsie, NY (1971: 99–100)<ref>William Strickland, ''Journal of a Tour in the United States of America, 1794-1795'', ed. J. E. Strickland (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DR8FH6KF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country in general is divided into fields . . . it wants only the ornament of live [[fence]]s to be one of the most [[picturesque]] that can be seen, and those even have been attempted though they have unfortunately failed. Near Fishkyl the fields were formerly divided by Privet '''Hedges''' a shrub imported from Europe by the Dutch, which answerd the purpose, and throve well for many years, and some of them are still to be seen; but an insect attacked them some years since by which they were destroyed, and they never have been replaced, or any substitute adopted or tried; though no doubt shrubs better calculated for making durable strong [[fence]]s might be found among the natives of this country.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Worcester County, MA (1821: 1:375)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“An eye accustomed to the beautiful '''hedges''' of England, would probably regard these inclosures [stone [[wall]]s] with little pleasure. But emotions of this nature depend much on comparison. There are no '''hedges''' in New-England: those which formerly existed, having perished by some unknown misfortune. Few persons therefore, who see these [[wall]]s, will be able to compare them with '''hedges'''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.]]<br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection) <br /> :“. . . make the upper [[slope]] thus at ''a'' plant a '''hedge''' of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet, or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance this taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the [[terrace|terras]].” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54, 57&ndash;58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes&mdash;the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens '''hedge'''&mdash;of juniper I think. . . .<br /> :“. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden&mdash;& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose '''hedges''', & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house&mdash;but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. See the plan of the Grounds.<br /> :“The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided [[yard]]&mdash;The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the '''hedge''' that screens the [[Yard]].”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferons|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter to [[William Hamilton]], describing plans for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 365)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you should know this plant [haw], which is peculiar at least to America & is a real treasure. as a thorn for '''hedges''' nothing has ever been seen comparable to it certainly no thorn in England which I have ever seen makes a '''hedge''' any more to be compared to this than a log hut to a [[wall]] of freestone. if you will plant these 6. I. apart you will be a judge of their superiority soon.” [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing a farm in Pennsylvania (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 11)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I visited Job Roberts the day before yesterday, his farm is a model of excellence in the Culture. . . . He is growing several '''hedges''' which in less than 7 yrs. will be complete [[fence]]s against all sorts of Cattle. The management of which is a good lesson, which I hope to make usefull to this place.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Foster, Sir Augustus John, 1812, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 177)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . the [[fence]]s were of hurdles to keep out pigs. The American thorn will not grow close enough and the cedar '''hedge''' though pretty is not strong enough for the purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the vicinity of Charleston, SC (1816: 2:228)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Between the tavern and Charleston, the road is lined with the '''hedges''' and [[fence]]s belonging to several handsome [[plantation]]s: the houses are, however, seldom seen, being built a considerable distance back.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the northern and mid-Atlantic States (1816: 2:231–32)<ref name="Lambert 1816"></ref><br /> :“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if '''hedges''' were substituted for rail [[fence]]s, those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, [[New Harmony]], IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819b: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of fencing. . . . The banks [of the ditches] were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live '''hedge''' (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the [[fence]] far more effectual as well as handsomer.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0712.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.]]<br /> *[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick '''hedge''' of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.” [Fig. 6]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0662.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830-40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, p. 296.]]<br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 21, 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 158)<ref name="Forman 1976">Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The hedger, Mr. Green, arrived here this evening, he laid a part of the Apple '''hedge''' and all the thorn '''hedge'''.” [Fig. 7] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231–32)<ref>Robert Jr. Waln, “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[flower garden]], extending from the vestibule to a dark green '''hedge''' of cedar, which separates it from the [[kitchen garden]], offers a rich repast to the eye. . . . <br /> :“About twenty acres of the farm are in a state of cultivation; the rest is woodland. It is separated from the road which passes in front of it, by a flourishing thorn-'''hedge'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, 1828, in a letter to Thomas Green Fessenden, describing his use of the buckthorn in constructing hedges (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 57)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of making a '''hedge''', without much success, I was induced to try this [buckthorn], which has afforded a most beautiful [[fence]], so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American hawthorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. . . . You will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for '''hedges''' as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects America.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a “bungalow” in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange '''hedges''', all in flower.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“From the top of the bank, on which the house stood, we could see over a '''hedge''' into the rice fields which lay beyond, and stretched over the plain for several miles, their boundary line being the black edge of the untouched forest.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bell, Caroline, April 6, 1829, describing Iberville Plantation, LA (Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 459, MS 102) <br /> :“I have set out a great deal of beautiful [[shrubbery]] & Flowers, tomorrow shall plant, all my orange seed for '''hedges''' & plant all my Myrtle and sweet orange Trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>Anonymous, “Neglected Grave Yards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 39 (April 17, 1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the [[burial ground]]s of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a [[grove]] sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living '''hedge''' of hawthorn. <br /> :“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of [[Samuel Breck]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd 1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Samuel Breck|Mr. Breck]] has taken considerable pains with a '''hedge''' of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail [[fence]]. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live [[fence]] in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 438–39)<ref name="Boyd 1929"></ref><br /> :“On viewing this [[seat]], our attention was immediately drawn to the handsome '''hedges''' of Hornbeam and Pinus Canadensis. We were delighted with the latter; never having seen it before. Its fine green foliage contrasts very sweetly with the delicate appearance of the tender shoots. These '''hedge''’s are trimmed periodically and kept in excellent order.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 82–83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''', used as inclosures, will disappoint expectation, and require to be entirely eradicated after a few years, if even for a short time they should have a pleasing effect, when young, healthy, vigorous, and well managed. They are only proper for extensive grounds, farms, or large gardens, embracing some ten or twenty acres, or for long lines of circumvallation, which are to be seen at a distance, in which the imperfections, occasioned by insects and the ravages of time, are lost in the perspective, but should never be employed to surround a mere [[parterre]], a buisson of roses, or a [[bed]] of hyacinths. To look even beautiful, '''hedges''', of all kinds, require constant attention; they must be kept clear of weeds, and be pruned and clipped several times in the course of the season of vegetation, and this, too, by a skilful hand.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], June 1835, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 201)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from Memoranda made in the Month of March last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 6 (June 1835): 201–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WGMGZFER view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The object of a '''hedge''' is generally to keep from the grounds cattle and other animals; though in some instances, they are only set to obscure one part of the garden from the other, or to hide some disagreeable object from the eye.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Charleston, SC (1838: 1:228)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country is flat and sandy, and the only objects are planters’ mansions, surrounded with evergreen [[wood]]s, the gardens exhibiting the tropical yucca, and fenced with '''hedges''' of the Cherokee rose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, January 1, 1836, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 28)<ref>Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P93RF7HA view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The rapid increase of our population, and the consequent vast consumption of timber for other and more valuable purposes, by increasing the relative cost of the old fashioned wooden [[fence]]s, must eventually render the introduction of '''hedges''' here, advantageous, if not absolutely essential, from motives of utility and economy; while the lover of rural scenery will hail with pleasure the [[picturesque]] charm of their verdant beauty. <br /> :“It is now about thirtytwo [''sic''] years, since I first attempted the formation of a live '''hedge''' as a boundary for my own pleasure-grounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 30, 1838, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 396)<ref name="Forman 1976"></ref><br /> :“The General planting a '''hedge''' of Osage apple from the poplar tree [[gate]] to the [[wood]]s [[gate]] between the horse chestnuts row.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hovey"></div>[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing [[Elias Hasket Derby House]], Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11),<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hovey_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a [[square]]. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the [[square]]s occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a '''hedge'''. <br /> :“In the centre of the garden is a small oval [[pond]], containing gold fish: this [[pond]] is '''hedge''’d round with the buckthorn, which has now been planted over thirty years! It is not over eight feet high, and is thickly set with branches and foliage from the top to bottom, and perfectly impenetrable.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Kemble, Fanny, March 24–28, 1839, in a letter to Elizabeth Dwight Sedgwick, describing an estate on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1961; repr., 1984: 284–85)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (1961; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Hamilton struck me very much—I mean the whole appearance of the place; the situation of the house, the noble water [[prospect]] it commanded, the magnificent old oaks near it, a luxuriant vine [[trellis]], and a splendid '''hedge''' of Yucca gloriosa, were all objects of great delight to me.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1840, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” describing the estate of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 10 (October 1840): 361–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQC7WWZB view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Passing into a straight [[walk]] which leads from the [[conservatory]], by the [[flower garden]], (which is screaned by a [[hedge]] from the [[lawn]] front,).” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0878_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries [detail],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]<br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 406)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of each; accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the principles and practice of Landscape Gardening: intended with a view to illustrate the Art of Laying out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. . . . Under the arbor vitae '''hedge''', which is here planted against the boundary line, the [[greenhouse]] plants are principally placed during summer. <br /> :“19. '''Hedge''' or screen of arbor vitae, shutting out the back shed, compost ground, &c. The arbor vitae is well adapted for this purpose, growing rapidly, and forming a perfect screen in three or four years.” [Fig. 8] <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]<br /> *Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, in a letter to Annie Pierce, describing [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A buckthorn '''hedge''' has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open [[fence]] which separates between us demands a '''hedge''' there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 9]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 284)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 8 (August 1846): 281–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2J7VZ6S view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Referring to our account above mentioned, we particularly alluded to the fine '''hedges''' of the arbor vitae which existed here, and recommended this fine tree as peculiarly well adapted for screens or '''hedges''' to shut out one part of the garden from another, or hide disagreeable objects. Twelve years’ experience has convinced us of the correctness of our remarks, and we may still urge them upon the attention of our readers. The arbor vitae is unquestionably one of the finest of evergreen trees, and far superior to any other for forming '''hedges''' or screens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1847, excerpt from “Walden” (Clarke, ed., 1993: 2:47)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95/].</ref><br /> :“Self-sown my stately garden grows; <br /> ::The winds and wind-blown seed, <br /> :Cold April rain and colder snows <br /> ::My '''hedges''' plant and feed.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the '''hedges''' are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 22, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on [[Rosedown Plantation]], Lousiana (Turner, ed., 2012: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach '''hedge''' to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[John Parkinson|Parkinson, John]], 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with '''hedges''', with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Smith, John, 1629, ''Advertisement for the Unexperienced Planters'' (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, eds., ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, [[Walk]]es, [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s . . . seeing you may have so many great and small growing trees for your maine posts, to fix '''hedges''', palisados, houses, rales, or what you will.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:7, 17; 1720: 2.3:27–28)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719–20), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[vol. 1] They [ever-greens] are so ornamental where they are rightly managed, that I think no Garden can be compleat without ’em; they make beautiful and useful '''Hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for '''Hedges''', and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of [[Wilderness]] Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . . <br /> :“[vol. 2] In these several [[Quarter]]s plant your Trees at about sixteen Foot distance, if you design a close [[Orchard]], or near thirty Foot asunder if the Ground is design’d for Beans, Peas, or such like Under-crops. . . . The Ground thus planted may be fenced about with '''Hedges''' of ''Philbuds'' and ''Berberries'', to make it still the more compleat and delightful.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.]]<br /> [[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]<br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: vii–ix, xiii)<ref name="Langley">Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London : Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley et al.,1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AN26GF5X view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Plate III. is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, . . .<br /> :“The '''Hedges''' that are planted between the aforesaid Trees which form the Sides of the [[Walk]]s are of ''English'', ''Dutch'' and ''French Elms'', ''Lime'', ''Hornbeam'', ''Maple'', ''Privet'', ''Yew'', ''Holly'', ''Arbutus'', ''Phillyrea'', ''Norway Fir'', ''Ilex'', ''Bay'', ''Laurel'', ''Laurus-Tinnus'', ''Piracantha'', ''Juniper'', and the ''English Furze''; and indeed, a beutiful [[Plantation]] should not only be adorned with entire [[Walk]]s and '''Hedges''' of Trees of all Sorts, as well as Fruit as others; but intermix’d together in many parts, as if Nature had placed them there with her own Hand. . . . [Fig. 10]<br /> :“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the ''[[Canal]]'' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with '''''Hedges''''' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view’d from M. . . .” [Fig. 11]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: 195–99)<ref name="Langley"></ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . . . <br /> :“XIX. . . . <br /> :“And to add to the Pleasure of these delightful Meanders, I advise that the '''Hedge'''-Rows of the [[Walk]]s be intermix’d with Cherries, Plumbs [sic], Apples, Pears, Bruxel Apricots, Figs, Gooseberries, Currants, Rasberrries [''sic''], ''&c''. and the [[Border]]s planted with Strawberries, Violets, ''&c''. <br /> :“The most beautiful Forest-Trees for '''Hedges''', are the English Elm, the ''Dutch'' Elm, the Lime-Tree, and Hornbeam: And altho' I have advis’d the Mixing of these '''Hedges''' of Forest-Trees with the aforesaid Fruits, yet you must not forget a Place for those pleasant and delightful Flowering-[[Shrub]]s, the White Jessemine, Honey-Suckle, and Sweet-Brier. . . . <br /> :“XXI. Such [[Walk]]s as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[aviary|Aviaries]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular '''Hedges''' ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[espalier|ESPALIER]]. . . . <br /> :“As for ''[[espalier ]]'''hedges''''', or '''hedge''' rows for defence of tender greens, and plants, from destructive winds in the summer season; if there be occasion to use them the first or second year after they are planted, a substantial frame of wood must be made, seven or eight foot high, with posts and rails. And to this ''[[espalier]]'' frame, must the side boughs of the young trees be tied, to cause the ''[[espalier]]'' to thicken the sooner. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE'''*, in agriculture, &c. a [[fence]], inclosing a field, garden, or the like; made of branches of trees interwoven. See [[fence|FENCE]]. <br /> :“*The word is formed of the German ''hag'', or ''haeg'', or the Anglo Saxon ''hegge'', or ''hege''; which signifies simply ''inclosure'', ''circumference''. <br /> :“''Quick-set'' '''HEDGE''', is that made of quick or live trees, which have taken root; in contradistinction to that made of faggots, hurdles, or dry boughs.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE'''. ''n.s''. [. . . Saxon.] A [[fence]] made round grounds with prickly bushes.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Ware"></div>[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 641, 645),<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ware_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable [[view]]s by clearing away [[wall]]s and '''hedges''' in the grounds . . . this is to be done when something pleasing, some [[view]] of elegant, wild nature can be let in. . . . <br /> :“A [[meadow]] and its '''hedge''' excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the '''hedge''' lost the very vegetable character. In the wild state of nature all is free, all therefore is cheerful, and all pleasing. . . . Instead of the precise regularity we have so lately and so difficultly banished, in those vast gardens that have been described to us so happily, there scarce appears a strait line. The profusion of flowers with which they are embellished are stuck in natural '''hedges''' or raised on irregular hillocks, mimicking savage nature, only in a state of more variety.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hale, Thomas, 1758, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1758: 1:209–10, 230)<ref>Thomas Hale, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry Containing Rules for Performing, in the Most Profitable Manner, the Whole Business of the Farmer and Country Gentleman'', 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: T. Osborne, 1758), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKU9TFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where the soil is too barren for the growth of an '''hedge''', there is often stone ready for a [[wall]]. . . . <br /> :“In the dry pastures '''hedges''' are the proper [[fence]]s. They are of great service; beside their sheltering the cattle, they defend the grass from the summer heats, and shelter it in the spring from the drying winds. . . . The '''hedges''' also are of value for their produce in useful [[wood]]. . . . <br /> :“Of '''hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“No article [inclosure], in the husbandman’s whole concern, is of more importance. '''Hedges''' are the first object that naturally should strike his imagination, as they are the defence and guard of all the rest. . . . <br /> :“In all inclosed lands the farmer must keep up a good [[fence]], if he expect [''sic''] to reap the fruit of his labours. The better and the more perfectly the [[fence]] is kept in repair, the greater will be his security of his profits: one little defect may do him more injury, by letting in cattle upon his crop, than would have been the cost of a most perfect repair.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[After a description of the types of trees used in '''hedges''', Miller notes that] '''[h]edges''' are either planted to make [[fence]]s around enclosures, or to part off or divide several parts of a Garden; when they are designed as outward [[fence]]s, they are planted either with Hawthorne, Crabs, or Blackthorn, which is slow; but those '''hedges''' which are planted in Gardens, either to surround [[Wilderness]] [[Quarter]]s, or to screen the other parts of a Garden from Sight, are planted with various Sorts of plants, according to the fancy of the Owner some preferring Evergreen '''Hedges''', in which case the Holly is best, next to the Yew, then Laurel, &c. . . . <br /> :“The taste in Gardening having been greatly altered of late Years for the better, these clipped '''Hedges''' have been almost excluded; and it is hoped that a little Time will entirely banish them out of English gardens, as it has done by the shorne evergreens, which a few years since were esteemed the greatest beauties in gardens. The latter was introduced by the Dutch Gardeners, and that of tall '''Hedges''' with Trellage work was in imitation of the French gardens; in some of which of the Iron Trellage to support the trees which composed their cabinets, [[portico]]s, [[bower]]s, [[pavilion|Pavilons]], and other pieces of rural architecture, amounted to a very great sum.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Squibb, Robert, 1787, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787: 51)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (Charleston, SC: Samuel Wright and Co., 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JHHVPH9K view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If you plant the orange trees for a '''hedge''', about ten feet will be a good distance; but if intended for an [[orchard]] or a [[grove]], twenty feet will not be too much.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 91–92)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“[[FENCE]]. . . . <br /> :“In some places it is best to make '''hedge''' [[fence]]s. There are two kinds of [[fence]] that go by this name, dead '''hedge''', and quickset '''hedge'''. <br /> :“To make a good dead '''hedge''', take stakes about six feet long, and set them fast in the ground, upon the line of your [[fence]], about four feet apart, or a less distance if your bushes be short. Then interweave bushes, young trees, or small slender limbs of trees. This [[fence]] will answer with a yearly repairing till the stakes fail. <br /> :“But quickset '''hedge''' is much better, as it is a perpetual [[fence]]. It must be made with different sets in different grounds. . . . <br /> :“It takes time to make these '''hedges'''. But on the whole they are cheap [[fence]]s, as they require but little repairing, besides trimming and pruning, to prevent their growing so high as to cast too great a shadow.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 15, 37)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper distance from each other, on the plain cultivated surface of the ground, in order to form a [[fence]] is what here is meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the common method used in Britain, called '''hedge''' and ditch. . . . Those who are curious to understand the manner of conducting this old way of hedging, will find in Mr. [[Bernard M'Mahon|Bernard McMahon]]’s 'American Gardener’s Callender [''sic''],' a clear and excellent description thereof, with much other useful information in this art, as well as in the various departments of horticulture, &c. . . . <br /> :“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a '''hedge''' cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good [[fence]] nor look handsome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Neil, William, November 28, 1812, “On Hedging and Ditching, by William Neill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania” (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 146)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. (Georgetown: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where I became first acquainted with '''hedges''', unless around [[kitchen garden]]s, or towns, or villages, where lots were small, you would not see one in five hundred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a sharp handsaw, take them off a few inches above the bank, when you would immediately have a more formidable [[fence]] then ever, and so on for ages.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“GARDENING. . . . <br /> :“Yet the fall of the leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high [[wall]] is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close-shorn '''hedges'''; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the [[wall]]; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. . . . <br /> :“Here it may be observed, that if any evergreen '''hedges''' are desired in or about the garden, yew, box, alaternus, celastrus, phillyrea, and pryacantha, may be kept low, and clipped in form, if so desired; in addition to which, if a few roses were intermixed, it would have a very pretty effect. A deciduous '''hedge''' for subdivision, or screen, &c. may be made of elms or limes, setting the larger plants at five feet asunder, and a smaller one between. Or an ordinary [[fence]], or subdivision, may be quickly formed of elder cuttings, stuck in at two feet asunder, which may be kept cut within bounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Taylor, John, 1817, ''Arator'' (1817: 147)<ref>John Taylor, ''Arator, Being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political'' (Georgetown: J. M. and J. B. Carter, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RG7QHU4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If these '''hedges''' are cultivated properly, and the land is strong, they will form an elegant live ever-green [[fence]], in a shorter time, than is necessary to raise a thorn [[fence]] in England, according to the books.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Gardiner, John and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 117–19, 136–37)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818"></ref><br /> :“In those parts of the union where the ripening of fruit requires no aid from artificial warmth and where therefore brick or stone [[wall]]s can be preferable, only on account of their superior strength as [[fence]]s, live '''hedges''', or banks with live '''hedges''' upon them, if well made, not only present an excellent resistance to incroachments, but are an exquisitely beautiful ornament to the mansion and its adjacent grounds. And as the propagation of live '''hedges''' is everyday becoming a subject of more serious importance, and will soon be one of indisputable necessity, in the long inhabited parts of the union where timber is becoming very scarce and dear, it may not be amiss, in this place, to turn for a moment from our particular object of enquiry, for the purpose of awakening all our agriculturalists to a consideration of the expediency of cultivating them, and of offering them a few instructions on [''sic''] this point of rural economy. . . . <br /> :“For gardens, '''hedges''' are advisable for two distinct purposes: The first, outward [[fence]]s to serve as a [[wall]] for the exclusion of tresspassers [''sic'']; the other inward, for the purposes of ornament and shade. <br /> :“For the former, the haw-thorn is excellent. . . . <br /> :“For internal ornamental '''hedges''', privet, yew, laurel and box, cedar and juniper, are most generally used.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819a: 22, 28–29)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“38. Yet, with all these circumstances in my favour, I proceed with faultering accent to propose, even for a garden, a live [[fence]], especially when I have to notice, that I know not how to get the plants, unless I, in the outset, bring them, or their seeds, ''from England!'' However, I must suppose this difficulty surmounted; then proceed to describe this [[fence]] that I would have, if I could. <br /> :“39. In England it is called a ''Quick-Set '''Hedge'''''. The truth is, however, that it ought rather to be called an ''Everlasting '''Hedge'''''; for, it is not, as will be seen by-and-by, so ''very quickly set''; or, at least, so very quickly raised. . . . <br /> :“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English '''Hedges''', instead of post-and-rail and board [[fence]]s? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set '''hedges''', what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields!” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1372.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 106, 355, 1023)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn '''hedges''' and other live [[fence]]s are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . . <br /> :“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest [[fence]]s for parks; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the '''hedge''' or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and [[fence]]s, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .<br /> :“7280. ''The ferme ornée'' differs from a common farm in having a better dwelling-house, neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the offices. It also differs as to the '''hedges''', which are allowed to grow wild and irregular (''fig''. 722.), and are bordered on each side by a broad green [[drive]], and sometimes by a gravel-[[walk]] and [[shrub]]s.” [Fig. 12]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Prince"></div>Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 84, 91, 98, 103, 109–10, 112)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Prince_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“''Live '''hedges'''''.—The trees mostly used for '''hedges''' are the White English Hawthorn, the Holly, the Red Cedar, and the Privet. In the vicinity of Baltimore and Washington cities, they use two species of American Hawthorn, which appear to have decided advantages over the European. The Rhamnus catharticus forms a most beautiful '''hedge'''. . . . <br /> :“''Crataegus oxycantha, or European White Thorn.''—This is the common species used throughout England for '''hedges''', and which has been considerably planted in this country for the same purpose. It answers very well trained as ornamental tree among [[shrubbery]], but is far less suitable for '''hedges''' than many of our native species. . . . <br /> :“''Ilex aquifolium, or Common European.''—. . . It is found very suitable for '''hedges''', for which purpose it is extensively used in England. In addition to the Common Holly, there are a great number of varieties, viz. . . . <br /> :“''Privet, or Prim.—Ligustrum vulgare.''—This [[shrub]] is generally known, and was formerly greatly cultivated for '''hedges''' in this country, and is still so in many parts of Europe. The '''hedges''' formed of it are beautiful in the extreme, arising from its fine myrtle-like foliage, and its abundant clusters of berries in autumn and winter; and, when the sub-evergreen variety is used for this purpose, it possesses the advantage of retaining much of its foliage during the winter season. . . . <br /> :“''Mespilus pyracantha, or Evergreen Thorn.''— This has very dense foliage; the leaves are small, and of a fine dark green; it produces abundance of white flowers, which are delicate, and much admired; but, like the foregoing, it is its fruit which gives it the greatest claim to beauty. These are of the same size as those of the preceding species, they are of a fiery red, and are produced in the greatest abundance, and retain their beauty during the autumnal and part of the winter months, and serve to decorate this [[shrub]] at a season when nature most needs their aid. Being a sub-evergreen, and retaining a large portion of its foliage during winter, gives it another claim as an appendage to the [[shrubbery]]. It is now considerably planted for '''hedges''', for which purpose, uniting beauty with usefulness, it does not appear to be surpassed by any other. . . . <br /> :“''Rhamnus catharticus, or Sea Buckthorn.''—The leaves of this tree are oval, and pointed at the ends, and about two inches long, with serrated edges; the flowers are green, and produced in clusters from the sides of the branches, and are no way conspicuous; it rises to the height of 14 or 15 feet, throwing out numerous shoots on all sides, and produces, during the autumn, abundant clusters of black berries, which form its principal ornament. It has long been used in Europe for '''hedges''', and had latterly been planted in this country for the same purpose; and I have seldom seen a more beautiful '''hedge''' of any other [[shrub]], and consider it extremely eligible for that purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE''', ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', '''hedge''', protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .] <br /> :“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Floy, Michael, September 24 and October 1, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74, 84)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10–12 (September 24, October 1, October 8, 1830): 74, 84, 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :[Sept. 24] “''Gleditschia triacanthos'',—Honey locust, or three thorn Acacia. It makes a handsome stately tree, the foliage is handsome, but the dreadful long triple thorns with which the tree is armed, give it a forbidding aspect. Trees of this kind are often used for '''hedges''', and if planted thick, they soon make an impenetrable [[fence]] against man and beast, but must be kept cut down to 4 or 5 feet every season, or the '''hedge''' would soon be spoiled. . . . <br /> :[Oct. 1] “''Crataegus oxyacantha, the Hawthorn''. . . . Hawthorn '''hedges''' are much used in England, where they look very handsome when kept clipped, but they do not answer so well in this country, the heat of our summers causing the leaves to fall off early, often in July; on that account they are not much used—we have several things which are better calculated for that purpose. . . . <br /> :“''Ligustrum vulgare virens.'' Large European Privet, a very handsome evergreen [[shrub]], flowering in great profusion, and succeeded by bunches of black round berries. It bears clipping well, and is therefore well calculated for '''hedges''', or to enclose ornamental [[plantation]]s. It grows quick, and is well adapted to our climate, and when planted in a '''hedge''' row, and kept clipped, it makes a beautiful '''hedge''', and ought to be in more general use.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 133–34)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close [[fence]]s, or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact '''hedge''', which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . . <br /> :“[[Shrub]]s are not only necessary to the embellishment of a [[flower garden]], but many kinds of them are eligible for '''hedges''' to it, and may be planted at a trifling expense. These '''hedges''' should be frequently trimmed and trained, the sides cut even, and the tops sparingly clipped, so as to make them ornamental, as well as useful, and also to increase the vigour of their growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 158)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''' may be of various kinds, such as the single '''hedge''' and ditch the '''hedge''' and bank; the level '''hedge''', &c.; of which, descriptions may be found in Loudon’s ''Encyclopedia of Agriculture'', and other books of husbandry.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 41, 43),<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for fencing does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable '''hedge'''. The advantages of live [[fence]]s are, great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board [[fence]]s) being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . . <br /> :“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden [[fence]], may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant '''hedge''''' is without an equal.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hooper"></div>Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hooper_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''HEDGES'''. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for [[fence]]s before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for [[fence]]s that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live '''hedges'''. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live [[fence]]s will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 206, 244),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''Hedges''' may either be of evergreens, neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s with standard plants at regular distances, to imitate architectural piers; or they may be formed of a mixture of different kinds of flowering [[shrub]]s, with evergreen standard low trees at regular distances. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGES''' for [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s should be composed of ornamental plants, such as ''Cydònia japónica'', Privet, Laurestinus, ''Rìbes sanguínea'', Roses, and double-blossomed Furze, or Ivy and other climbers, trained over iron [[trellis]]-work. The '''hedge''' to a flower-garden should never be stiff and formal, so as to look like a mere barrier; but it should be so arranged, and should consist of plants which harmonize so well with the flowers in the garden, as to make them appear a part of it. For farther details on this subject, see [[fence|FENCE]]S.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221, 286–88)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[fence|FENCES]] are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live [[fence]]s, and are then known as '''''hedges''''', or dead, and are then either ''banks'', ''ditches'', ''palings'', or ''[[wall]]s''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE''', properly includes every kind of [[fence]], but the present details apply for the most part to growing [[fence]]s. . . . <br /> :“All full trained '''hedges''', in order to preserve them in proper form, close and neat, must be clipped, both on the sides and top, once or twice a year, but never less than once; . . . regular '''hedges''' should be cut as even as a [[wall]] on the sides, and the top as straight as a line; observing, after the '''hedge''' is formed to its proper height and width, always to cut each year’s clipping nearly to the old of the former year, particularly on the side; for by no means suffer them to grow above a foot or two wide, nor suffer them to advance upon you too much at top, where it is designed or necessary to keep them to a moderate height. But to keep '''hedges''' in perfectly good order, they should be clipped twice every summer. . . . Very high '''hedges''' are both troublesome and expensive to cut. The clipping is sometimes performed by the assistance of a high machine, scaffolding or stage. . . .<br /> :“A '''hedge''' is not only an imperfect screen, but in other respects is worse than useless, since nothing can be trained to it, and its roots exhaust the soil in their neighborhood very considerably; as the south [[fence]] of a garden it may be employed, and hawthorn is perhaps the worst shrub that could be made use of. It is the [[nursery]] of the same aphides, beetles, and caterpillars, that feed upon the foliage of the apple and pear . . . evergreen are better than deciduous '''hedges''', and more especially the holly, which is not so slow a grower as is generally imagined.<br /> :“In a cloudy day in April or May, the wind seems to be actually refrigerated in passing through a thick hawthorn '''hedge'''. . . . When the garden is of considerable extent, three or four acres and upwards, it admits of cross-[[wall]]s or [[fence]]s for an increase of training surface and additional shelter.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0998.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 355, fig. 84.]]<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1847, “A Chapter on Hedges” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 345–46)<ref> Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 345–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3BBFEPHX view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“The advantages of a '''hedge''' over a common [[fence]], besides its beauty, are its durability, its perfect protection against man and beast, and the additional value it confers upon the land which it encloses. A [[fence]] of [[wood]], or stone, as commonly made, is, at the best, but a miserable and tottering affair; soon needing repairs, which are a constant drain upon the purse; often liable to be broken down by trespassing Philistines; and, before many years, decaying, or so far falling down, as to demand a complete renewal. Now a good '''hedge''', made of the two plants we shall presently recommend,will last ''forever''; it is an 'everlasting [[fence]],' at least in any acceptation of the word known to our restless and changing countrymen. . . .<br /> :“As a protection to the choicer products of the soil, which tempt the spoiler of the [[orchard]] and the garden, nothing is so efficient as a good '''hedge'''. It is like an impregnable fortress, neither to be scaled, broken through, nor climbed over. Fowls will not fly over it, because they fear to alight upon its top; and men and beasts are not likely to make more than one attempt to force its green [[wall]]s. It shows a fair and leafy shield to its antagonist, but it has thousands of concealed arrows ready at the moment of assault, and there are few creatures, however bold, who care to 'come to the scratch' twice with such a foe. Indeed a well made and perfect thorn '''hedge''' is so thick that a bird cannot fly through it.” [Fig. 13]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“As far as practicable, make divisions whichare necessary about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind [[fence]], or of '''hedges''', for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0379.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.]]<br /> *<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 119, 302, 305, 310, 344–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In Fig. 27, is shown part of an embellished farm, treated in the [[picturesque]] style throughout. The various trees, under grass or tillage, are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by '''hedges''' of buckthorn, cedar, and hawthorn, instead of wooden [[fence]]s. . . .[Fig. 14]<br /> :“We have ourselves tried the experiment with a '''hedge''' of it [arbor vitae] about 200 feet long,which was transplanted about five or six feet high from the native ''habitats'' of the young trees, and which fully answers our expectations respecting it, forming a perfectly thick screen, and an excellent shelter on the north of a range of buildings at all seasons of the year, growing perfectly thick without trimming, from the very ground upwards. . . .<br /> :“For '''hedges''' the Holly is altogether unrivalled; and it was also one of the favorite plants for ''verdant sculpture'', in the [[ancient style]] of gardening. . . .<br /> :“The Yew, like the Holly, makes an excellent evergreen '''hedge'''—close, dark green, and beautiful when clad in the rich scarlet berries. . . .<br /> :“''Verdant '''hedges''''' are elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s, and we are surprised that their use has not been hitherto more general. . . . [[Picturesque]] '''hedges''' are easily formed by intermingling a variety of flowering [[shrub]]s, sweet briars, etc., and allowing the whole to grow together in rich masses. . . . In all cases where '''hedges''' are employed in the [[natural style]] of landscape (and not in close connexion with highly artificial objects, buildings, etc.), a more agreeable effect will be produced by allowing the '''hedge''' to grow somewhat irregular in form, or varying it by planting near it other small trees and [[shrub]]s to break the outline, than by clipping it in even and formal lines.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 178)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“THE cheapest, most beautiful, and durable [[fence]]s are '''hedges''', and all dividing [[fence]]s of cottage gardens, should be made of '''hedges'''; there are several kinds of plants well adapted for the purpose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 409)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“ES-PAL’IER, (es-pal’yer,) n. [Fr. ''[[espalier]]''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.] <br /> :“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in '''hedges''', so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close '''hedge''' or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Every fine [[flower garden|[flower] garden]] should be well secured by [[fence]] or '''hedge''', if at all exposed to the public road. A '''hedge''' is far the prettiest, if well managed, neat, and ornamental.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Coppock, W. R., March 1851, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 151)<ref>W. R. Coppock, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 147–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7DFAAII5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A thoroughly protective '''hedge''', or an uncouth looking strong [[fence]], is absolutely necessary to the orchardist, if he may derive either pleasure or profit from his trees. Climbing a [[fence]], or pushing aside a picket, and pelting the choice apples, pears, &c. from the trees, is, I am sorry to say, not considered generally a misdemeanor, or theft, at the present day.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Hedges that are planted between the . . .Trees which form the Sides of the Walks. . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. “Slope H is planted with Hedges of ''different Ever-Greens''.”<br /> <br /> Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. Hedges marked in the middle of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Privet hedge” marked at the top of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768. “Hedge” is written just below the drawing to the right.<br /> <br /> Image:0090a.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. “Hedge of hedgethorn” is inscribed on the second line on the left.<br /> <br /> Image:0932.jpg|R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.<br /> <br /> Image:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. “Hedge” is inscribed all along the curving border.<br /> <br /> Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.<br /> <br /> Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “19. Hedge or screen of arbor vitae . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked with hedges of evergreen. . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. The symbol for “Hedges” is noted in the References box.<br /> <br /> Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.<br /> <br /> Image:1501.jpg|Anonymous, “Manner of Planting Hedges,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 353, fig. 83. <br /> <br /> Image:0998.jpg|Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (Feb. 1847): 355, fig. 84.<br /> <br /> Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 120, fig. 27. “The various trees . . . are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by hedges.”<br /> <br /> Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. “I” represents “hedge of cedars.”<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.<br /> <br /> Image:0662.jpg|Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830–40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 296.<br /> <br /> Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.<br /> <br /> Image:0797.jpg|Thomas Hodell (artist), Pierre Charles Canot (engraver), “A South East View of the City of New York, in North America,” c. 1768.<br /> <br /> Image:0096.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for the garden of the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.<br /> <br /> image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.<br /> <br /> Image:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.<br /> <br /> Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''View of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.<br /> <br /> Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Boundaries]]<br /> [[Category: Planting Arrangements]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Hedge&diff=36174 Hedge 2019-06-12T18:11:45Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Border]], [[Espalier]], [[Fence]], [[Shrubbery]]<br /> <br /> ==History== <br /> [[File:1009.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.]]<br /> Throughout the history of American gardens, hedges were used for a variety of practical and ornamental purposes. The feature created divisions within the garden, protected tender plants from cross-winds, formed barriers against both animal and human intruders, screened unsightly [[view]]s, outlined ornamental [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s [Fig. 1], and brought flowering variety to the garden. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>According to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1838), hedges were ideal for these purposes because their architectural form functioned much like a [[fence]] or [[wall]], while their organic material allowed them to harmonize with planting arrangements and to articulate other forms of architecture to the landscape ([[#Downing|view citation]]). <span id="Deane_cite"></span>As [[Samuel Deane]] noted in 1790, live hedges were preferable to [[fence]]s and “dead hedges” (wattle [[fence]]s using woven plant material) because the living plants created a “perpetual fence” whose posts never decayed and stakes never failed ([[#Deane|view citation]]). Their versatility also made them adaptable to any scale, whether enclosing a field, screening a privy, or edging a [[bed]] (see [[Fence]]). <br /> <br /> <div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to texts.]]]]<br /> Hedges were found throughout America, but the plant materials employed in them varied, depending on the purpose of the hedge and the climate of its particular region. <span id="Prince_cite"></span>In 1828, William Prince praised hedges, particularly of buckthorn and maclura, as windbreaks affording protection in areas subject to severe winds ([[#Prince|view citation]]). Fast-growing evergreens were recommended for hedges needed to screen an area, although they were not advised for situations calling for trimmed effect or where a long shadow was undesirable. In these cases, the arborvitae, which grows quickly and densely, was the most common choice. At times, the screening effect does not appear to have been intentional; <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>in 1839, for example, [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] described the fish [[pond]] of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] in Salem, Massachusetts, as being entirely surrounded by an eight-foot high impenetrable hedge ([[#Hovey|view citation]]). Where such an effect was desired, various types of thorn were effective as impenetrable barriers. [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that “there are few creatures, however bold, who care to ‘come to the ''scratch''’ twice with such a foe.”<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist'' 1 (February 1847): 346.</ref> Cacti were similarly used at the California missions to create barriers around fields. Plants for ornamental hedges, however, were selected for their foliage, blossoms, and berries. For instance, a wild rose hedge was planted at [[Mount Vernon]], while the deep green foliage of the privet was admired at [[Oatlands]], D. P. Manice’s residence in Hempstead, New York. Because of their combination of flowering beauty and edible produce, fruit trees, such as apple, peach, and orange, were sometimes planted as [[espalier]] hedges (see [[Espalier]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] capitalized on the many uses of hedges: he designed thorn hedges to enclose his [[orchard]] and garden area [Fig. 2], planned hedgethorn and privet or cedar to line his [[slope]]s, and, in a proposal of 1771, used a hedge to screen his [[icehouse]] from view [Fig. 3].<ref>Jefferson purchased much of his plant material for Monticello from Thomas Main, a nurseryman and author of an 1807 work on hedges. See Brenda Bullion, “Early American Farming and Gardening Literature: ‘Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States,’” ''Journal of Garden History'' 12, no. 1 (1992): 37–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5MKAGJ2V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0167.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.]]<br /> Climate was also a factor in plant choice for hedges. In warmer regions ornamental hedges were composed of orange, yucca, Cherokee rose, and gardenia, while cedar, spruce, and juniper were used in colder areas such as New England. Prince recommended maclura or osage orange for Philadelphia and areas to the south. <span id="Hooper_cite"></span>Edward James Hooper, in ''The Practical Farmer'' (1842), maintained that buckthorn was suited to New England’s climate while European hawthorn did better in the west, although other descriptions suggest that the use of thorn varieties was not regionally specific ([[#Hooper|view citation]]). <br /> <br /> [[File:0932.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.]]<br /> Early evidence of hedges in the American landscape may be found in books of instruction on the delineation or division of arable fields, a practice taken directly from European agricultural tradition. Hedges created by close planting and interweaving of [[shrub]]s to create a dense barrier were categorized in many horticultural and agricultural treatises as a type of [[fence]], rather than identified with other planting arrangements such as [[thicket]], [[grove]], and group. The discourse about the advantages of hedges over [[fence]]s was particularly rich in the American agricultural literature of the early 19th century. Proponents of the new “scientific agriculture,” such as John Adams and Ezekiel Hersey Derby, reported their experiments with different plant varieties and techniques for forming hedges [Fig. 4].<ref>For example, see Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn . . . for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29. For a discussion of scientific farming in the Boston area, see Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), chapters 2 and 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The aesthetic treatment of garden hedges was discussed and debated throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries. Authors and gardeners variously praised and dismissed both trimmed and untrimmed hedges, depending upon the prevailing taste and the particular situation of the hedge. <span id="Stiles_cite"></span>[[Ezra Stiles]] admired the spruce hedges at [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, which were cut into beautiful figures in 1754 ([[#Stiles|view citation]]), and in 1762 <span id="Callender_cite"></span>[[Hannah Callender Sansom]] described a hedge [[labyrinth]] at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], [[William Peters|Judge William Peters's]] estate near Philadelphia ([[#Callender|view citation]]). <span id="Ware_cite"></span>In contrast, [[Isaac Ware]], writing in 1756, praised the “natural hedge . . . mimicking savage nature” ([[#Ware|view citation]]). In 1832, both [[H. A. S. Dearborn]] and [[Thomas Bridgeman]] commended trimmed and trained hedges while other writers, such as [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] and [[Jane Loudon]], allowed the merits of both formal and [[natural style|naturalistic]] styles. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>In 1845 [[Jane Loudon|Loudon]] praised evergreen hedges “neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s,” while in the [[flower garden]] she proposed a less “stiff and formal” appearance that would “harmonize . . . with the flowers” ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>In the 1849 edition of his treatise, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that trimmed hedges were “elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s,” while irregular or [[picturesque]] hedges were handsome additions to a landscape of the “[[natural style]]” ([[#Downing_1849|view citation]]).<br /> <br /> —''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation) <br /> :“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound [[fence]] . . . or with an '''hedge''' two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such '''hedge''', a rail [[fence]] of two foot and half high, the '''hedge''' or [[fence]] being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful [[fence]],) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Grove, William Hugh, 1732, describing Virginia (quoted in Stiverson and Butler 1977: 35)<ref>Gregory A. Stiverson and Patrick H. Butler III, eds., “Virginia in 1732: The Travel Journal of William Hugh Grove,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 85 (1977): 18–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ACNK9DG9 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“They also make strong '''hedges''' of Peach plants in their gardens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'') <br /> :“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper; . . . a very good [[Kitchen Garden]], at the Rear of which is a Grass-[[plat]], with a Prim '''Hedge''' round and pale’d, situate on level Up Land.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, describing the vicinity of Philadelphia (1937: 1:47)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[fence]]s and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[wood]]s for future times, have begun to plant quick '''hedges''' round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the property of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'') <br /> :“With in a few weeks will be raffled for, A LOT . . . belonging to ''[[Alexander Garden|Alexander Gordon]], Esq''. . . . Together with a garden, genteelly laid out in [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s, with flower-knots, &c. laid round with bricks, having also several kinds of fruit trees now bearing, and many orange trees now growing like-wise, cassini and other '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stiles"></div>Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (1892: 375)<ref>“Ezra Stiles in Philadelphia, 1754,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16 (1892): 375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T7C8P48I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stiles_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“. . . besides the beautiful [[walk]], ornamented with evergreens, we saw . . . Spruce '''hedges''' cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> : “. . . on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of '''hedge''' and low ceder with spruce . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:102, 115)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[March 14] Planted the 9 young peach Trees which I brought from Mr. Cockburns in the No. Garden—viz . . . 2 in the [[border]] of the Walk leading from the [[Espalier]] '''hedge''' towards the other cross [[walk]]. . . . <br /> :“[April 8] The ground being too wet . . . I was unable to touch that which I had been preparing for grass; and therefore began to hoe that wch. lyes between the New circular ditches, & the Wild rose '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. P. Brissot de Warville|Brissot de Warville, J. P.]], September 6, 1788, describing the enclosure of pastures in America (1792: 253)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Mr. L. thinks it best to replace them [wooden rail [[fence]]s] by ditches six feet deep, of which he throws the earth upon his [[meadow]]s, and [[border]]s the sides with '''hedges'''; and thus renders the passage impracticable to the cattle. This is an agricultural operation, which cannot be too much recommended to the Americans.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Strickland, William, October 9, 1794, describing the country from Fishkill, NY, to Poughkeepsie, NY (1971: 99–100)<ref>William Strickland, ''Journal of a Tour in the United States of America, 1794-1795'', ed. J. E. Strickland (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DR8FH6KF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country in general is divided into fields . . . it wants only the ornament of live [[fence]]s to be one of the most [[picturesque]] that can be seen, and those even have been attempted though they have unfortunately failed. Near Fishkyl the fields were formerly divided by Privet '''Hedges''' a shrub imported from Europe by the Dutch, which answerd the purpose, and throve well for many years, and some of them are still to be seen; but an insect attacked them some years since by which they were destroyed, and they never have been replaced, or any substitute adopted or tried; though no doubt shrubs better calculated for making durable strong [[fence]]s might be found among the natives of this country.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Worcester County, MA (1821: 1:375)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“An eye accustomed to the beautiful '''hedges''' of England, would probably regard these inclosures [stone [[wall]]s] with little pleasure. But emotions of this nature depend much on comparison. There are no '''hedges''' in New-England: those which formerly existed, having perished by some unknown misfortune. Few persons therefore, who see these [[wall]]s, will be able to compare them with '''hedges'''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.]]<br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection) <br /> :“. . . make the upper [[slope]] thus at ''a'' plant a '''hedge''' of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet, or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance this taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the [[terrace|terras]].” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54, 57&ndash;58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes&mdash;the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens '''hedge'''&mdash;of juniper I think. . . .<br /> :“. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden&mdash;& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose '''hedges''', & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house&mdash;but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. See the plan of the Grounds.<br /> :“The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided [[yard]]&mdash;The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the '''hedge''' that screens the [[Yard]].”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferons|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter to [[William Hamilton]], describing plans for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 365)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you should know this plant [haw], which is peculiar at least to America & is a real treasure. as a thorn for '''hedges''' nothing has ever been seen comparable to it certainly no thorn in England which I have ever seen makes a '''hedge''' any more to be compared to this than a log hut to a [[wall]] of freestone. if you will plant these 6. I. apart you will be a judge of their superiority soon.” [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing a farm in Pennsylvania (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 11)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I visited Job Roberts the day before yesterday, his farm is a model of excellence in the Culture. . . . He is growing several '''hedges''' which in less than 7 yrs. will be complete [[fence]]s against all sorts of Cattle. The management of which is a good lesson, which I hope to make usefull to this place.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Foster, Sir Augustus John, 1812, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 177)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . the [[fence]]s were of hurdles to keep out pigs. The American thorn will not grow close enough and the cedar '''hedge''' though pretty is not strong enough for the purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the vicinity of Charleston, SC (1816: 2:228)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Between the tavern and Charleston, the road is lined with the '''hedges''' and [[fence]]s belonging to several handsome [[plantation]]s: the houses are, however, seldom seen, being built a considerable distance back.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the northern and mid-Atlantic States (1816: 2:231–32)<ref name="Lambert 1816"></ref><br /> :“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if '''hedges''' were substituted for rail [[fence]]s, those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, [[New Harmony]], IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819b: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of fencing. . . . The banks [of the ditches] were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live '''hedge''' (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the [[fence]] far more effectual as well as handsomer.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0712.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.]]<br /> *[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick '''hedge''' of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.” [Fig. 6]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0662.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830-40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, p. 296.]]<br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 21, 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 158)<ref name="Forman 1976">Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The hedger, Mr. Green, arrived here this evening, he laid a part of the Apple '''hedge''' and all the thorn '''hedge'''.” [Fig. 7] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231–32)<ref>Robert Jr. Waln, “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[flower garden]], extending from the vestibule to a dark green '''hedge''' of cedar, which separates it from the [[kitchen garden]], offers a rich repast to the eye. . . . <br /> :“About twenty acres of the farm are in a state of cultivation; the rest is woodland. It is separated from the road which passes in front of it, by a flourishing thorn-'''hedge'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, 1828, in a letter to Thomas Green Fessenden, describing his use of the buckthorn in constructing hedges (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 57)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of making a '''hedge''', without much success, I was induced to try this [buckthorn], which has afforded a most beautiful [[fence]], so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American hawthorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. . . . You will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for '''hedges''' as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects America.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a “bungalow” in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange '''hedges''', all in flower.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“From the top of the bank, on which the house stood, we could see over a '''hedge''' into the rice fields which lay beyond, and stretched over the plain for several miles, their boundary line being the black edge of the untouched forest.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bell, Caroline, April 6, 1829, describing Iberville Plantation, LA (Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 459, MS 102) <br /> :“I have set out a great deal of beautiful [[shrubbery]] & Flowers, tomorrow shall plant, all my orange seed for '''hedges''' & plant all my Myrtle and sweet orange Trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>Anonymous, “Neglected Grave Yards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 39 (April 17, 1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the [[burial ground]]s of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a [[grove]] sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living '''hedge''' of hawthorn. <br /> :“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of [[Samuel Breck]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd 1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Samuel Breck|Mr. Breck]] has taken considerable pains with a '''hedge''' of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail [[fence]]. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live [[fence]] in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 438–39)<ref name="Boyd 1929"></ref><br /> :“On viewing this [[seat]], our attention was immediately drawn to the handsome '''hedges''' of Hornbeam and Pinus Canadensis. We were delighted with the latter; never having seen it before. Its fine green foliage contrasts very sweetly with the delicate appearance of the tender shoots. These '''hedge''’s are trimmed periodically and kept in excellent order.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 82–83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''', used as inclosures, will disappoint expectation, and require to be entirely eradicated after a few years, if even for a short time they should have a pleasing effect, when young, healthy, vigorous, and well managed. They are only proper for extensive grounds, farms, or large gardens, embracing some ten or twenty acres, or for long lines of circumvallation, which are to be seen at a distance, in which the imperfections, occasioned by insects and the ravages of time, are lost in the perspective, but should never be employed to surround a mere [[parterre]], a buisson of roses, or a [[bed]] of hyacinths. To look even beautiful, '''hedges''', of all kinds, require constant attention; they must be kept clear of weeds, and be pruned and clipped several times in the course of the season of vegetation, and this, too, by a skilful hand.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], June 1835, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 201)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from Memoranda made in the Month of March last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 6 (June 1835): 201–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WGMGZFER view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The object of a '''hedge''' is generally to keep from the grounds cattle and other animals; though in some instances, they are only set to obscure one part of the garden from the other, or to hide some disagreeable object from the eye.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Charleston, SC (1838: 1:228)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country is flat and sandy, and the only objects are planters’ mansions, surrounded with evergreen [[wood]]s, the gardens exhibiting the tropical yucca, and fenced with '''hedges''' of the Cherokee rose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, January 1, 1836, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 28)<ref>Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P93RF7HA view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The rapid increase of our population, and the consequent vast consumption of timber for other and more valuable purposes, by increasing the relative cost of the old fashioned wooden [[fence]]s, must eventually render the introduction of '''hedges''' here, advantageous, if not absolutely essential, from motives of utility and economy; while the lover of rural scenery will hail with pleasure the [[picturesque]] charm of their verdant beauty. <br /> :“It is now about thirtytwo [''sic''] years, since I first attempted the formation of a live '''hedge''' as a boundary for my own pleasure-grounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 30, 1838, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 396)<ref name="Forman 1976"></ref><br /> :“The General planting a '''hedge''' of Osage apple from the poplar tree [[gate]] to the [[wood]]s [[gate]] between the horse chestnuts row.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hovey"></div>[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing [[Elias Hasket Derby House]], Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11),<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hovey_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a [[square]]. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the [[square]]s occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a '''hedge'''. <br /> :“In the centre of the garden is a small oval [[pond]], containing gold fish: this [[pond]] is '''hedge''’d round with the buckthorn, which has now been planted over thirty years! It is not over eight feet high, and is thickly set with branches and foliage from the top to bottom, and perfectly impenetrable.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Kemble, Fanny, March 24–28, 1839, in a letter to Elizabeth Dwight Sedgwick, describing an estate on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1961; repr., 1984: 284–85)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (1961; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Hamilton struck me very much—I mean the whole appearance of the place; the situation of the house, the noble water [[prospect]] it commanded, the magnificent old oaks near it, a luxuriant vine [[trellis]], and a splendid '''hedge''' of Yucca gloriosa, were all objects of great delight to me.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1840, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” describing the estate of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 10 (October 1840): 361–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQC7WWZB view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Passing into a straight [[walk]] which leads from the [[conservatory]], by the [[flower garden]], (which is screaned by a [[hedge]] from the [[lawn]] front,).” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0878_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries [detail],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]<br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 406)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of each; accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the principles and practice of Landscape Gardening: intended with a view to illustrate the Art of Laying out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. . . . Under the arbor vitae '''hedge''', which is here planted against the boundary line, the [[greenhouse]] plants are principally placed during summer. <br /> :“19. '''Hedge''' or screen of arbor vitae, shutting out the back shed, compost ground, &c. The arbor vitae is well adapted for this purpose, growing rapidly, and forming a perfect screen in three or four years.” [Fig. 8] <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]<br /> *Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, in a letter to Annie Pierce, describing [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A buckthorn '''hedge''' has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open [[fence]] which separates between us demands a '''hedge''' there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 9]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 284)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 8 (August 1846): 281–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2J7VZ6S view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Referring to our account above mentioned, we particularly alluded to the fine '''hedges''' of the arbor vitae which existed here, and recommended this fine tree as peculiarly well adapted for screens or '''hedges''' to shut out one part of the garden from another, or hide disagreeable objects. Twelve years’ experience has convinced us of the correctness of our remarks, and we may still urge them upon the attention of our readers. The arbor vitae is unquestionably one of the finest of evergreen trees, and far superior to any other for forming '''hedges''' or screens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1847, excerpt from “Walden” (Clarke, ed., 1993: 2:47)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95/].</ref><br /> :“Self-sown my stately garden grows; <br /> ::The winds and wind-blown seed, <br /> :Cold April rain and colder snows <br /> ::My '''hedges''' plant and feed.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the '''hedges''' are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 22, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on [[Rosedown Plantation]], Lousiana (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach '''hedge''' to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[John Parkinson|Parkinson, John]], 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with '''hedges''', with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Smith, John, 1629, ''Advertisement for the Unexperienced Planters'' (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, eds., ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, [[Walk]]es, [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s . . . seeing you may have so many great and small growing trees for your maine posts, to fix '''hedges''', palisados, houses, rales, or what you will.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:7, 17; 1720: 2.3:27–28)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719–20), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[vol. 1] They [ever-greens] are so ornamental where they are rightly managed, that I think no Garden can be compleat without ’em; they make beautiful and useful '''Hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for '''Hedges''', and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of [[Wilderness]] Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . . <br /> :“[vol. 2] In these several [[Quarter]]s plant your Trees at about sixteen Foot distance, if you design a close [[Orchard]], or near thirty Foot asunder if the Ground is design’d for Beans, Peas, or such like Under-crops. . . . The Ground thus planted may be fenced about with '''Hedges''' of ''Philbuds'' and ''Berberries'', to make it still the more compleat and delightful.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.]]<br /> [[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]<br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: vii–ix, xiii)<ref name="Langley">Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London : Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley et al.,1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AN26GF5X view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Plate III. is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, . . .<br /> :“The '''Hedges''' that are planted between the aforesaid Trees which form the Sides of the [[Walk]]s are of ''English'', ''Dutch'' and ''French Elms'', ''Lime'', ''Hornbeam'', ''Maple'', ''Privet'', ''Yew'', ''Holly'', ''Arbutus'', ''Phillyrea'', ''Norway Fir'', ''Ilex'', ''Bay'', ''Laurel'', ''Laurus-Tinnus'', ''Piracantha'', ''Juniper'', and the ''English Furze''; and indeed, a beutiful [[Plantation]] should not only be adorned with entire [[Walk]]s and '''Hedges''' of Trees of all Sorts, as well as Fruit as others; but intermix’d together in many parts, as if Nature had placed them there with her own Hand. . . . [Fig. 10]<br /> :“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the ''[[Canal]]'' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with '''''Hedges''''' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view’d from M. . . .” [Fig. 11]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: 195–99)<ref name="Langley"></ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . . . <br /> :“XIX. . . . <br /> :“And to add to the Pleasure of these delightful Meanders, I advise that the '''Hedge'''-Rows of the [[Walk]]s be intermix’d with Cherries, Plumbs [sic], Apples, Pears, Bruxel Apricots, Figs, Gooseberries, Currants, Rasberrries [''sic''], ''&c''. and the [[Border]]s planted with Strawberries, Violets, ''&c''. <br /> :“The most beautiful Forest-Trees for '''Hedges''', are the English Elm, the ''Dutch'' Elm, the Lime-Tree, and Hornbeam: And altho' I have advis’d the Mixing of these '''Hedges''' of Forest-Trees with the aforesaid Fruits, yet you must not forget a Place for those pleasant and delightful Flowering-[[Shrub]]s, the White Jessemine, Honey-Suckle, and Sweet-Brier. . . . <br /> :“XXI. Such [[Walk]]s as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[aviary|Aviaries]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular '''Hedges''' ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[espalier|ESPALIER]]. . . . <br /> :“As for ''[[espalier ]]'''hedges''''', or '''hedge''' rows for defence of tender greens, and plants, from destructive winds in the summer season; if there be occasion to use them the first or second year after they are planted, a substantial frame of wood must be made, seven or eight foot high, with posts and rails. And to this ''[[espalier]]'' frame, must the side boughs of the young trees be tied, to cause the ''[[espalier]]'' to thicken the sooner. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE'''*, in agriculture, &c. a [[fence]], inclosing a field, garden, or the like; made of branches of trees interwoven. See [[fence|FENCE]]. <br /> :“*The word is formed of the German ''hag'', or ''haeg'', or the Anglo Saxon ''hegge'', or ''hege''; which signifies simply ''inclosure'', ''circumference''. <br /> :“''Quick-set'' '''HEDGE''', is that made of quick or live trees, which have taken root; in contradistinction to that made of faggots, hurdles, or dry boughs.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE'''. ''n.s''. [. . . Saxon.] A [[fence]] made round grounds with prickly bushes.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Ware"></div>[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 641, 645),<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ware_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable [[view]]s by clearing away [[wall]]s and '''hedges''' in the grounds . . . this is to be done when something pleasing, some [[view]] of elegant, wild nature can be let in. . . . <br /> :“A [[meadow]] and its '''hedge''' excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the '''hedge''' lost the very vegetable character. In the wild state of nature all is free, all therefore is cheerful, and all pleasing. . . . Instead of the precise regularity we have so lately and so difficultly banished, in those vast gardens that have been described to us so happily, there scarce appears a strait line. The profusion of flowers with which they are embellished are stuck in natural '''hedges''' or raised on irregular hillocks, mimicking savage nature, only in a state of more variety.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hale, Thomas, 1758, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1758: 1:209–10, 230)<ref>Thomas Hale, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry Containing Rules for Performing, in the Most Profitable Manner, the Whole Business of the Farmer and Country Gentleman'', 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: T. Osborne, 1758), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKU9TFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where the soil is too barren for the growth of an '''hedge''', there is often stone ready for a [[wall]]. . . . <br /> :“In the dry pastures '''hedges''' are the proper [[fence]]s. They are of great service; beside their sheltering the cattle, they defend the grass from the summer heats, and shelter it in the spring from the drying winds. . . . The '''hedges''' also are of value for their produce in useful [[wood]]. . . . <br /> :“Of '''hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“No article [inclosure], in the husbandman’s whole concern, is of more importance. '''Hedges''' are the first object that naturally should strike his imagination, as they are the defence and guard of all the rest. . . . <br /> :“In all inclosed lands the farmer must keep up a good [[fence]], if he expect [''sic''] to reap the fruit of his labours. The better and the more perfectly the [[fence]] is kept in repair, the greater will be his security of his profits: one little defect may do him more injury, by letting in cattle upon his crop, than would have been the cost of a most perfect repair.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[After a description of the types of trees used in '''hedges''', Miller notes that] '''[h]edges''' are either planted to make [[fence]]s around enclosures, or to part off or divide several parts of a Garden; when they are designed as outward [[fence]]s, they are planted either with Hawthorne, Crabs, or Blackthorn, which is slow; but those '''hedges''' which are planted in Gardens, either to surround [[Wilderness]] [[Quarter]]s, or to screen the other parts of a Garden from Sight, are planted with various Sorts of plants, according to the fancy of the Owner some preferring Evergreen '''Hedges''', in which case the Holly is best, next to the Yew, then Laurel, &c. . . . <br /> :“The taste in Gardening having been greatly altered of late Years for the better, these clipped '''Hedges''' have been almost excluded; and it is hoped that a little Time will entirely banish them out of English gardens, as it has done by the shorne evergreens, which a few years since were esteemed the greatest beauties in gardens. The latter was introduced by the Dutch Gardeners, and that of tall '''Hedges''' with Trellage work was in imitation of the French gardens; in some of which of the Iron Trellage to support the trees which composed their cabinets, [[portico]]s, [[bower]]s, [[pavilion|Pavilons]], and other pieces of rural architecture, amounted to a very great sum.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Squibb, Robert, 1787, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787: 51)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (Charleston, SC: Samuel Wright and Co., 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JHHVPH9K view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If you plant the orange trees for a '''hedge''', about ten feet will be a good distance; but if intended for an [[orchard]] or a [[grove]], twenty feet will not be too much.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 91–92)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“[[FENCE]]. . . . <br /> :“In some places it is best to make '''hedge''' [[fence]]s. There are two kinds of [[fence]] that go by this name, dead '''hedge''', and quickset '''hedge'''. <br /> :“To make a good dead '''hedge''', take stakes about six feet long, and set them fast in the ground, upon the line of your [[fence]], about four feet apart, or a less distance if your bushes be short. Then interweave bushes, young trees, or small slender limbs of trees. This [[fence]] will answer with a yearly repairing till the stakes fail. <br /> :“But quickset '''hedge''' is much better, as it is a perpetual [[fence]]. It must be made with different sets in different grounds. . . . <br /> :“It takes time to make these '''hedges'''. But on the whole they are cheap [[fence]]s, as they require but little repairing, besides trimming and pruning, to prevent their growing so high as to cast too great a shadow.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 15, 37)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper distance from each other, on the plain cultivated surface of the ground, in order to form a [[fence]] is what here is meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the common method used in Britain, called '''hedge''' and ditch. . . . Those who are curious to understand the manner of conducting this old way of hedging, will find in Mr. [[Bernard M'Mahon|Bernard McMahon]]’s 'American Gardener’s Callender [''sic''],' a clear and excellent description thereof, with much other useful information in this art, as well as in the various departments of horticulture, &c. . . . <br /> :“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a '''hedge''' cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good [[fence]] nor look handsome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Neil, William, November 28, 1812, “On Hedging and Ditching, by William Neill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania” (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 146)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. (Georgetown: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where I became first acquainted with '''hedges''', unless around [[kitchen garden]]s, or towns, or villages, where lots were small, you would not see one in five hundred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a sharp handsaw, take them off a few inches above the bank, when you would immediately have a more formidable [[fence]] then ever, and so on for ages.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“GARDENING. . . . <br /> :“Yet the fall of the leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high [[wall]] is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close-shorn '''hedges'''; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the [[wall]]; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. . . . <br /> :“Here it may be observed, that if any evergreen '''hedges''' are desired in or about the garden, yew, box, alaternus, celastrus, phillyrea, and pryacantha, may be kept low, and clipped in form, if so desired; in addition to which, if a few roses were intermixed, it would have a very pretty effect. A deciduous '''hedge''' for subdivision, or screen, &c. may be made of elms or limes, setting the larger plants at five feet asunder, and a smaller one between. Or an ordinary [[fence]], or subdivision, may be quickly formed of elder cuttings, stuck in at two feet asunder, which may be kept cut within bounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Taylor, John, 1817, ''Arator'' (1817: 147)<ref>John Taylor, ''Arator, Being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political'' (Georgetown: J. M. and J. B. Carter, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RG7QHU4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If these '''hedges''' are cultivated properly, and the land is strong, they will form an elegant live ever-green [[fence]], in a shorter time, than is necessary to raise a thorn [[fence]] in England, according to the books.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Gardiner, John and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 117–19, 136–37)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818"></ref><br /> :“In those parts of the union where the ripening of fruit requires no aid from artificial warmth and where therefore brick or stone [[wall]]s can be preferable, only on account of their superior strength as [[fence]]s, live '''hedges''', or banks with live '''hedges''' upon them, if well made, not only present an excellent resistance to incroachments, but are an exquisitely beautiful ornament to the mansion and its adjacent grounds. And as the propagation of live '''hedges''' is everyday becoming a subject of more serious importance, and will soon be one of indisputable necessity, in the long inhabited parts of the union where timber is becoming very scarce and dear, it may not be amiss, in this place, to turn for a moment from our particular object of enquiry, for the purpose of awakening all our agriculturalists to a consideration of the expediency of cultivating them, and of offering them a few instructions on [''sic''] this point of rural economy. . . . <br /> :“For gardens, '''hedges''' are advisable for two distinct purposes: The first, outward [[fence]]s to serve as a [[wall]] for the exclusion of tresspassers [''sic'']; the other inward, for the purposes of ornament and shade. <br /> :“For the former, the haw-thorn is excellent. . . . <br /> :“For internal ornamental '''hedges''', privet, yew, laurel and box, cedar and juniper, are most generally used.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819a: 22, 28–29)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“38. Yet, with all these circumstances in my favour, I proceed with faultering accent to propose, even for a garden, a live [[fence]], especially when I have to notice, that I know not how to get the plants, unless I, in the outset, bring them, or their seeds, ''from England!'' However, I must suppose this difficulty surmounted; then proceed to describe this [[fence]] that I would have, if I could. <br /> :“39. In England it is called a ''Quick-Set '''Hedge'''''. The truth is, however, that it ought rather to be called an ''Everlasting '''Hedge'''''; for, it is not, as will be seen by-and-by, so ''very quickly set''; or, at least, so very quickly raised. . . . <br /> :“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English '''Hedges''', instead of post-and-rail and board [[fence]]s? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set '''hedges''', what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields!” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1372.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 106, 355, 1023)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn '''hedges''' and other live [[fence]]s are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . . <br /> :“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest [[fence]]s for parks; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the '''hedge''' or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and [[fence]]s, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .<br /> :“7280. ''The ferme ornée'' differs from a common farm in having a better dwelling-house, neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the offices. It also differs as to the '''hedges''', which are allowed to grow wild and irregular (''fig''. 722.), and are bordered on each side by a broad green [[drive]], and sometimes by a gravel-[[walk]] and [[shrub]]s.” [Fig. 12]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Prince"></div>Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 84, 91, 98, 103, 109–10, 112)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Prince_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“''Live '''hedges'''''.—The trees mostly used for '''hedges''' are the White English Hawthorn, the Holly, the Red Cedar, and the Privet. In the vicinity of Baltimore and Washington cities, they use two species of American Hawthorn, which appear to have decided advantages over the European. The Rhamnus catharticus forms a most beautiful '''hedge'''. . . . <br /> :“''Crataegus oxycantha, or European White Thorn.''—This is the common species used throughout England for '''hedges''', and which has been considerably planted in this country for the same purpose. It answers very well trained as ornamental tree among [[shrubbery]], but is far less suitable for '''hedges''' than many of our native species. . . . <br /> :“''Ilex aquifolium, or Common European.''—. . . It is found very suitable for '''hedges''', for which purpose it is extensively used in England. In addition to the Common Holly, there are a great number of varieties, viz. . . . <br /> :“''Privet, or Prim.—Ligustrum vulgare.''—This [[shrub]] is generally known, and was formerly greatly cultivated for '''hedges''' in this country, and is still so in many parts of Europe. The '''hedges''' formed of it are beautiful in the extreme, arising from its fine myrtle-like foliage, and its abundant clusters of berries in autumn and winter; and, when the sub-evergreen variety is used for this purpose, it possesses the advantage of retaining much of its foliage during the winter season. . . . <br /> :“''Mespilus pyracantha, or Evergreen Thorn.''— This has very dense foliage; the leaves are small, and of a fine dark green; it produces abundance of white flowers, which are delicate, and much admired; but, like the foregoing, it is its fruit which gives it the greatest claim to beauty. These are of the same size as those of the preceding species, they are of a fiery red, and are produced in the greatest abundance, and retain their beauty during the autumnal and part of the winter months, and serve to decorate this [[shrub]] at a season when nature most needs their aid. Being a sub-evergreen, and retaining a large portion of its foliage during winter, gives it another claim as an appendage to the [[shrubbery]]. It is now considerably planted for '''hedges''', for which purpose, uniting beauty with usefulness, it does not appear to be surpassed by any other. . . . <br /> :“''Rhamnus catharticus, or Sea Buckthorn.''—The leaves of this tree are oval, and pointed at the ends, and about two inches long, with serrated edges; the flowers are green, and produced in clusters from the sides of the branches, and are no way conspicuous; it rises to the height of 14 or 15 feet, throwing out numerous shoots on all sides, and produces, during the autumn, abundant clusters of black berries, which form its principal ornament. It has long been used in Europe for '''hedges''', and had latterly been planted in this country for the same purpose; and I have seldom seen a more beautiful '''hedge''' of any other [[shrub]], and consider it extremely eligible for that purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE''', ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', '''hedge''', protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .] <br /> :“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Floy, Michael, September 24 and October 1, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74, 84)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10–12 (September 24, October 1, October 8, 1830): 74, 84, 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :[Sept. 24] “''Gleditschia triacanthos'',—Honey locust, or three thorn Acacia. It makes a handsome stately tree, the foliage is handsome, but the dreadful long triple thorns with which the tree is armed, give it a forbidding aspect. Trees of this kind are often used for '''hedges''', and if planted thick, they soon make an impenetrable [[fence]] against man and beast, but must be kept cut down to 4 or 5 feet every season, or the '''hedge''' would soon be spoiled. . . . <br /> :[Oct. 1] “''Crataegus oxyacantha, the Hawthorn''. . . . Hawthorn '''hedges''' are much used in England, where they look very handsome when kept clipped, but they do not answer so well in this country, the heat of our summers causing the leaves to fall off early, often in July; on that account they are not much used—we have several things which are better calculated for that purpose. . . . <br /> :“''Ligustrum vulgare virens.'' Large European Privet, a very handsome evergreen [[shrub]], flowering in great profusion, and succeeded by bunches of black round berries. It bears clipping well, and is therefore well calculated for '''hedges''', or to enclose ornamental [[plantation]]s. It grows quick, and is well adapted to our climate, and when planted in a '''hedge''' row, and kept clipped, it makes a beautiful '''hedge''', and ought to be in more general use.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 133–34)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close [[fence]]s, or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact '''hedge''', which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . . <br /> :“[[Shrub]]s are not only necessary to the embellishment of a [[flower garden]], but many kinds of them are eligible for '''hedges''' to it, and may be planted at a trifling expense. These '''hedges''' should be frequently trimmed and trained, the sides cut even, and the tops sparingly clipped, so as to make them ornamental, as well as useful, and also to increase the vigour of their growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 158)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''' may be of various kinds, such as the single '''hedge''' and ditch the '''hedge''' and bank; the level '''hedge''', &c.; of which, descriptions may be found in Loudon’s ''Encyclopedia of Agriculture'', and other books of husbandry.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 41, 43),<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for fencing does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable '''hedge'''. The advantages of live [[fence]]s are, great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board [[fence]]s) being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . . <br /> :“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden [[fence]], may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant '''hedge''''' is without an equal.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hooper"></div>Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hooper_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''HEDGES'''. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for [[fence]]s before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for [[fence]]s that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live '''hedges'''. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live [[fence]]s will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 206, 244),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''Hedges''' may either be of evergreens, neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s with standard plants at regular distances, to imitate architectural piers; or they may be formed of a mixture of different kinds of flowering [[shrub]]s, with evergreen standard low trees at regular distances. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGES''' for [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s should be composed of ornamental plants, such as ''Cydònia japónica'', Privet, Laurestinus, ''Rìbes sanguínea'', Roses, and double-blossomed Furze, or Ivy and other climbers, trained over iron [[trellis]]-work. The '''hedge''' to a flower-garden should never be stiff and formal, so as to look like a mere barrier; but it should be so arranged, and should consist of plants which harmonize so well with the flowers in the garden, as to make them appear a part of it. For farther details on this subject, see [[fence|FENCE]]S.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221, 286–88)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[fence|FENCES]] are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live [[fence]]s, and are then known as '''''hedges''''', or dead, and are then either ''banks'', ''ditches'', ''palings'', or ''[[wall]]s''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE''', properly includes every kind of [[fence]], but the present details apply for the most part to growing [[fence]]s. . . . <br /> :“All full trained '''hedges''', in order to preserve them in proper form, close and neat, must be clipped, both on the sides and top, once or twice a year, but never less than once; . . . regular '''hedges''' should be cut as even as a [[wall]] on the sides, and the top as straight as a line; observing, after the '''hedge''' is formed to its proper height and width, always to cut each year’s clipping nearly to the old of the former year, particularly on the side; for by no means suffer them to grow above a foot or two wide, nor suffer them to advance upon you too much at top, where it is designed or necessary to keep them to a moderate height. But to keep '''hedges''' in perfectly good order, they should be clipped twice every summer. . . . Very high '''hedges''' are both troublesome and expensive to cut. The clipping is sometimes performed by the assistance of a high machine, scaffolding or stage. . . .<br /> :“A '''hedge''' is not only an imperfect screen, but in other respects is worse than useless, since nothing can be trained to it, and its roots exhaust the soil in their neighborhood very considerably; as the south [[fence]] of a garden it may be employed, and hawthorn is perhaps the worst shrub that could be made use of. It is the [[nursery]] of the same aphides, beetles, and caterpillars, that feed upon the foliage of the apple and pear . . . evergreen are better than deciduous '''hedges''', and more especially the holly, which is not so slow a grower as is generally imagined.<br /> :“In a cloudy day in April or May, the wind seems to be actually refrigerated in passing through a thick hawthorn '''hedge'''. . . . When the garden is of considerable extent, three or four acres and upwards, it admits of cross-[[wall]]s or [[fence]]s for an increase of training surface and additional shelter.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0998.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 355, fig. 84.]]<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1847, “A Chapter on Hedges” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 345–46)<ref> Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 345–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3BBFEPHX view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“The advantages of a '''hedge''' over a common [[fence]], besides its beauty, are its durability, its perfect protection against man and beast, and the additional value it confers upon the land which it encloses. A [[fence]] of [[wood]], or stone, as commonly made, is, at the best, but a miserable and tottering affair; soon needing repairs, which are a constant drain upon the purse; often liable to be broken down by trespassing Philistines; and, before many years, decaying, or so far falling down, as to demand a complete renewal. Now a good '''hedge''', made of the two plants we shall presently recommend,will last ''forever''; it is an 'everlasting [[fence]],' at least in any acceptation of the word known to our restless and changing countrymen. . . .<br /> :“As a protection to the choicer products of the soil, which tempt the spoiler of the [[orchard]] and the garden, nothing is so efficient as a good '''hedge'''. It is like an impregnable fortress, neither to be scaled, broken through, nor climbed over. Fowls will not fly over it, because they fear to alight upon its top; and men and beasts are not likely to make more than one attempt to force its green [[wall]]s. It shows a fair and leafy shield to its antagonist, but it has thousands of concealed arrows ready at the moment of assault, and there are few creatures, however bold, who care to 'come to the scratch' twice with such a foe. Indeed a well made and perfect thorn '''hedge''' is so thick that a bird cannot fly through it.” [Fig. 13]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“As far as practicable, make divisions whichare necessary about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind [[fence]], or of '''hedges''', for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0379.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.]]<br /> *<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 119, 302, 305, 310, 344–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In Fig. 27, is shown part of an embellished farm, treated in the [[picturesque]] style throughout. The various trees, under grass or tillage, are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by '''hedges''' of buckthorn, cedar, and hawthorn, instead of wooden [[fence]]s. . . .[Fig. 14]<br /> :“We have ourselves tried the experiment with a '''hedge''' of it [arbor vitae] about 200 feet long,which was transplanted about five or six feet high from the native ''habitats'' of the young trees, and which fully answers our expectations respecting it, forming a perfectly thick screen, and an excellent shelter on the north of a range of buildings at all seasons of the year, growing perfectly thick without trimming, from the very ground upwards. . . .<br /> :“For '''hedges''' the Holly is altogether unrivalled; and it was also one of the favorite plants for ''verdant sculpture'', in the [[ancient style]] of gardening. . . .<br /> :“The Yew, like the Holly, makes an excellent evergreen '''hedge'''—close, dark green, and beautiful when clad in the rich scarlet berries. . . .<br /> :“''Verdant '''hedges''''' are elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s, and we are surprised that their use has not been hitherto more general. . . . [[Picturesque]] '''hedges''' are easily formed by intermingling a variety of flowering [[shrub]]s, sweet briars, etc., and allowing the whole to grow together in rich masses. . . . In all cases where '''hedges''' are employed in the [[natural style]] of landscape (and not in close connexion with highly artificial objects, buildings, etc.), a more agreeable effect will be produced by allowing the '''hedge''' to grow somewhat irregular in form, or varying it by planting near it other small trees and [[shrub]]s to break the outline, than by clipping it in even and formal lines.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 178)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“THE cheapest, most beautiful, and durable [[fence]]s are '''hedges''', and all dividing [[fence]]s of cottage gardens, should be made of '''hedges'''; there are several kinds of plants well adapted for the purpose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 409)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“ES-PAL’IER, (es-pal’yer,) n. [Fr. ''[[espalier]]''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.] <br /> :“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in '''hedges''', so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close '''hedge''' or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Every fine [[flower garden|[flower] garden]] should be well secured by [[fence]] or '''hedge''', if at all exposed to the public road. A '''hedge''' is far the prettiest, if well managed, neat, and ornamental.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Coppock, W. R., March 1851, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 151)<ref>W. R. Coppock, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 147–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7DFAAII5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A thoroughly protective '''hedge''', or an uncouth looking strong [[fence]], is absolutely necessary to the orchardist, if he may derive either pleasure or profit from his trees. Climbing a [[fence]], or pushing aside a picket, and pelting the choice apples, pears, &c. from the trees, is, I am sorry to say, not considered generally a misdemeanor, or theft, at the present day.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Hedges that are planted between the . . .Trees which form the Sides of the Walks. . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. “Slope H is planted with Hedges of ''different Ever-Greens''.”<br /> <br /> Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. Hedges marked in the middle of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Privet hedge” marked at the top of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768. “Hedge” is written just below the drawing to the right.<br /> <br /> Image:0090a.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. “Hedge of hedgethorn” is inscribed on the second line on the left.<br /> <br /> Image:0932.jpg|R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.<br /> <br /> Image:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. “Hedge” is inscribed all along the curving border.<br /> <br /> Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.<br /> <br /> Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “19. Hedge or screen of arbor vitae . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked with hedges of evergreen. . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. The symbol for “Hedges” is noted in the References box.<br /> <br /> Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.<br /> <br /> Image:1501.jpg|Anonymous, “Manner of Planting Hedges,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 353, fig. 83. <br /> <br /> Image:0998.jpg|Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (Feb. 1847): 355, fig. 84.<br /> <br /> Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 120, fig. 27. “The various trees . . . are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by hedges.”<br /> <br /> Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. “I” represents “hedge of cedars.”<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.<br /> <br /> Image:0662.jpg|Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830–40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 296.<br /> <br /> Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.<br /> <br /> Image:0797.jpg|Thomas Hodell (artist), Pierre Charles Canot (engraver), “A South East View of the City of New York, in North America,” c. 1768.<br /> <br /> Image:0096.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for the garden of the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.<br /> <br /> image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.<br /> <br /> Image:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.<br /> <br /> Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''View of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.<br /> <br /> Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Boundaries]]<br /> [[Category: Planting Arrangements]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Hedge&diff=36173 Hedge 2019-06-12T18:10:19Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Border]], [[Espalier]], [[Fence]], [[Shrubbery]]<br /> <br /> ==History== <br /> [[File:1009.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.]]<br /> Throughout the history of American gardens, hedges were used for a variety of practical and ornamental purposes. The feature created divisions within the garden, protected tender plants from cross-winds, formed barriers against both animal and human intruders, screened unsightly [[view]]s, outlined ornamental [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s [Fig. 1], and brought flowering variety to the garden. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>According to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1838), hedges were ideal for these purposes because their architectural form functioned much like a [[fence]] or [[wall]], while their organic material allowed them to harmonize with planting arrangements and to articulate other forms of architecture to the landscape ([[#Downing|view citation]]). <span id="Deane_cite"></span>As [[Samuel Deane]] noted in 1790, live hedges were preferable to [[fence]]s and “dead hedges” (wattle [[fence]]s using woven plant material) because the living plants created a “perpetual fence” whose posts never decayed and stakes never failed ([[#Deane|view citation]]). Their versatility also made them adaptable to any scale, whether enclosing a field, screening a privy, or edging a [[bed]] (see [[Fence]]). <br /> <br /> <div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to texts.]]]]<br /> Hedges were found throughout America, but the plant materials employed in them varied, depending on the purpose of the hedge and the climate of its particular region. <span id="Prince_cite"></span>In 1828, William Prince praised hedges, particularly of buckthorn and maclura, as windbreaks affording protection in areas subject to severe winds ([[#Prince|view citation]]). Fast-growing evergreens were recommended for hedges needed to screen an area, although they were not advised for situations calling for trimmed effect or where a long shadow was undesirable. In these cases, the arborvitae, which grows quickly and densely, was the most common choice. At times, the screening effect does not appear to have been intentional; <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>in 1839, for example, [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] described the fish [[pond]] of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] in Salem, Massachusetts, as being entirely surrounded by an eight-foot high impenetrable hedge ([[#Hovey|view citation]]). Where such an effect was desired, various types of thorn were effective as impenetrable barriers. [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that “there are few creatures, however bold, who care to ‘come to the ''scratch''’ twice with such a foe.”<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist'' 1 (February 1847): 346.</ref> Cacti were similarly used at the California missions to create barriers around fields. Plants for ornamental hedges, however, were selected for their foliage, blossoms, and berries. For instance, a wild rose hedge was planted at [[Mount Vernon]], while the deep green foliage of the privet was admired at [[Oatlands]], D. P. Manice’s residence in Hempstead, New York. Because of their combination of flowering beauty and edible produce, fruit trees, such as apple, peach, and orange, were sometimes planted as [[espalier]] hedges (see [[Espalier]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] capitalized on the many uses of hedges: he designed thorn hedges to enclose his [[orchard]] and garden area [Fig. 2], planned hedgethorn and privet or cedar to line his [[slope]]s, and, in a proposal of 1771, used a hedge to screen his [[icehouse]] from view [Fig. 3].<ref>Jefferson purchased much of his plant material for Monticello from Thomas Main, a nurseryman and author of an 1807 work on hedges. See Brenda Bullion, “Early American Farming and Gardening Literature: ‘Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States,’” ''Journal of Garden History'' 12, no. 1 (1992): 37–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5MKAGJ2V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0167.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.]]<br /> Climate was also a factor in plant choice for hedges. In warmer regions ornamental hedges were composed of orange, yucca, Cherokee rose, and gardenia, while cedar, spruce, and juniper were used in colder areas such as New England. Prince recommended maclura or osage orange for Philadelphia and areas to the south. <span id="Hooper_cite"></span>Edward James Hooper, in ''The Practical Farmer'' (1842), maintained that buckthorn was suited to New England’s climate while European hawthorn did better in the west, although other descriptions suggest that the use of thorn varieties was not regionally specific ([[#Hooper|view citation]]). <br /> <br /> [[File:0932.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.]]<br /> Early evidence of hedges in the American landscape may be found in books of instruction on the delineation or division of arable fields, a practice taken directly from European agricultural tradition. Hedges created by close planting and interweaving of [[shrub]]s to create a dense barrier were categorized in many horticultural and agricultural treatises as a type of [[fence]], rather than identified with other planting arrangements such as [[thicket]], [[grove]], and group. The discourse about the advantages of hedges over [[fence]]s was particularly rich in the American agricultural literature of the early 19th century. Proponents of the new “scientific agriculture,” such as John Adams and Ezekiel Hersey Derby, reported their experiments with different plant varieties and techniques for forming hedges [Fig. 4].<ref>For example, see Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn . . . for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29. For a discussion of scientific farming in the Boston area, see Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), chapters 2 and 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The aesthetic treatment of garden hedges was discussed and debated throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries. Authors and gardeners variously praised and dismissed both trimmed and untrimmed hedges, depending upon the prevailing taste and the particular situation of the hedge. <span id="Stiles_cite"></span>[[Ezra Stiles]] admired the spruce hedges at [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, which were cut into beautiful figures in 1754 ([[#Stiles|view citation]]), and in 1762 <span id="Callender_cite"></span>[[Hannah Callender Sansom]] described a hedge [[labyrinth]] at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], [[William Peters|Judge William Peters's]] estate near Philadelphia ([[#Callender|view citation]]). <span id="Ware_cite"></span>In contrast, [[Isaac Ware]], writing in 1756, praised the “natural hedge . . . mimicking savage nature” ([[#Ware|view citation]]). In 1832, both [[H. A. S. Dearborn]] and [[Thomas Bridgeman]] commended trimmed and trained hedges while other writers, such as [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] and [[Jane Loudon]], allowed the merits of both formal and [[natural style|naturalistic]] styles. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>In 1845 [[Jane Loudon|Loudon]] praised evergreen hedges “neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s,” while in the [[flower garden]] she proposed a less “stiff and formal” appearance that would “harmonize . . . with the flowers” ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>In the 1849 edition of his treatise, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that trimmed hedges were “elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s,” while irregular or [[picturesque]] hedges were handsome additions to a landscape of the “[[natural style]]” ([[#Downing_1849|view citation]]).<br /> <br /> —''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation) <br /> :“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound [[fence]] . . . or with an '''hedge''' two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such '''hedge''', a rail [[fence]] of two foot and half high, the '''hedge''' or [[fence]] being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful [[fence]],) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Grove, William Hugh, 1732, describing Virginia (quoted in Stiverson and Butler 1977: 35)<ref>Gregory A. Stiverson and Patrick H. Butler III, eds., “Virginia in 1732: The Travel Journal of William Hugh Grove,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 85 (1977): 18–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ACNK9DG9 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“They also make strong '''hedges''' of Peach plants in their gardens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'') <br /> :“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper; . . . a very good [[Kitchen Garden]], at the Rear of which is a Grass-[[plat]], with a Prim '''Hedge''' round and pale’d, situate on level Up Land.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, describing the vicinity of Philadelphia (1937: 1:47)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[fence]]s and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[wood]]s for future times, have begun to plant quick '''hedges''' round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the property of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'') <br /> :“With in a few weeks will be raffled for, A LOT . . . belonging to ''[[Alexander Garden|Alexander Gordon]], Esq''. . . . Together with a garden, genteelly laid out in [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s, with flower-knots, &c. laid round with bricks, having also several kinds of fruit trees now bearing, and many orange trees now growing like-wise, cassini and other '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stiles"></div>Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (1892: 375)<ref>“Ezra Stiles in Philadelphia, 1754,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16 (1892): 375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T7C8P48I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stiles_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“. . . besides the beautiful [[walk]], ornamented with evergreens, we saw . . . Spruce '''hedges''' cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> : “. . . on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of '''hedge''' and low ceder with spruce . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:102, 115)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[March 14] Planted the 9 young peach Trees which I brought from Mr. Cockburns in the No. Garden—viz . . . 2 in the [[border]] of the Walk leading from the [[Espalier]] '''hedge''' towards the other cross [[walk]]. . . . <br /> :“[April 8] The ground being too wet . . . I was unable to touch that which I had been preparing for grass; and therefore began to hoe that wch. lyes between the New circular ditches, & the Wild rose '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. P. Brissot de Warville|Brissot de Warville, J. P.]], September 6, 1788, describing the enclosure of pastures in America (1792: 253)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Mr. L. thinks it best to replace them [wooden rail [[fence]]s] by ditches six feet deep, of which he throws the earth upon his [[meadow]]s, and [[border]]s the sides with '''hedges'''; and thus renders the passage impracticable to the cattle. This is an agricultural operation, which cannot be too much recommended to the Americans.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Strickland, William, October 9, 1794, describing the country from Fishkill, NY, to Poughkeepsie, NY (1971: 99–100)<ref>William Strickland, ''Journal of a Tour in the United States of America, 1794-1795'', ed. J. E. Strickland (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DR8FH6KF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country in general is divided into fields . . . it wants only the ornament of live [[fence]]s to be one of the most [[picturesque]] that can be seen, and those even have been attempted though they have unfortunately failed. Near Fishkyl the fields were formerly divided by Privet '''Hedges''' a shrub imported from Europe by the Dutch, which answerd the purpose, and throve well for many years, and some of them are still to be seen; but an insect attacked them some years since by which they were destroyed, and they never have been replaced, or any substitute adopted or tried; though no doubt shrubs better calculated for making durable strong [[fence]]s might be found among the natives of this country.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Worcester County, MA (1821: 1:375)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“An eye accustomed to the beautiful '''hedges''' of England, would probably regard these inclosures [stone [[wall]]s] with little pleasure. But emotions of this nature depend much on comparison. There are no '''hedges''' in New-England: those which formerly existed, having perished by some unknown misfortune. Few persons therefore, who see these [[wall]]s, will be able to compare them with '''hedges'''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.]]<br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection) <br /> :“. . . make the upper [[slope]] thus at ''a'' plant a '''hedge''' of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet, or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance this taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the [[terrace|terras]].” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54, 57&ndash;58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes&mdash;the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens '''hedge'''&mdash;of juniper I think. . . .<br /> :“. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden&mdash;& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose '''hedges''', & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house&mdash;but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. See the plan of the Grounds.<br /> :“The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided [[yard]]&mdash;The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the '''hedge''' that screens the [[Yard]].”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferons|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter to [[William Hamilton]], describing plans for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 365)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you should know this plant [haw], which is peculiar at least to America & is a real treasure. as a thorn for '''hedges''' nothing has ever been seen comparable to it certainly no thorn in England which I have ever seen makes a '''hedge''' any more to be compared to this than a log hut to a [[wall]] of freestone. if you will plant these 6. I. apart you will be a judge of their superiority soon.” [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing a farm in Pennsylvania (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 11)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I visited Job Roberts the day before yesterday, his farm is a model of excellence in the Culture. . . . He is growing several '''hedges''' which in less than 7 yrs. will be complete [[fence]]s against all sorts of Cattle. The management of which is a good lesson, which I hope to make usefull to this place.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Foster, Sir Augustus John, 1812, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 177)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . the [[fence]]s were of hurdles to keep out pigs. The American thorn will not grow close enough and the cedar '''hedge''' though pretty is not strong enough for the purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the vicinity of Charleston, SC (1816: 2:228)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Between the tavern and Charleston, the road is lined with the '''hedges''' and [[fence]]s belonging to several handsome [[plantation]]s: the houses are, however, seldom seen, being built a considerable distance back.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the northern and mid-Atlantic States (1816: 2:231–32)<ref name="Lambert 1816"></ref><br /> :“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if '''hedges''' were substituted for rail [[fence]]s, those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, [[New Harmony]], IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819b: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of fencing. . . . The banks [of the ditches] were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live '''hedge''' (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the [[fence]] far more effectual as well as handsomer.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0712.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.]]<br /> *[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick '''hedge''' of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.” [Fig. 6]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0662.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830-40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, p. 296.]]<br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 21, 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 158)<ref name="Forman 1976">Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The hedger, Mr. Green, arrived here this evening, he laid a part of the Apple '''hedge''' and all the thorn '''hedge'''.” [Fig. 7] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231–32)<ref>Robert Jr. Waln, “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[flower garden]], extending from the vestibule to a dark green '''hedge''' of cedar, which separates it from the [[kitchen garden]], offers a rich repast to the eye. . . . <br /> :“About twenty acres of the farm are in a state of cultivation; the rest is woodland. It is separated from the road which passes in front of it, by a flourishing thorn-'''hedge'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, 1828, in a letter to Thomas Green Fessenden, describing his use of the buckthorn in constructing hedges (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 57)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of making a '''hedge''', without much success, I was induced to try this [buckthorn], which has afforded a most beautiful [[fence]], so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American hawthorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. . . . You will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for '''hedges''' as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects America.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a “bungalow” in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange '''hedges''', all in flower.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“From the top of the bank, on which the house stood, we could see over a '''hedge''' into the rice fields which lay beyond, and stretched over the plain for several miles, their boundary line being the black edge of the untouched forest.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bell, Caroline, April 6, 1829, describing Iberville Plantation, LA (Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 459, MS 102) <br /> :“I have set out a great deal of beautiful [[shrubbery]] & Flowers, tomorrow shall plant, all my orange seed for '''hedges''' & plant all my Myrtle and sweet orange Trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>Anonymous, “Neglected Grave Yards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 39 (April 17, 1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the [[burial ground]]s of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a [[grove]] sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living '''hedge''' of hawthorn. <br /> :“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of [[Samuel Breck]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd 1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Samuel Breck|Mr. Breck]] has taken considerable pains with a '''hedge''' of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail [[fence]]. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live [[fence]] in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 438–39)<ref name="Boyd 1929"></ref><br /> :“On viewing this [[seat]], our attention was immediately drawn to the handsome '''hedges''' of Hornbeam and Pinus Canadensis. We were delighted with the latter; never having seen it before. Its fine green foliage contrasts very sweetly with the delicate appearance of the tender shoots. These '''hedge''’s are trimmed periodically and kept in excellent order.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 82–83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''', used as inclosures, will disappoint expectation, and require to be entirely eradicated after a few years, if even for a short time they should have a pleasing effect, when young, healthy, vigorous, and well managed. They are only proper for extensive grounds, farms, or large gardens, embracing some ten or twenty acres, or for long lines of circumvallation, which are to be seen at a distance, in which the imperfections, occasioned by insects and the ravages of time, are lost in the perspective, but should never be employed to surround a mere [[parterre]], a buisson of roses, or a [[bed]] of hyacinths. To look even beautiful, '''hedges''', of all kinds, require constant attention; they must be kept clear of weeds, and be pruned and clipped several times in the course of the season of vegetation, and this, too, by a skilful hand.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], June 1835, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 201)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from Memoranda made in the Month of March last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 6 (June 1835): 201–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WGMGZFER view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The object of a '''hedge''' is generally to keep from the grounds cattle and other animals; though in some instances, they are only set to obscure one part of the garden from the other, or to hide some disagreeable object from the eye.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Charleston, SC (1838: 1:228)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country is flat and sandy, and the only objects are planters’ mansions, surrounded with evergreen [[wood]]s, the gardens exhibiting the tropical yucca, and fenced with '''hedges''' of the Cherokee rose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, January 1, 1836, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 28)<ref>Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P93RF7HA view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The rapid increase of our population, and the consequent vast consumption of timber for other and more valuable purposes, by increasing the relative cost of the old fashioned wooden [[fence]]s, must eventually render the introduction of '''hedges''' here, advantageous, if not absolutely essential, from motives of utility and economy; while the lover of rural scenery will hail with pleasure the [[picturesque]] charm of their verdant beauty. <br /> :“It is now about thirtytwo [''sic''] years, since I first attempted the formation of a live '''hedge''' as a boundary for my own pleasure-grounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 30, 1838, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 396)<ref name="Forman 1976"></ref><br /> :“The General planting a '''hedge''' of Osage apple from the poplar tree [[gate]] to the [[wood]]s [[gate]] between the horse chestnuts row.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hovey"></div>[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing [[Elias Hasket Derby House]], Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11),<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hovey_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a [[square]]. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the [[square]]s occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a '''hedge'''. <br /> :“In the centre of the garden is a small oval [[pond]], containing gold fish: this [[pond]] is '''hedge''’d round with the buckthorn, which has now been planted over thirty years! It is not over eight feet high, and is thickly set with branches and foliage from the top to bottom, and perfectly impenetrable.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Kemble, Fanny, March 24–28, 1839, in a letter to Elizabeth Dwight Sedgwick, describing an estate on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1961; repr., 1984: 284–85)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (1961; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Hamilton struck me very much—I mean the whole appearance of the place; the situation of the house, the noble water [[prospect]] it commanded, the magnificent old oaks near it, a luxuriant vine [[trellis]], and a splendid '''hedge''' of Yucca gloriosa, were all objects of great delight to me.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1840, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” describing the estate of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 10 (October 1840): 361–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQC7WWZB view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Passing into a straight [[walk]] which leads from the [[conservatory]], by the [[flower garden]], (which is screaned by a [[hedge]] from the [[lawn]] front,).” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0878_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries [detail],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]<br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 406)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of each; accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the principles and practice of Landscape Gardening: intended with a view to illustrate the Art of Laying out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. . . . Under the arbor vitae '''hedge''', which is here planted against the boundary line, the [[greenhouse]] plants are principally placed during summer. <br /> :“19. '''Hedge''' or screen of arbor vitae, shutting out the back shed, compost ground, &c. The arbor vitae is well adapted for this purpose, growing rapidly, and forming a perfect screen in three or four years.” [Fig. 8] <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]<br /> *Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, in a letter to Annie Pierce, describing [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A buckthorn '''hedge''' has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open [[fence]] which separates between us demands a '''hedge''' there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 9]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 284)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 8 (August 1846): 281–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2J7VZ6S view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Referring to our account above mentioned, we particularly alluded to the fine '''hedges''' of the arbor vitae which existed here, and recommended this fine tree as peculiarly well adapted for screens or '''hedges''' to shut out one part of the garden from another, or hide disagreeable objects. Twelve years’ experience has convinced us of the correctness of our remarks, and we may still urge them upon the attention of our readers. The arbor vitae is unquestionably one of the finest of evergreen trees, and far superior to any other for forming '''hedges''' or screens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1847, excerpt from “Walden” (Clarke, ed., 1993: 2:47)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95/].</ref><br /> :“Self-sown my stately garden grows; <br /> ::The winds and wind-blown seed, <br /> :Cold April rain and colder snows <br /> ::My '''hedges''' plant and feed.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the '''hedges''' are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 22, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on Rosedown Plantation, Lousiana (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach '''hedge''' to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[John Parkinson|Parkinson, John]], 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with '''hedges''', with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Smith, John, 1629, ''Advertisement for the Unexperienced Planters'' (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, eds., ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, [[Walk]]es, [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s . . . seeing you may have so many great and small growing trees for your maine posts, to fix '''hedges''', palisados, houses, rales, or what you will.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:7, 17; 1720: 2.3:27–28)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719–20), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[vol. 1] They [ever-greens] are so ornamental where they are rightly managed, that I think no Garden can be compleat without ’em; they make beautiful and useful '''Hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for '''Hedges''', and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of [[Wilderness]] Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . . <br /> :“[vol. 2] In these several [[Quarter]]s plant your Trees at about sixteen Foot distance, if you design a close [[Orchard]], or near thirty Foot asunder if the Ground is design’d for Beans, Peas, or such like Under-crops. . . . The Ground thus planted may be fenced about with '''Hedges''' of ''Philbuds'' and ''Berberries'', to make it still the more compleat and delightful.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.]]<br /> [[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]<br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: vii–ix, xiii)<ref name="Langley">Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London : Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley et al.,1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AN26GF5X view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Plate III. is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, . . .<br /> :“The '''Hedges''' that are planted between the aforesaid Trees which form the Sides of the [[Walk]]s are of ''English'', ''Dutch'' and ''French Elms'', ''Lime'', ''Hornbeam'', ''Maple'', ''Privet'', ''Yew'', ''Holly'', ''Arbutus'', ''Phillyrea'', ''Norway Fir'', ''Ilex'', ''Bay'', ''Laurel'', ''Laurus-Tinnus'', ''Piracantha'', ''Juniper'', and the ''English Furze''; and indeed, a beutiful [[Plantation]] should not only be adorned with entire [[Walk]]s and '''Hedges''' of Trees of all Sorts, as well as Fruit as others; but intermix’d together in many parts, as if Nature had placed them there with her own Hand. . . . [Fig. 10]<br /> :“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the ''[[Canal]]'' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with '''''Hedges''''' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view’d from M. . . .” [Fig. 11]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: 195–99)<ref name="Langley"></ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . . . <br /> :“XIX. . . . <br /> :“And to add to the Pleasure of these delightful Meanders, I advise that the '''Hedge'''-Rows of the [[Walk]]s be intermix’d with Cherries, Plumbs [sic], Apples, Pears, Bruxel Apricots, Figs, Gooseberries, Currants, Rasberrries [''sic''], ''&c''. and the [[Border]]s planted with Strawberries, Violets, ''&c''. <br /> :“The most beautiful Forest-Trees for '''Hedges''', are the English Elm, the ''Dutch'' Elm, the Lime-Tree, and Hornbeam: And altho' I have advis’d the Mixing of these '''Hedges''' of Forest-Trees with the aforesaid Fruits, yet you must not forget a Place for those pleasant and delightful Flowering-[[Shrub]]s, the White Jessemine, Honey-Suckle, and Sweet-Brier. . . . <br /> :“XXI. Such [[Walk]]s as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[aviary|Aviaries]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular '''Hedges''' ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[espalier|ESPALIER]]. . . . <br /> :“As for ''[[espalier ]]'''hedges''''', or '''hedge''' rows for defence of tender greens, and plants, from destructive winds in the summer season; if there be occasion to use them the first or second year after they are planted, a substantial frame of wood must be made, seven or eight foot high, with posts and rails. And to this ''[[espalier]]'' frame, must the side boughs of the young trees be tied, to cause the ''[[espalier]]'' to thicken the sooner. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE'''*, in agriculture, &c. a [[fence]], inclosing a field, garden, or the like; made of branches of trees interwoven. See [[fence|FENCE]]. <br /> :“*The word is formed of the German ''hag'', or ''haeg'', or the Anglo Saxon ''hegge'', or ''hege''; which signifies simply ''inclosure'', ''circumference''. <br /> :“''Quick-set'' '''HEDGE''', is that made of quick or live trees, which have taken root; in contradistinction to that made of faggots, hurdles, or dry boughs.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE'''. ''n.s''. [. . . Saxon.] A [[fence]] made round grounds with prickly bushes.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Ware"></div>[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 641, 645),<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ware_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable [[view]]s by clearing away [[wall]]s and '''hedges''' in the grounds . . . this is to be done when something pleasing, some [[view]] of elegant, wild nature can be let in. . . . <br /> :“A [[meadow]] and its '''hedge''' excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the '''hedge''' lost the very vegetable character. In the wild state of nature all is free, all therefore is cheerful, and all pleasing. . . . Instead of the precise regularity we have so lately and so difficultly banished, in those vast gardens that have been described to us so happily, there scarce appears a strait line. The profusion of flowers with which they are embellished are stuck in natural '''hedges''' or raised on irregular hillocks, mimicking savage nature, only in a state of more variety.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hale, Thomas, 1758, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1758: 1:209–10, 230)<ref>Thomas Hale, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry Containing Rules for Performing, in the Most Profitable Manner, the Whole Business of the Farmer and Country Gentleman'', 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: T. Osborne, 1758), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKU9TFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where the soil is too barren for the growth of an '''hedge''', there is often stone ready for a [[wall]]. . . . <br /> :“In the dry pastures '''hedges''' are the proper [[fence]]s. They are of great service; beside their sheltering the cattle, they defend the grass from the summer heats, and shelter it in the spring from the drying winds. . . . The '''hedges''' also are of value for their produce in useful [[wood]]. . . . <br /> :“Of '''hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“No article [inclosure], in the husbandman’s whole concern, is of more importance. '''Hedges''' are the first object that naturally should strike his imagination, as they are the defence and guard of all the rest. . . . <br /> :“In all inclosed lands the farmer must keep up a good [[fence]], if he expect [''sic''] to reap the fruit of his labours. The better and the more perfectly the [[fence]] is kept in repair, the greater will be his security of his profits: one little defect may do him more injury, by letting in cattle upon his crop, than would have been the cost of a most perfect repair.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[After a description of the types of trees used in '''hedges''', Miller notes that] '''[h]edges''' are either planted to make [[fence]]s around enclosures, or to part off or divide several parts of a Garden; when they are designed as outward [[fence]]s, they are planted either with Hawthorne, Crabs, or Blackthorn, which is slow; but those '''hedges''' which are planted in Gardens, either to surround [[Wilderness]] [[Quarter]]s, or to screen the other parts of a Garden from Sight, are planted with various Sorts of plants, according to the fancy of the Owner some preferring Evergreen '''Hedges''', in which case the Holly is best, next to the Yew, then Laurel, &c. . . . <br /> :“The taste in Gardening having been greatly altered of late Years for the better, these clipped '''Hedges''' have been almost excluded; and it is hoped that a little Time will entirely banish them out of English gardens, as it has done by the shorne evergreens, which a few years since were esteemed the greatest beauties in gardens. The latter was introduced by the Dutch Gardeners, and that of tall '''Hedges''' with Trellage work was in imitation of the French gardens; in some of which of the Iron Trellage to support the trees which composed their cabinets, [[portico]]s, [[bower]]s, [[pavilion|Pavilons]], and other pieces of rural architecture, amounted to a very great sum.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Squibb, Robert, 1787, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787: 51)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (Charleston, SC: Samuel Wright and Co., 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JHHVPH9K view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If you plant the orange trees for a '''hedge''', about ten feet will be a good distance; but if intended for an [[orchard]] or a [[grove]], twenty feet will not be too much.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 91–92)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“[[FENCE]]. . . . <br /> :“In some places it is best to make '''hedge''' [[fence]]s. There are two kinds of [[fence]] that go by this name, dead '''hedge''', and quickset '''hedge'''. <br /> :“To make a good dead '''hedge''', take stakes about six feet long, and set them fast in the ground, upon the line of your [[fence]], about four feet apart, or a less distance if your bushes be short. Then interweave bushes, young trees, or small slender limbs of trees. This [[fence]] will answer with a yearly repairing till the stakes fail. <br /> :“But quickset '''hedge''' is much better, as it is a perpetual [[fence]]. It must be made with different sets in different grounds. . . . <br /> :“It takes time to make these '''hedges'''. But on the whole they are cheap [[fence]]s, as they require but little repairing, besides trimming and pruning, to prevent their growing so high as to cast too great a shadow.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 15, 37)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper distance from each other, on the plain cultivated surface of the ground, in order to form a [[fence]] is what here is meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the common method used in Britain, called '''hedge''' and ditch. . . . Those who are curious to understand the manner of conducting this old way of hedging, will find in Mr. [[Bernard M'Mahon|Bernard McMahon]]’s 'American Gardener’s Callender [''sic''],' a clear and excellent description thereof, with much other useful information in this art, as well as in the various departments of horticulture, &c. . . . <br /> :“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a '''hedge''' cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good [[fence]] nor look handsome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Neil, William, November 28, 1812, “On Hedging and Ditching, by William Neill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania” (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 146)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. (Georgetown: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where I became first acquainted with '''hedges''', unless around [[kitchen garden]]s, or towns, or villages, where lots were small, you would not see one in five hundred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a sharp handsaw, take them off a few inches above the bank, when you would immediately have a more formidable [[fence]] then ever, and so on for ages.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“GARDENING. . . . <br /> :“Yet the fall of the leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high [[wall]] is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close-shorn '''hedges'''; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the [[wall]]; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. . . . <br /> :“Here it may be observed, that if any evergreen '''hedges''' are desired in or about the garden, yew, box, alaternus, celastrus, phillyrea, and pryacantha, may be kept low, and clipped in form, if so desired; in addition to which, if a few roses were intermixed, it would have a very pretty effect. A deciduous '''hedge''' for subdivision, or screen, &c. may be made of elms or limes, setting the larger plants at five feet asunder, and a smaller one between. Or an ordinary [[fence]], or subdivision, may be quickly formed of elder cuttings, stuck in at two feet asunder, which may be kept cut within bounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Taylor, John, 1817, ''Arator'' (1817: 147)<ref>John Taylor, ''Arator, Being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political'' (Georgetown: J. M. and J. B. Carter, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RG7QHU4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If these '''hedges''' are cultivated properly, and the land is strong, they will form an elegant live ever-green [[fence]], in a shorter time, than is necessary to raise a thorn [[fence]] in England, according to the books.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Gardiner, John and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 117–19, 136–37)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818"></ref><br /> :“In those parts of the union where the ripening of fruit requires no aid from artificial warmth and where therefore brick or stone [[wall]]s can be preferable, only on account of their superior strength as [[fence]]s, live '''hedges''', or banks with live '''hedges''' upon them, if well made, not only present an excellent resistance to incroachments, but are an exquisitely beautiful ornament to the mansion and its adjacent grounds. And as the propagation of live '''hedges''' is everyday becoming a subject of more serious importance, and will soon be one of indisputable necessity, in the long inhabited parts of the union where timber is becoming very scarce and dear, it may not be amiss, in this place, to turn for a moment from our particular object of enquiry, for the purpose of awakening all our agriculturalists to a consideration of the expediency of cultivating them, and of offering them a few instructions on [''sic''] this point of rural economy. . . . <br /> :“For gardens, '''hedges''' are advisable for two distinct purposes: The first, outward [[fence]]s to serve as a [[wall]] for the exclusion of tresspassers [''sic'']; the other inward, for the purposes of ornament and shade. <br /> :“For the former, the haw-thorn is excellent. . . . <br /> :“For internal ornamental '''hedges''', privet, yew, laurel and box, cedar and juniper, are most generally used.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819a: 22, 28–29)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“38. Yet, with all these circumstances in my favour, I proceed with faultering accent to propose, even for a garden, a live [[fence]], especially when I have to notice, that I know not how to get the plants, unless I, in the outset, bring them, or their seeds, ''from England!'' However, I must suppose this difficulty surmounted; then proceed to describe this [[fence]] that I would have, if I could. <br /> :“39. In England it is called a ''Quick-Set '''Hedge'''''. The truth is, however, that it ought rather to be called an ''Everlasting '''Hedge'''''; for, it is not, as will be seen by-and-by, so ''very quickly set''; or, at least, so very quickly raised. . . . <br /> :“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English '''Hedges''', instead of post-and-rail and board [[fence]]s? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set '''hedges''', what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields!” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1372.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 106, 355, 1023)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn '''hedges''' and other live [[fence]]s are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . . <br /> :“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest [[fence]]s for parks; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the '''hedge''' or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and [[fence]]s, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .<br /> :“7280. ''The ferme ornée'' differs from a common farm in having a better dwelling-house, neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the offices. It also differs as to the '''hedges''', which are allowed to grow wild and irregular (''fig''. 722.), and are bordered on each side by a broad green [[drive]], and sometimes by a gravel-[[walk]] and [[shrub]]s.” [Fig. 12]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Prince"></div>Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 84, 91, 98, 103, 109–10, 112)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Prince_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“''Live '''hedges'''''.—The trees mostly used for '''hedges''' are the White English Hawthorn, the Holly, the Red Cedar, and the Privet. In the vicinity of Baltimore and Washington cities, they use two species of American Hawthorn, which appear to have decided advantages over the European. The Rhamnus catharticus forms a most beautiful '''hedge'''. . . . <br /> :“''Crataegus oxycantha, or European White Thorn.''—This is the common species used throughout England for '''hedges''', and which has been considerably planted in this country for the same purpose. It answers very well trained as ornamental tree among [[shrubbery]], but is far less suitable for '''hedges''' than many of our native species. . . . <br /> :“''Ilex aquifolium, or Common European.''—. . . It is found very suitable for '''hedges''', for which purpose it is extensively used in England. In addition to the Common Holly, there are a great number of varieties, viz. . . . <br /> :“''Privet, or Prim.—Ligustrum vulgare.''—This [[shrub]] is generally known, and was formerly greatly cultivated for '''hedges''' in this country, and is still so in many parts of Europe. The '''hedges''' formed of it are beautiful in the extreme, arising from its fine myrtle-like foliage, and its abundant clusters of berries in autumn and winter; and, when the sub-evergreen variety is used for this purpose, it possesses the advantage of retaining much of its foliage during the winter season. . . . <br /> :“''Mespilus pyracantha, or Evergreen Thorn.''— This has very dense foliage; the leaves are small, and of a fine dark green; it produces abundance of white flowers, which are delicate, and much admired; but, like the foregoing, it is its fruit which gives it the greatest claim to beauty. These are of the same size as those of the preceding species, they are of a fiery red, and are produced in the greatest abundance, and retain their beauty during the autumnal and part of the winter months, and serve to decorate this [[shrub]] at a season when nature most needs their aid. Being a sub-evergreen, and retaining a large portion of its foliage during winter, gives it another claim as an appendage to the [[shrubbery]]. It is now considerably planted for '''hedges''', for which purpose, uniting beauty with usefulness, it does not appear to be surpassed by any other. . . . <br /> :“''Rhamnus catharticus, or Sea Buckthorn.''—The leaves of this tree are oval, and pointed at the ends, and about two inches long, with serrated edges; the flowers are green, and produced in clusters from the sides of the branches, and are no way conspicuous; it rises to the height of 14 or 15 feet, throwing out numerous shoots on all sides, and produces, during the autumn, abundant clusters of black berries, which form its principal ornament. It has long been used in Europe for '''hedges''', and had latterly been planted in this country for the same purpose; and I have seldom seen a more beautiful '''hedge''' of any other [[shrub]], and consider it extremely eligible for that purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE''', ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', '''hedge''', protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .] <br /> :“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Floy, Michael, September 24 and October 1, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74, 84)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10–12 (September 24, October 1, October 8, 1830): 74, 84, 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :[Sept. 24] “''Gleditschia triacanthos'',—Honey locust, or three thorn Acacia. It makes a handsome stately tree, the foliage is handsome, but the dreadful long triple thorns with which the tree is armed, give it a forbidding aspect. Trees of this kind are often used for '''hedges''', and if planted thick, they soon make an impenetrable [[fence]] against man and beast, but must be kept cut down to 4 or 5 feet every season, or the '''hedge''' would soon be spoiled. . . . <br /> :[Oct. 1] “''Crataegus oxyacantha, the Hawthorn''. . . . Hawthorn '''hedges''' are much used in England, where they look very handsome when kept clipped, but they do not answer so well in this country, the heat of our summers causing the leaves to fall off early, often in July; on that account they are not much used—we have several things which are better calculated for that purpose. . . . <br /> :“''Ligustrum vulgare virens.'' Large European Privet, a very handsome evergreen [[shrub]], flowering in great profusion, and succeeded by bunches of black round berries. It bears clipping well, and is therefore well calculated for '''hedges''', or to enclose ornamental [[plantation]]s. It grows quick, and is well adapted to our climate, and when planted in a '''hedge''' row, and kept clipped, it makes a beautiful '''hedge''', and ought to be in more general use.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 133–34)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close [[fence]]s, or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact '''hedge''', which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . . <br /> :“[[Shrub]]s are not only necessary to the embellishment of a [[flower garden]], but many kinds of them are eligible for '''hedges''' to it, and may be planted at a trifling expense. These '''hedges''' should be frequently trimmed and trained, the sides cut even, and the tops sparingly clipped, so as to make them ornamental, as well as useful, and also to increase the vigour of their growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 158)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''' may be of various kinds, such as the single '''hedge''' and ditch the '''hedge''' and bank; the level '''hedge''', &c.; of which, descriptions may be found in Loudon’s ''Encyclopedia of Agriculture'', and other books of husbandry.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 41, 43),<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for fencing does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable '''hedge'''. The advantages of live [[fence]]s are, great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board [[fence]]s) being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . . <br /> :“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden [[fence]], may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant '''hedge''''' is without an equal.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hooper"></div>Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hooper_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''HEDGES'''. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for [[fence]]s before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for [[fence]]s that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live '''hedges'''. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live [[fence]]s will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 206, 244),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''Hedges''' may either be of evergreens, neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s with standard plants at regular distances, to imitate architectural piers; or they may be formed of a mixture of different kinds of flowering [[shrub]]s, with evergreen standard low trees at regular distances. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGES''' for [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s should be composed of ornamental plants, such as ''Cydònia japónica'', Privet, Laurestinus, ''Rìbes sanguínea'', Roses, and double-blossomed Furze, or Ivy and other climbers, trained over iron [[trellis]]-work. The '''hedge''' to a flower-garden should never be stiff and formal, so as to look like a mere barrier; but it should be so arranged, and should consist of plants which harmonize so well with the flowers in the garden, as to make them appear a part of it. For farther details on this subject, see [[fence|FENCE]]S.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221, 286–88)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[fence|FENCES]] are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live [[fence]]s, and are then known as '''''hedges''''', or dead, and are then either ''banks'', ''ditches'', ''palings'', or ''[[wall]]s''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE''', properly includes every kind of [[fence]], but the present details apply for the most part to growing [[fence]]s. . . . <br /> :“All full trained '''hedges''', in order to preserve them in proper form, close and neat, must be clipped, both on the sides and top, once or twice a year, but never less than once; . . . regular '''hedges''' should be cut as even as a [[wall]] on the sides, and the top as straight as a line; observing, after the '''hedge''' is formed to its proper height and width, always to cut each year’s clipping nearly to the old of the former year, particularly on the side; for by no means suffer them to grow above a foot or two wide, nor suffer them to advance upon you too much at top, where it is designed or necessary to keep them to a moderate height. But to keep '''hedges''' in perfectly good order, they should be clipped twice every summer. . . . Very high '''hedges''' are both troublesome and expensive to cut. The clipping is sometimes performed by the assistance of a high machine, scaffolding or stage. . . .<br /> :“A '''hedge''' is not only an imperfect screen, but in other respects is worse than useless, since nothing can be trained to it, and its roots exhaust the soil in their neighborhood very considerably; as the south [[fence]] of a garden it may be employed, and hawthorn is perhaps the worst shrub that could be made use of. It is the [[nursery]] of the same aphides, beetles, and caterpillars, that feed upon the foliage of the apple and pear . . . evergreen are better than deciduous '''hedges''', and more especially the holly, which is not so slow a grower as is generally imagined.<br /> :“In a cloudy day in April or May, the wind seems to be actually refrigerated in passing through a thick hawthorn '''hedge'''. . . . When the garden is of considerable extent, three or four acres and upwards, it admits of cross-[[wall]]s or [[fence]]s for an increase of training surface and additional shelter.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0998.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 355, fig. 84.]]<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1847, “A Chapter on Hedges” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 345–46)<ref> Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 345–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3BBFEPHX view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“The advantages of a '''hedge''' over a common [[fence]], besides its beauty, are its durability, its perfect protection against man and beast, and the additional value it confers upon the land which it encloses. A [[fence]] of [[wood]], or stone, as commonly made, is, at the best, but a miserable and tottering affair; soon needing repairs, which are a constant drain upon the purse; often liable to be broken down by trespassing Philistines; and, before many years, decaying, or so far falling down, as to demand a complete renewal. Now a good '''hedge''', made of the two plants we shall presently recommend,will last ''forever''; it is an 'everlasting [[fence]],' at least in any acceptation of the word known to our restless and changing countrymen. . . .<br /> :“As a protection to the choicer products of the soil, which tempt the spoiler of the [[orchard]] and the garden, nothing is so efficient as a good '''hedge'''. It is like an impregnable fortress, neither to be scaled, broken through, nor climbed over. Fowls will not fly over it, because they fear to alight upon its top; and men and beasts are not likely to make more than one attempt to force its green [[wall]]s. It shows a fair and leafy shield to its antagonist, but it has thousands of concealed arrows ready at the moment of assault, and there are few creatures, however bold, who care to 'come to the scratch' twice with such a foe. Indeed a well made and perfect thorn '''hedge''' is so thick that a bird cannot fly through it.” [Fig. 13]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“As far as practicable, make divisions whichare necessary about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind [[fence]], or of '''hedges''', for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0379.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.]]<br /> *<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 119, 302, 305, 310, 344–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In Fig. 27, is shown part of an embellished farm, treated in the [[picturesque]] style throughout. The various trees, under grass or tillage, are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by '''hedges''' of buckthorn, cedar, and hawthorn, instead of wooden [[fence]]s. . . .[Fig. 14]<br /> :“We have ourselves tried the experiment with a '''hedge''' of it [arbor vitae] about 200 feet long,which was transplanted about five or six feet high from the native ''habitats'' of the young trees, and which fully answers our expectations respecting it, forming a perfectly thick screen, and an excellent shelter on the north of a range of buildings at all seasons of the year, growing perfectly thick without trimming, from the very ground upwards. . . .<br /> :“For '''hedges''' the Holly is altogether unrivalled; and it was also one of the favorite plants for ''verdant sculpture'', in the [[ancient style]] of gardening. . . .<br /> :“The Yew, like the Holly, makes an excellent evergreen '''hedge'''—close, dark green, and beautiful when clad in the rich scarlet berries. . . .<br /> :“''Verdant '''hedges''''' are elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s, and we are surprised that their use has not been hitherto more general. . . . [[Picturesque]] '''hedges''' are easily formed by intermingling a variety of flowering [[shrub]]s, sweet briars, etc., and allowing the whole to grow together in rich masses. . . . In all cases where '''hedges''' are employed in the [[natural style]] of landscape (and not in close connexion with highly artificial objects, buildings, etc.), a more agreeable effect will be produced by allowing the '''hedge''' to grow somewhat irregular in form, or varying it by planting near it other small trees and [[shrub]]s to break the outline, than by clipping it in even and formal lines.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 178)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“THE cheapest, most beautiful, and durable [[fence]]s are '''hedges''', and all dividing [[fence]]s of cottage gardens, should be made of '''hedges'''; there are several kinds of plants well adapted for the purpose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 409)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“ES-PAL’IER, (es-pal’yer,) n. [Fr. ''[[espalier]]''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.] <br /> :“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in '''hedges''', so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close '''hedge''' or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Every fine [[flower garden|[flower] garden]] should be well secured by [[fence]] or '''hedge''', if at all exposed to the public road. A '''hedge''' is far the prettiest, if well managed, neat, and ornamental.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Coppock, W. R., March 1851, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 151)<ref>W. R. Coppock, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 147–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7DFAAII5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A thoroughly protective '''hedge''', or an uncouth looking strong [[fence]], is absolutely necessary to the orchardist, if he may derive either pleasure or profit from his trees. Climbing a [[fence]], or pushing aside a picket, and pelting the choice apples, pears, &c. from the trees, is, I am sorry to say, not considered generally a misdemeanor, or theft, at the present day.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Hedges that are planted between the . . .Trees which form the Sides of the Walks. . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. “Slope H is planted with Hedges of ''different Ever-Greens''.”<br /> <br /> Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. Hedges marked in the middle of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Privet hedge” marked at the top of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768. “Hedge” is written just below the drawing to the right.<br /> <br /> Image:0090a.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. “Hedge of hedgethorn” is inscribed on the second line on the left.<br /> <br /> Image:0932.jpg|R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.<br /> <br /> Image:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. “Hedge” is inscribed all along the curving border.<br /> <br /> Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.<br /> <br /> Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “19. Hedge or screen of arbor vitae . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked with hedges of evergreen. . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. The symbol for “Hedges” is noted in the References box.<br /> <br /> Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.<br /> <br /> Image:1501.jpg|Anonymous, “Manner of Planting Hedges,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 353, fig. 83. <br /> <br /> Image:0998.jpg|Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (Feb. 1847): 355, fig. 84.<br /> <br /> Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 120, fig. 27. “The various trees . . . are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by hedges.”<br /> <br /> Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. “I” represents “hedge of cedars.”<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.<br /> <br /> Image:0662.jpg|Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830–40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 296.<br /> <br /> Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.<br /> <br /> Image:0797.jpg|Thomas Hodell (artist), Pierre Charles Canot (engraver), “A South East View of the City of New York, in North America,” c. 1768.<br /> <br /> Image:0096.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for the garden of the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.<br /> <br /> image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.<br /> <br /> Image:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.<br /> <br /> Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''View of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.<br /> <br /> Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Boundaries]]<br /> [[Category: Planting Arrangements]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Hedge&diff=36170 Hedge 2019-06-12T15:39:10Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>See also: [[Border]], [[Espalier]], [[Fence]], [[Shrubbery]]<br /> <br /> ==History== <br /> [[File:1009.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.]]<br /> Throughout the history of American gardens, hedges were used for a variety of practical and ornamental purposes. The feature created divisions within the garden, protected tender plants from cross-winds, formed barriers against both animal and human intruders, screened unsightly [[view]]s, outlined ornamental [[bed]]s and [[walk]]s [Fig. 1], and brought flowering variety to the garden. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>According to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1838), hedges were ideal for these purposes because their architectural form functioned much like a [[fence]] or [[wall]], while their organic material allowed them to harmonize with planting arrangements and to articulate other forms of architecture to the landscape ([[#Downing|view citation]]). <span id="Deane_cite"></span>As [[Samuel Deane]] noted in 1790, live hedges were preferable to [[fence]]s and “dead hedges” (wattle [[fence]]s using woven plant material) because the living plants created a “perpetual fence” whose posts never decayed and stakes never failed ([[#Deane|view citation]]). Their versatility also made them adaptable to any scale, whether enclosing a field, screening a privy, or edging a [[bed]] (see [[Fence]]). <br /> <br /> <div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to texts.]]]]<br /> Hedges were found throughout America, but the plant materials employed in them varied, depending on the purpose of the hedge and the climate of its particular region. <span id="Prince_cite"></span>In 1828, William Prince praised hedges, particularly of buckthorn and maclura, as windbreaks affording protection in areas subject to severe winds ([[#Prince|view citation]]). Fast-growing evergreens were recommended for hedges needed to screen an area, although they were not advised for situations calling for trimmed effect or where a long shadow was undesirable. In these cases, the arborvitae, which grows quickly and densely, was the most common choice. At times, the screening effect does not appear to have been intentional; <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>in 1839, for example, [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] described the fish [[pond]] of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] in Salem, Massachusetts, as being entirely surrounded by an eight-foot high impenetrable hedge ([[#Hovey|view citation]]). Where such an effect was desired, various types of thorn were effective as impenetrable barriers. [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that “there are few creatures, however bold, who care to ‘come to the ''scratch''’ twice with such a foe.”<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist'' 1 (February 1847): 346.</ref> Cacti were similarly used at the California missions to create barriers around fields. Plants for ornamental hedges, however, were selected for their foliage, blossoms, and berries. For instance, a wild rose hedge was planted at [[Mount Vernon]], while the deep green foliage of the privet was admired at [[Oatlands]], D. P. Manice’s residence in Hempstead, New York. Because of their combination of flowering beauty and edible produce, fruit trees, such as apple, peach, and orange, were sometimes planted as [[espalier]] hedges (see [[Espalier]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] capitalized on the many uses of hedges: he designed thorn hedges to enclose his [[orchard]] and garden area [Fig. 2], planned hedgethorn and privet or cedar to line his [[slope]]s, and, in a proposal of 1771, used a hedge to screen his [[icehouse]] from view [Fig. 3].<ref>Jefferson purchased much of his plant material for Monticello from Thomas Main, a nurseryman and author of an 1807 work on hedges. See Brenda Bullion, “Early American Farming and Gardening Literature: ‘Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States,’” ''Journal of Garden History'' 12, no. 1 (1992): 37–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5MKAGJ2V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:0167.jpg|left|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768.]]<br /> Climate was also a factor in plant choice for hedges. In warmer regions ornamental hedges were composed of orange, yucca, Cherokee rose, and gardenia, while cedar, spruce, and juniper were used in colder areas such as New England. Prince recommended maclura or osage orange for Philadelphia and areas to the south. <span id="Hooper_cite"></span>Edward James Hooper, in ''The Practical Farmer'' (1842), maintained that buckthorn was suited to New England’s climate while European hawthorn did better in the west, although other descriptions suggest that the use of thorn varieties was not regionally specific ([[#Hooper|view citation]]). <br /> <br /> [[File:0932.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.]]<br /> Early evidence of hedges in the American landscape may be found in books of instruction on the delineation or division of arable fields, a practice taken directly from European agricultural tradition. Hedges created by close planting and interweaving of [[shrub]]s to create a dense barrier were categorized in many horticultural and agricultural treatises as a type of [[fence]], rather than identified with other planting arrangements such as [[thicket]], [[grove]], and group. The discourse about the advantages of hedges over [[fence]]s was particularly rich in the American agricultural literature of the early 19th century. Proponents of the new “scientific agriculture,” such as John Adams and Ezekiel Hersey Derby, reported their experiments with different plant varieties and techniques for forming hedges [Fig. 4].<ref>For example, see Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn . . . for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29. For a discussion of scientific farming in the Boston area, see Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), chapters 2 and 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> The aesthetic treatment of garden hedges was discussed and debated throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries. Authors and gardeners variously praised and dismissed both trimmed and untrimmed hedges, depending upon the prevailing taste and the particular situation of the hedge. <span id="Stiles_cite"></span>[[Ezra Stiles]] admired the spruce hedges at [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, which were cut into beautiful figures in 1754 ([[#Stiles|view citation]]), and in 1762 <span id="Callender_cite"></span>[[Hannah Callender Sansom]] described a hedge [[labyrinth]] at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], [[William Peters|Judge William Peters's]] estate near Philadelphia ([[#Callender|view citation]]). <span id="Ware_cite"></span>In contrast, [[Isaac Ware]], writing in 1756, praised the “natural hedge . . . mimicking savage nature” ([[#Ware|view citation]]). In 1832, both [[H. A. S. Dearborn]] and [[Thomas Bridgeman]] commended trimmed and trained hedges while other writers, such as [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] and [[Jane Loudon]], allowed the merits of both formal and [[natural style|naturalistic]] styles. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>In 1845 [[Jane Loudon|Loudon]] praised evergreen hedges “neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s,” while in the [[flower garden]] she proposed a less “stiff and formal” appearance that would “harmonize . . . with the flowers” ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>In the 1849 edition of his treatise, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] noted that trimmed hedges were “elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s,” while irregular or [[picturesque]] hedges were handsome additions to a landscape of the “[[natural style]]” ([[#Downing_1849|view citation]]).<br /> <br /> —''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation) <br /> :“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound [[fence]] . . . or with an '''hedge''' two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such '''hedge''', a rail [[fence]] of two foot and half high, the '''hedge''' or [[fence]] being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful [[fence]],) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Grove, William Hugh, 1732, describing Virginia (quoted in Stiverson and Butler 1977: 35)<ref>Gregory A. Stiverson and Patrick H. Butler III, eds., “Virginia in 1732: The Travel Journal of William Hugh Grove,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 85 (1977): 18–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ACNK9DG9 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“They also make strong '''hedges''' of Peach plants in their gardens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, August 17, 1747, describing property for sale in Somerset County, NJ (''New York Gazette'') <br /> :“TO BE SOLD, A pleasant Country [[Seat]], fitting for a Gentleman or Store-keeper; . . . a very good [[Kitchen Garden]], at the Rear of which is a Grass-[[plat]], with a Prim '''Hedge''' round and pale’d, situate on level Up Land.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, describing the vicinity of Philadelphia (1937: 1:47)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[fence]]s and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[wood]]s for future times, have begun to plant quick '''hedges''' round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the property of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'') <br /> :“With in a few weeks will be raffled for, A LOT . . . belonging to ''[[Alexander Garden|Alexander Gordon]], Esq''. . . . Together with a garden, genteelly laid out in [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s, with flower-knots, &c. laid round with bricks, having also several kinds of fruit trees now bearing, and many orange trees now growing like-wise, cassini and other '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Stiles"></div>Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (1892: 375)<ref>“Ezra Stiles in Philadelphia, 1754,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16 (1892): 375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T7C8P48I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stiles_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“. . . besides the beautiful [[walk]], ornamented with evergreens, we saw . . . Spruce '''hedges''' cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> : “. . . on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of '''hedge''' and low ceder with spruce . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:102, 115)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[March 14] Planted the 9 young peach Trees which I brought from Mr. Cockburns in the No. Garden—viz . . . 2 in the [[border]] of the Walk leading from the [[Espalier]] '''hedge''' towards the other cross [[walk]]. . . . <br /> :“[April 8] The ground being too wet . . . I was unable to touch that which I had been preparing for grass; and therefore began to hoe that wch. lyes between the New circular ditches, & the Wild rose '''hedges'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. P. Brissot de Warville|Brissot de Warville, J. P.]], September 6, 1788, describing the enclosure of pastures in America (1792: 253)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Mr. L. thinks it best to replace them [wooden rail [[fence]]s] by ditches six feet deep, of which he throws the earth upon his [[meadow]]s, and [[border]]s the sides with '''hedges'''; and thus renders the passage impracticable to the cattle. This is an agricultural operation, which cannot be too much recommended to the Americans.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Strickland, William, October 9, 1794, describing the country from Fishkill, NY, to Poughkeepsie, NY (1971: 99–100)<ref>William Strickland, ''Journal of a Tour in the United States of America, 1794-1795'', ed. J. E. Strickland (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DR8FH6KF view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country in general is divided into fields . . . it wants only the ornament of live [[fence]]s to be one of the most [[picturesque]] that can be seen, and those even have been attempted though they have unfortunately failed. Near Fishkyl the fields were formerly divided by Privet '''Hedges''' a shrub imported from Europe by the Dutch, which answerd the purpose, and throve well for many years, and some of them are still to be seen; but an insect attacked them some years since by which they were destroyed, and they never have been replaced, or any substitute adopted or tried; though no doubt shrubs better calculated for making durable strong [[fence]]s might be found among the natives of this country.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Worcester County, MA (1821: 1:375)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“An eye accustomed to the beautiful '''hedges''' of England, would probably regard these inclosures [stone [[wall]]s] with little pleasure. But emotions of this nature depend much on comparison. There are no '''hedges''' in New-England: those which formerly existed, having perished by some unknown misfortune. Few persons therefore, who see these [[wall]]s, will be able to compare them with '''hedges'''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.]]<br /> *[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection) <br /> :“. . . make the upper [[slope]] thus at ''a'' plant a '''hedge''' of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet, or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance this taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the [[terrace|terras]].” [Fig. 5] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54, 57&ndash;58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes&mdash;the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens '''hedge'''&mdash;of juniper I think. . . .<br /> :“. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden&mdash;& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose '''hedges''', & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house&mdash;but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. See the plan of the Grounds.<br /> :“The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided [[yard]]&mdash;The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the '''hedge''' that screens the [[Yard]].”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Jefferons|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter to [[William Hamilton]], describing plans for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 365)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you should know this plant [haw], which is peculiar at least to America & is a real treasure. as a thorn for '''hedges''' nothing has ever been seen comparable to it certainly no thorn in England which I have ever seen makes a '''hedge''' any more to be compared to this than a log hut to a [[wall]] of freestone. if you will plant these 6. I. apart you will be a judge of their superiority soon.” [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing a farm in Pennsylvania (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 11)<ref>Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I visited Job Roberts the day before yesterday, his farm is a model of excellence in the Culture. . . . He is growing several '''hedges''' which in less than 7 yrs. will be complete [[fence]]s against all sorts of Cattle. The management of which is a good lesson, which I hope to make usefull to this place.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Foster, Sir Augustus John, 1812, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 177)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . the [[fence]]s were of hurdles to keep out pigs. The American thorn will not grow close enough and the cedar '''hedge''' though pretty is not strong enough for the purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the vicinity of Charleston, SC (1816: 2:228)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Between the tavern and Charleston, the road is lined with the '''hedges''' and [[fence]]s belonging to several handsome [[plantation]]s: the houses are, however, seldom seen, being built a considerable distance back.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing the northern and mid-Atlantic States (1816: 2:231–32)<ref name="Lambert 1816"></ref><br /> :“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if '''hedges''' were substituted for rail [[fence]]s, those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, [[New Harmony]], IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819b: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of fencing. . . . The banks [of the ditches] were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live '''hedge''' (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the [[fence]] far more effectual as well as handsomer.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0712.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.]]<br /> *[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick '''hedge''' of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.” [Fig. 6]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0662.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830-40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, p. 296.]]<br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 21, 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 158)<ref name="Forman 1976">Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The hedger, Mr. Green, arrived here this evening, he laid a part of the Apple '''hedge''' and all the thorn '''hedge'''.” [Fig. 7] <br /> <br /> <br /> *Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231–32)<ref>Robert Jr. Waln, “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The [[flower garden]], extending from the vestibule to a dark green '''hedge''' of cedar, which separates it from the [[kitchen garden]], offers a rich repast to the eye. . . . <br /> :“About twenty acres of the farm are in a state of cultivation; the rest is woodland. It is separated from the road which passes in front of it, by a flourishing thorn-'''hedge'''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, 1828, in a letter to Thomas Green Fessenden, describing his use of the buckthorn in constructing hedges (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 57)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of making a '''hedge''', without much success, I was induced to try this [buckthorn], which has afforded a most beautiful [[fence]], so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American hawthorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. . . . You will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for '''hedges''' as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects America.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 22, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on Rosedown Plantation, Lousiana (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach '''hedge''' to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a “bungalow” in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange '''hedges''', all in flower.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“From the top of the bank, on which the house stood, we could see over a '''hedge''' into the rice fields which lay beyond, and stretched over the plain for several miles, their boundary line being the black edge of the untouched forest.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bell, Caroline, April 6, 1829, describing Iberville Plantation, LA (Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 459, MS 102) <br /> :“I have set out a great deal of beautiful [[shrubbery]] & Flowers, tomorrow shall plant, all my orange seed for '''hedges''' & plant all my Myrtle and sweet orange Trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>Anonymous, “Neglected Grave Yards,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 39 (April 17, 1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the [[burial ground]]s of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a [[grove]] sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living '''hedge''' of hawthorn. <br /> :“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of [[Samuel Breck]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd 1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[Samuel Breck|Mr. Breck]] has taken considerable pains with a '''hedge''' of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail [[fence]]. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live [[fence]] in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 438–39)<ref name="Boyd 1929"></ref><br /> :“On viewing this [[seat]], our attention was immediately drawn to the handsome '''hedges''' of Hornbeam and Pinus Canadensis. We were delighted with the latter; never having seen it before. Its fine green foliage contrasts very sweetly with the delicate appearance of the tender shoots. These '''hedge''’s are trimmed periodically and kept in excellent order.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 82–83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''', used as inclosures, will disappoint expectation, and require to be entirely eradicated after a few years, if even for a short time they should have a pleasing effect, when young, healthy, vigorous, and well managed. They are only proper for extensive grounds, farms, or large gardens, embracing some ten or twenty acres, or for long lines of circumvallation, which are to be seen at a distance, in which the imperfections, occasioned by insects and the ravages of time, are lost in the perspective, but should never be employed to surround a mere [[parterre]], a buisson of roses, or a [[bed]] of hyacinths. To look even beautiful, '''hedges''', of all kinds, require constant attention; they must be kept clear of weeds, and be pruned and clipped several times in the course of the season of vegetation, and this, too, by a skilful hand.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], June 1835, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 201)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of some of the Gardens and Nurseries in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from Memoranda made in the Month of March last,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 6 (June 1835): 201–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WGMGZFER view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The object of a '''hedge''' is generally to keep from the grounds cattle and other animals; though in some instances, they are only set to obscure one part of the garden from the other, or to hide some disagreeable object from the eye.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Charleston, SC (1838: 1:228)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The country is flat and sandy, and the only objects are planters’ mansions, surrounded with evergreen [[wood]]s, the gardens exhibiting the tropical yucca, and fenced with '''hedges''' of the Cherokee rose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Derby, Ezekiel Hersey, January 1, 1836, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 28)<ref>Ezekiel Hersey Derby, “Cultivation and Management of the Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus) for Live Hedges,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 27–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P93RF7HA view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“The rapid increase of our population, and the consequent vast consumption of timber for other and more valuable purposes, by increasing the relative cost of the old fashioned wooden [[fence]]s, must eventually render the introduction of '''hedges''' here, advantageous, if not absolutely essential, from motives of utility and economy; while the lover of rural scenery will hail with pleasure the [[picturesque]] charm of their verdant beauty. <br /> :“It is now about thirtytwo [''sic''] years, since I first attempted the formation of a live '''hedge''' as a boundary for my own pleasure-grounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 30, 1838, describing Rose Hill, home of [[Martha Ogle Forman]], Baltimore County, MD (1976: 396)<ref name="Forman 1976"></ref><br /> :“The General planting a '''hedge''' of Osage apple from the poplar tree [[gate]] to the [[wood]]s [[gate]] between the horse chestnuts row.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hovey"></div>[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing [[Elias Hasket Derby House]], Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11),<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hovey_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a [[square]]. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the [[square]]s occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a '''hedge'''. <br /> :“In the centre of the garden is a small oval [[pond]], containing gold fish: this [[pond]] is '''hedge''’d round with the buckthorn, which has now been planted over thirty years! It is not over eight feet high, and is thickly set with branches and foliage from the top to bottom, and perfectly impenetrable.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Kemble, Fanny, March 24–28, 1839, in a letter to Elizabeth Dwight Sedgwick, describing an estate on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1961; repr., 1984: 284–85)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (1961; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Hamilton struck me very much—I mean the whole appearance of the place; the situation of the house, the noble water [[prospect]] it commanded, the magnificent old oaks near it, a luxuriant vine [[trellis]], and a splendid '''hedge''' of Yucca gloriosa, were all objects of great delight to me.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1840, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” describing the estate of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 10 (October 1840): 361–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQC7WWZB view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Passing into a straight [[walk]] which leads from the [[conservatory]], by the [[flower garden]], (which is screaned by a [[hedge]] from the [[lawn]] front,).” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0878_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries [detail],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]<br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 406)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of each; accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the principles and practice of Landscape Gardening: intended with a view to illustrate the Art of Laying out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. . . . Under the arbor vitae '''hedge''', which is here planted against the boundary line, the [[greenhouse]] plants are principally placed during summer. <br /> :“19. '''Hedge''' or screen of arbor vitae, shutting out the back shed, compost ground, &c. The arbor vitae is well adapted for this purpose, growing rapidly, and forming a perfect screen in three or four years.” [Fig. 8] <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]<br /> *Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, in a letter to Annie Pierce, describing [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A buckthorn '''hedge''' has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open [[fence]] which separates between us demands a '''hedge''' there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 9]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing [[Landreth Nurseries|D. and C. Landreth’s Nursery]] on Federal Street, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 284)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 8 (August 1846): 281–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N2J7VZ6S view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Referring to our account above mentioned, we particularly alluded to the fine '''hedges''' of the arbor vitae which existed here, and recommended this fine tree as peculiarly well adapted for screens or '''hedges''' to shut out one part of the garden from another, or hide disagreeable objects. Twelve years’ experience has convinced us of the correctness of our remarks, and we may still urge them upon the attention of our readers. The arbor vitae is unquestionably one of the finest of evergreen trees, and far superior to any other for forming '''hedges''' or screens.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1847, excerpt from “Walden” (Clarke, ed., 1993: 2:47)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95/].</ref><br /> :“Self-sown my stately garden grows; <br /> ::The winds and wind-blown seed, <br /> :Cold April rain and colder snows <br /> ::My '''hedges''' plant and feed.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the '''hedges''' are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *[[John Parkinson|Parkinson, John]], 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, NJ: W. J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with '''hedges''', with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Smith, John, 1629, ''Advertisement for the Unexperienced Planters'' (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, eds., ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, [[Walk]]es, [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s . . . seeing you may have so many great and small growing trees for your maine posts, to fix '''hedges''', palisados, houses, rales, or what you will.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:7, 17; 1720: 2.3:27–28)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719–20), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[vol. 1] They [ever-greens] are so ornamental where they are rightly managed, that I think no Garden can be compleat without ’em; they make beautiful and useful '''Hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for '''Hedges''', and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of [[Wilderness]] Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . . <br /> :“[vol. 2] In these several [[Quarter]]s plant your Trees at about sixteen Foot distance, if you design a close [[Orchard]], or near thirty Foot asunder if the Ground is design’d for Beans, Peas, or such like Under-crops. . . . The Ground thus planted may be fenced about with '''Hedges''' of ''Philbuds'' and ''Berberries'', to make it still the more compleat and delightful.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.]]<br /> [[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]<br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: vii–ix, xiii)<ref name="Langley">Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London : Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley et al.,1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AN26GF5X view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Plate III. is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, . . .<br /> :“The '''Hedges''' that are planted between the aforesaid Trees which form the Sides of the [[Walk]]s are of ''English'', ''Dutch'' and ''French Elms'', ''Lime'', ''Hornbeam'', ''Maple'', ''Privet'', ''Yew'', ''Holly'', ''Arbutus'', ''Phillyrea'', ''Norway Fir'', ''Ilex'', ''Bay'', ''Laurel'', ''Laurus-Tinnus'', ''Piracantha'', ''Juniper'', and the ''English Furze''; and indeed, a beutiful [[Plantation]] should not only be adorned with entire [[Walk]]s and '''Hedges''' of Trees of all Sorts, as well as Fruit as others; but intermix’d together in many parts, as if Nature had placed them there with her own Hand. . . . [Fig. 10]<br /> :“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the ''[[Canal]]'' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with '''''Hedges''''' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view’d from M. . . .” [Fig. 11]<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728: 195–99)<ref name="Langley"></ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . . . <br /> :“XIX. . . . <br /> :“And to add to the Pleasure of these delightful Meanders, I advise that the '''Hedge'''-Rows of the [[Walk]]s be intermix’d with Cherries, Plumbs [sic], Apples, Pears, Bruxel Apricots, Figs, Gooseberries, Currants, Rasberrries [''sic''], ''&c''. and the [[Border]]s planted with Strawberries, Violets, ''&c''. <br /> :“The most beautiful Forest-Trees for '''Hedges''', are the English Elm, the ''Dutch'' Elm, the Lime-Tree, and Hornbeam: And altho' I have advis’d the Mixing of these '''Hedges''' of Forest-Trees with the aforesaid Fruits, yet you must not forget a Place for those pleasant and delightful Flowering-[[Shrub]]s, the White Jessemine, Honey-Suckle, and Sweet-Brier. . . . <br /> :“XXI. Such [[Walk]]s as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[aviary|Aviaries]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular '''Hedges''' ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[espalier|ESPALIER]]. . . . <br /> :“As for ''[[espalier ]]'''hedges''''', or '''hedge''' rows for defence of tender greens, and plants, from destructive winds in the summer season; if there be occasion to use them the first or second year after they are planted, a substantial frame of wood must be made, seven or eight foot high, with posts and rails. And to this ''[[espalier]]'' frame, must the side boughs of the young trees be tied, to cause the ''[[espalier]]'' to thicken the sooner. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE'''*, in agriculture, &c. a [[fence]], inclosing a field, garden, or the like; made of branches of trees interwoven. See [[fence|FENCE]]. <br /> :“*The word is formed of the German ''hag'', or ''haeg'', or the Anglo Saxon ''hegge'', or ''hege''; which signifies simply ''inclosure'', ''circumference''. <br /> :“''Quick-set'' '''HEDGE''', is that made of quick or live trees, which have taken root; in contradistinction to that made of faggots, hurdles, or dry boughs.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE'''. ''n.s''. [. . . Saxon.] A [[fence]] made round grounds with prickly bushes.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Ware"></div>[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 641, 645),<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ware_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable [[view]]s by clearing away [[wall]]s and '''hedges''' in the grounds . . . this is to be done when something pleasing, some [[view]] of elegant, wild nature can be let in. . . . <br /> :“A [[meadow]] and its '''hedge''' excelled all the beauty of our former gardens; because the [[parterre]] there afforded only the ill fruits of labour, and the '''hedge''' lost the very vegetable character. In the wild state of nature all is free, all therefore is cheerful, and all pleasing. . . . Instead of the precise regularity we have so lately and so difficultly banished, in those vast gardens that have been described to us so happily, there scarce appears a strait line. The profusion of flowers with which they are embellished are stuck in natural '''hedges''' or raised on irregular hillocks, mimicking savage nature, only in a state of more variety.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Hale, Thomas, 1758, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1758: 1:209–10, 230)<ref>Thomas Hale, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry Containing Rules for Performing, in the Most Profitable Manner, the Whole Business of the Farmer and Country Gentleman'', 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: T. Osborne, 1758), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRKU9TFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where the soil is too barren for the growth of an '''hedge''', there is often stone ready for a [[wall]]. . . . <br /> :“In the dry pastures '''hedges''' are the proper [[fence]]s. They are of great service; beside their sheltering the cattle, they defend the grass from the summer heats, and shelter it in the spring from the drying winds. . . . The '''hedges''' also are of value for their produce in useful [[wood]]. . . . <br /> :“Of '''hedges'''. . . . <br /> :“No article [inclosure], in the husbandman’s whole concern, is of more importance. '''Hedges''' are the first object that naturally should strike his imagination, as they are the defence and guard of all the rest. . . . <br /> :“In all inclosed lands the farmer must keep up a good [[fence]], if he expect [''sic''] to reap the fruit of his labours. The better and the more perfectly the [[fence]] is kept in repair, the greater will be his security of his profits: one little defect may do him more injury, by letting in cattle upon his crop, than would have been the cost of a most perfect repair.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[After a description of the types of trees used in '''hedges''', Miller notes that] '''[h]edges''' are either planted to make [[fence]]s around enclosures, or to part off or divide several parts of a Garden; when they are designed as outward [[fence]]s, they are planted either with Hawthorne, Crabs, or Blackthorn, which is slow; but those '''hedges''' which are planted in Gardens, either to surround [[Wilderness]] [[Quarter]]s, or to screen the other parts of a Garden from Sight, are planted with various Sorts of plants, according to the fancy of the Owner some preferring Evergreen '''Hedges''', in which case the Holly is best, next to the Yew, then Laurel, &c. . . . <br /> :“The taste in Gardening having been greatly altered of late Years for the better, these clipped '''Hedges''' have been almost excluded; and it is hoped that a little Time will entirely banish them out of English gardens, as it has done by the shorne evergreens, which a few years since were esteemed the greatest beauties in gardens. The latter was introduced by the Dutch Gardeners, and that of tall '''Hedges''' with Trellage work was in imitation of the French gardens; in some of which of the Iron Trellage to support the trees which composed their cabinets, [[portico]]s, [[bower]]s, [[pavilion|Pavilons]], and other pieces of rural architecture, amounted to a very great sum.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Squibb, Robert, 1787, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (1787: 51)<ref>Robert Squibb, ''The Gardener’s Calendar for South-Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina'' (Charleston, SC: Samuel Wright and Co., 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JHHVPH9K view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If you plant the orange trees for a '''hedge''', about ten feet will be a good distance; but if intended for an [[orchard]] or a [[grove]], twenty feet will not be too much.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 91–92)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“[[FENCE]]. . . . <br /> :“In some places it is best to make '''hedge''' [[fence]]s. There are two kinds of [[fence]] that go by this name, dead '''hedge''', and quickset '''hedge'''. <br /> :“To make a good dead '''hedge''', take stakes about six feet long, and set them fast in the ground, upon the line of your [[fence]], about four feet apart, or a less distance if your bushes be short. Then interweave bushes, young trees, or small slender limbs of trees. This [[fence]] will answer with a yearly repairing till the stakes fail. <br /> :“But quickset '''hedge''' is much better, as it is a perpetual [[fence]]. It must be made with different sets in different grounds. . . . <br /> :“It takes time to make these '''hedges'''. But on the whole they are cheap [[fence]]s, as they require but little repairing, besides trimming and pruning, to prevent their growing so high as to cast too great a shadow.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 15, 37)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper distance from each other, on the plain cultivated surface of the ground, in order to form a [[fence]] is what here is meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the common method used in Britain, called '''hedge''' and ditch. . . . Those who are curious to understand the manner of conducting this old way of hedging, will find in Mr. [[Bernard M'Mahon|Bernard McMahon]]’s 'American Gardener’s Callender [''sic''],' a clear and excellent description thereof, with much other useful information in this art, as well as in the various departments of horticulture, &c. . . . <br /> :“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a '''hedge''' cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good [[fence]] nor look handsome.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Neil, William, November 28, 1812, “On Hedging and Ditching, by William Neill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania” (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 146)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. (Georgetown: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Where I became first acquainted with '''hedges''', unless around [[kitchen garden]]s, or towns, or villages, where lots were small, you would not see one in five hundred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a sharp handsaw, take them off a few inches above the bank, when you would immediately have a more formidable [[fence]] then ever, and so on for ages.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“GARDENING. . . . <br /> :“Yet the fall of the leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high [[wall]] is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close-shorn '''hedges'''; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the [[wall]]; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. . . . <br /> :“Here it may be observed, that if any evergreen '''hedges''' are desired in or about the garden, yew, box, alaternus, celastrus, phillyrea, and pryacantha, may be kept low, and clipped in form, if so desired; in addition to which, if a few roses were intermixed, it would have a very pretty effect. A deciduous '''hedge''' for subdivision, or screen, &c. may be made of elms or limes, setting the larger plants at five feet asunder, and a smaller one between. Or an ordinary [[fence]], or subdivision, may be quickly formed of elder cuttings, stuck in at two feet asunder, which may be kept cut within bounds.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Taylor, John, 1817, ''Arator'' (1817: 147)<ref>John Taylor, ''Arator, Being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political'' (Georgetown: J. M. and J. B. Carter, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RG7QHU4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“If these '''hedges''' are cultivated properly, and the land is strong, they will form an elegant live ever-green [[fence]], in a shorter time, than is necessary to raise a thorn [[fence]] in England, according to the books.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Gardiner, John and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 117–19, 136–37)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn 1818"></ref><br /> :“In those parts of the union where the ripening of fruit requires no aid from artificial warmth and where therefore brick or stone [[wall]]s can be preferable, only on account of their superior strength as [[fence]]s, live '''hedges''', or banks with live '''hedges''' upon them, if well made, not only present an excellent resistance to incroachments, but are an exquisitely beautiful ornament to the mansion and its adjacent grounds. And as the propagation of live '''hedges''' is everyday becoming a subject of more serious importance, and will soon be one of indisputable necessity, in the long inhabited parts of the union where timber is becoming very scarce and dear, it may not be amiss, in this place, to turn for a moment from our particular object of enquiry, for the purpose of awakening all our agriculturalists to a consideration of the expediency of cultivating them, and of offering them a few instructions on [''sic''] this point of rural economy. . . . <br /> :“For gardens, '''hedges''' are advisable for two distinct purposes: The first, outward [[fence]]s to serve as a [[wall]] for the exclusion of tresspassers [''sic'']; the other inward, for the purposes of ornament and shade. <br /> :“For the former, the haw-thorn is excellent. . . . <br /> :“For internal ornamental '''hedges''', privet, yew, laurel and box, cedar and juniper, are most generally used.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819a: 22, 28–29)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“38. Yet, with all these circumstances in my favour, I proceed with faultering accent to propose, even for a garden, a live [[fence]], especially when I have to notice, that I know not how to get the plants, unless I, in the outset, bring them, or their seeds, ''from England!'' However, I must suppose this difficulty surmounted; then proceed to describe this [[fence]] that I would have, if I could. <br /> :“39. In England it is called a ''Quick-Set '''Hedge'''''. The truth is, however, that it ought rather to be called an ''Everlasting '''Hedge'''''; for, it is not, as will be seen by-and-by, so ''very quickly set''; or, at least, so very quickly raised. . . . <br /> :“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English '''Hedges''', instead of post-and-rail and board [[fence]]s? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set '''hedges''', what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields!” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1372.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 106, 355, 1023)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn '''hedges''' and other live [[fence]]s are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . . <br /> :“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest [[fence]]s for parks; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the '''hedge''' or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and [[fence]]s, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .<br /> :“7280. ''The ferme ornée'' differs from a common farm in having a better dwelling-house, neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the offices. It also differs as to the '''hedges''', which are allowed to grow wild and irregular (''fig''. 722.), and are bordered on each side by a broad green [[drive]], and sometimes by a gravel-[[walk]] and [[shrub]]s.” [Fig. 12]<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Prince"></div>Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 84, 91, 98, 103, 109–10, 112)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Prince_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“''Live '''hedges'''''.—The trees mostly used for '''hedges''' are the White English Hawthorn, the Holly, the Red Cedar, and the Privet. In the vicinity of Baltimore and Washington cities, they use two species of American Hawthorn, which appear to have decided advantages over the European. The Rhamnus catharticus forms a most beautiful '''hedge'''. . . . <br /> :“''Crataegus oxycantha, or European White Thorn.''—This is the common species used throughout England for '''hedges''', and which has been considerably planted in this country for the same purpose. It answers very well trained as ornamental tree among [[shrubbery]], but is far less suitable for '''hedges''' than many of our native species. . . . <br /> :“''Ilex aquifolium, or Common European.''—. . . It is found very suitable for '''hedges''', for which purpose it is extensively used in England. In addition to the Common Holly, there are a great number of varieties, viz. . . . <br /> :“''Privet, or Prim.—Ligustrum vulgare.''—This [[shrub]] is generally known, and was formerly greatly cultivated for '''hedges''' in this country, and is still so in many parts of Europe. The '''hedges''' formed of it are beautiful in the extreme, arising from its fine myrtle-like foliage, and its abundant clusters of berries in autumn and winter; and, when the sub-evergreen variety is used for this purpose, it possesses the advantage of retaining much of its foliage during the winter season. . . . <br /> :“''Mespilus pyracantha, or Evergreen Thorn.''— This has very dense foliage; the leaves are small, and of a fine dark green; it produces abundance of white flowers, which are delicate, and much admired; but, like the foregoing, it is its fruit which gives it the greatest claim to beauty. These are of the same size as those of the preceding species, they are of a fiery red, and are produced in the greatest abundance, and retain their beauty during the autumnal and part of the winter months, and serve to decorate this [[shrub]] at a season when nature most needs their aid. Being a sub-evergreen, and retaining a large portion of its foliage during winter, gives it another claim as an appendage to the [[shrubbery]]. It is now considerably planted for '''hedges''', for which purpose, uniting beauty with usefulness, it does not appear to be surpassed by any other. . . . <br /> :“''Rhamnus catharticus, or Sea Buckthorn.''—The leaves of this tree are oval, and pointed at the ends, and about two inches long, with serrated edges; the flowers are green, and produced in clusters from the sides of the branches, and are no way conspicuous; it rises to the height of 14 or 15 feet, throwing out numerous shoots on all sides, and produces, during the autumn, abundant clusters of black berries, which form its principal ornament. It has long been used in Europe for '''hedges''', and had latterly been planted in this country for the same purpose; and I have seldom seen a more beautiful '''hedge''' of any other [[shrub]], and consider it extremely eligible for that purpose.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''HEDGE''', ''n. hej.'' [Sax. ''hege, heag, hoeg, hegge''; G. ''heck'', D. ''heg, haag''; Dan. ''hekke'' or ''hek''; Sw. ''hagn'', '''hedge''', protection; Fr. ''haie''; W. ''cae''. Hence Eng. ''haw'', and ''Hague'' in Holland. . . .] <br /> :“Properly, a [[thicket]] of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or small trees; but appropriately, such a [[thicket]] planted round a field to [[fence]] it, or in rows, to separate the parts of a garden.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Floy, Michael, September 24 and October 1, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74, 84)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10–12 (September 24, October 1, October 8, 1830): 74, 84, 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :[Sept. 24] “''Gleditschia triacanthos'',—Honey locust, or three thorn Acacia. It makes a handsome stately tree, the foliage is handsome, but the dreadful long triple thorns with which the tree is armed, give it a forbidding aspect. Trees of this kind are often used for '''hedges''', and if planted thick, they soon make an impenetrable [[fence]] against man and beast, but must be kept cut down to 4 or 5 feet every season, or the '''hedge''' would soon be spoiled. . . . <br /> :[Oct. 1] “''Crataegus oxyacantha, the Hawthorn''. . . . Hawthorn '''hedges''' are much used in England, where they look very handsome when kept clipped, but they do not answer so well in this country, the heat of our summers causing the leaves to fall off early, often in July; on that account they are not much used—we have several things which are better calculated for that purpose. . . . <br /> :“''Ligustrum vulgare virens.'' Large European Privet, a very handsome evergreen [[shrub]], flowering in great profusion, and succeeded by bunches of black round berries. It bears clipping well, and is therefore well calculated for '''hedges''', or to enclose ornamental [[plantation]]s. It grows quick, and is well adapted to our climate, and when planted in a '''hedge''' row, and kept clipped, it makes a beautiful '''hedge''', and ought to be in more general use.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 133–34)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close [[fence]]s, or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact '''hedge''', which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . . <br /> :“[[Shrub]]s are not only necessary to the embellishment of a [[flower garden]], but many kinds of them are eligible for '''hedges''' to it, and may be planted at a trifling expense. These '''hedges''' should be frequently trimmed and trained, the sides cut even, and the tops sparingly clipped, so as to make them ornamental, as well as useful, and also to increase the vigour of their growth.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Fessenden, Thomas Green, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 158)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''Hedges''' may be of various kinds, such as the single '''hedge''' and ditch the '''hedge''' and bank; the level '''hedge''', &c.; of which, descriptions may be found in Loudon’s ''Encyclopedia of Agriculture'', and other books of husbandry.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 41, 43),<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for fencing does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable '''hedge'''. The advantages of live [[fence]]s are, great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board [[fence]]s) being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . . <br /> :“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden [[fence]], may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant '''hedge''''' is without an equal.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Hooper"></div>Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hooper_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''HEDGES'''. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for [[fence]]s before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for [[fence]]s that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live '''hedges'''. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live [[fence]]s will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 206, 244),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“'''Hedges''' may either be of evergreens, neatly cut, so as to form living [[wall]]s with standard plants at regular distances, to imitate architectural piers; or they may be formed of a mixture of different kinds of flowering [[shrub]]s, with evergreen standard low trees at regular distances. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGES''' for [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s should be composed of ornamental plants, such as ''Cydònia japónica'', Privet, Laurestinus, ''Rìbes sanguínea'', Roses, and double-blossomed Furze, or Ivy and other climbers, trained over iron [[trellis]]-work. The '''hedge''' to a flower-garden should never be stiff and formal, so as to look like a mere barrier; but it should be so arranged, and should consist of plants which harmonize so well with the flowers in the garden, as to make them appear a part of it. For farther details on this subject, see [[fence|FENCE]]S.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221, 286–88)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“[[fence|FENCES]] are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live [[fence]]s, and are then known as '''''hedges''''', or dead, and are then either ''banks'', ''ditches'', ''palings'', or ''[[wall]]s''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred. . . . <br /> :“'''HEDGE''', properly includes every kind of [[fence]], but the present details apply for the most part to growing [[fence]]s. . . . <br /> :“All full trained '''hedges''', in order to preserve them in proper form, close and neat, must be clipped, both on the sides and top, once or twice a year, but never less than once; . . . regular '''hedges''' should be cut as even as a [[wall]] on the sides, and the top as straight as a line; observing, after the '''hedge''' is formed to its proper height and width, always to cut each year’s clipping nearly to the old of the former year, particularly on the side; for by no means suffer them to grow above a foot or two wide, nor suffer them to advance upon you too much at top, where it is designed or necessary to keep them to a moderate height. But to keep '''hedges''' in perfectly good order, they should be clipped twice every summer. . . . Very high '''hedges''' are both troublesome and expensive to cut. The clipping is sometimes performed by the assistance of a high machine, scaffolding or stage. . . .<br /> :“A '''hedge''' is not only an imperfect screen, but in other respects is worse than useless, since nothing can be trained to it, and its roots exhaust the soil in their neighborhood very considerably; as the south [[fence]] of a garden it may be employed, and hawthorn is perhaps the worst shrub that could be made use of. It is the [[nursery]] of the same aphides, beetles, and caterpillars, that feed upon the foliage of the apple and pear . . . evergreen are better than deciduous '''hedges''', and more especially the holly, which is not so slow a grower as is generally imagined.<br /> :“In a cloudy day in April or May, the wind seems to be actually refrigerated in passing through a thick hawthorn '''hedge'''. . . . When the garden is of considerable extent, three or four acres and upwards, it admits of cross-[[wall]]s or [[fence]]s for an increase of training surface and additional shelter.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0998.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 355, fig. 84.]]<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1847, “A Chapter on Hedges” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 345–46)<ref> Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Chapter on Hedges,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 345–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3BBFEPHX view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“The advantages of a '''hedge''' over a common [[fence]], besides its beauty, are its durability, its perfect protection against man and beast, and the additional value it confers upon the land which it encloses. A [[fence]] of [[wood]], or stone, as commonly made, is, at the best, but a miserable and tottering affair; soon needing repairs, which are a constant drain upon the purse; often liable to be broken down by trespassing Philistines; and, before many years, decaying, or so far falling down, as to demand a complete renewal. Now a good '''hedge''', made of the two plants we shall presently recommend,will last ''forever''; it is an 'everlasting [[fence]],' at least in any acceptation of the word known to our restless and changing countrymen. . . .<br /> :“As a protection to the choicer products of the soil, which tempt the spoiler of the [[orchard]] and the garden, nothing is so efficient as a good '''hedge'''. It is like an impregnable fortress, neither to be scaled, broken through, nor climbed over. Fowls will not fly over it, because they fear to alight upon its top; and men and beasts are not likely to make more than one attempt to force its green [[wall]]s. It shows a fair and leafy shield to its antagonist, but it has thousands of concealed arrows ready at the moment of assault, and there are few creatures, however bold, who care to 'come to the scratch' twice with such a foe. Indeed a well made and perfect thorn '''hedge''' is so thick that a bird cannot fly through it.” [Fig. 13]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“As far as practicable, make divisions whichare necessary about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind [[fence]], or of '''hedges''', for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0379.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.]]<br /> *<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 119, 302, 305, 310, 344–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to History]]<br /> :“In Fig. 27, is shown part of an embellished farm, treated in the [[picturesque]] style throughout. The various trees, under grass or tillage, are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by '''hedges''' of buckthorn, cedar, and hawthorn, instead of wooden [[fence]]s. . . .[Fig. 14]<br /> :“We have ourselves tried the experiment with a '''hedge''' of it [arbor vitae] about 200 feet long,which was transplanted about five or six feet high from the native ''habitats'' of the young trees, and which fully answers our expectations respecting it, forming a perfectly thick screen, and an excellent shelter on the north of a range of buildings at all seasons of the year, growing perfectly thick without trimming, from the very ground upwards. . . .<br /> :“For '''hedges''' the Holly is altogether unrivalled; and it was also one of the favorite plants for ''verdant sculpture'', in the [[ancient style]] of gardening. . . .<br /> :“The Yew, like the Holly, makes an excellent evergreen '''hedge'''—close, dark green, and beautiful when clad in the rich scarlet berries. . . .<br /> :“''Verdant '''hedges''''' are elegant substitutes for stone or wooden [[fence]]s, and we are surprised that their use has not been hitherto more general. . . . [[Picturesque]] '''hedges''' are easily formed by intermingling a variety of flowering [[shrub]]s, sweet briars, etc., and allowing the whole to grow together in rich masses. . . . In all cases where '''hedges''' are employed in the [[natural style]] of landscape (and not in close connexion with highly artificial objects, buildings, etc.), a more agreeable effect will be produced by allowing the '''hedge''' to grow somewhat irregular in form, or varying it by planting near it other small trees and [[shrub]]s to break the outline, than by clipping it in even and formal lines.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 178)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“THE cheapest, most beautiful, and durable [[fence]]s are '''hedges''', and all dividing [[fence]]s of cottage gardens, should be made of '''hedges'''; there are several kinds of plants well adapted for the purpose.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 409)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“ES-PAL’IER, (es-pal’yer,) n. [Fr. ''[[espalier]]''; Sp. ''espalera''; H. ''spalliera''; from L. ''palus'', a stake or ''pole''.] <br /> :“1. A row of trees planted about a garden or in '''hedges''', so as to inclose [[quarter]]s or separate parts, and trained up to a lattice of wood-work, or fastened to stakes, forming a close '''hedge''' or shelter to protect plants against injuries from wind or weather. ''Ency''.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Every fine [[flower garden|[flower] garden]] should be well secured by [[fence]] or '''hedge''', if at all exposed to the public road. A '''hedge''' is far the prettiest, if well managed, neat, and ornamental.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Coppock, W. R., March 1851, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 151)<ref>W. R. Coppock, “Domestic Notices: Random Notes of a Winter’s Evening,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 147–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7DFAAII5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“A thoroughly protective '''hedge''', or an uncouth looking strong [[fence]], is absolutely necessary to the orchardist, if he may derive either pleasure or profit from his trees. Climbing a [[fence]], or pushing aside a picket, and pelting the choice apples, pears, &c. from the trees, is, I am sorry to say, not considered generally a misdemeanor, or theft, at the present day.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Hedges that are planted between the . . .Trees which form the Sides of the Walks. . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. “Slope H is planted with Hedges of ''different Ever-Greens''.”<br /> <br /> Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. Hedges marked in the middle of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Privet hedge” marked at the top of the plan.<br /> <br /> Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of Monticello Mountain, before May 1768. “Hedge” is written just below the drawing to the right.<br /> <br /> Image:0090a.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. “Hedge of hedgethorn” is inscribed on the second line on the left.<br /> <br /> Image:0932.jpg|R. W. Dickson, “Hedge Fences,” in ''Practical Agriculture'' (1805), vol. 1, pl. 31, opp. 110.<br /> <br /> Image:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at Monticello, 1806. “Hedge” is inscribed all along the curving border.<br /> <br /> Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a ferme ornée with wild and irregular hedges, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 1023, fig. 722.<br /> <br /> Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “19. Hedge or screen of arbor vitae . . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked with hedges of evergreen. . .”<br /> <br /> Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. The symbol for “Hedges” is noted in the References box.<br /> <br /> Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.<br /> <br /> Image:1501.jpg|Anonymous, “Manner of Planting Hedges,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (February 1847): 353, fig. 83. <br /> <br /> Image:0998.jpg|Anonymous, “Mr. Lee’s Hedge,” Salem, MA, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 8 (Feb. 1847): 355, fig. 84.<br /> <br /> Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 120, fig. 27. “The various trees . . . are divided and bounded by winding roads, ''a'', bordered by hedges.”<br /> <br /> Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. “I” represents “hedge of cedars.”<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.<br /> <br /> Image:0662.jpg|Anonymous, Rose-Lawn, residence of Edgar M. Vanderburgh, c. 1830–40, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 296.<br /> <br /> Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.<br /> <br /> Image:0797.jpg|Thomas Hodell (artist), Pierre Charles Canot (engraver), “A South East View of the City of New York, in North America,” c. 1768.<br /> <br /> Image:0096.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for the garden of the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.<br /> <br /> image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.<br /> <br /> Image:0133.jpg|Rufus Porter, Landscape mural from Howe House, 1838.<br /> <br /> Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''View of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.<br /> <br /> Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860–65.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Boundaries]]<br /> [[Category: Planting Arrangements]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Orangery&diff=36169 Orangery 2019-06-12T15:34:04Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>(Orangerie) {{break}}<br /> See also: [[Conservatory]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Hothouse]], [[Nursery]]<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:1833.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0629.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.]]<br /> [[File:0180.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. The orangery is located to the left and rear of the main house.]]<br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> The term orangery described both a [[grove]] of orange trees and a structure in which citrus trees were cultivated. [[William Bartram]] used the term in 1791 to describe a [[grove]] of native trees left standing within a cleared ground and incorporated into a designed [[plantation]], and, therefore, a natural feature in the landscape. [[Samuel Johnson]] (1755) and [[Noah Webster]] (1848) defined an orangery as an area where orange trees were planted, or as [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741–43) wrote, “used for the [[parterre]].” John Evelyn, in his 1693 translation of Jean de La Quintinie, used the term to refer to any place stocked with orange trees, whether indoors or out. The most common usage, however, refers to the architecture of plant-keeping houses, often synonymous with [[greenhouse]], [[hothouse]], or [[conservatory]]. In this sense, the orangery could be a separate building, or a structure that was either part of or attached to a [[greenhouse]] in which citrus and other exotic fruits and flowers were kept [Fig. 1]. <br /> <br /> The term “orangery” originated in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries when citrus fruit was highly valued. The orangery was a showcase for the nobility with the best-known examples found at Versailles, St. Petersburg, and Vienna. In 18th-century America, however, the term seems to have been used rarely outside garden treatises. Perhaps its aristocratic associations made Americans reluctant to use it. The more generic terms “[[greenhouse]]” and “[[conservatory]]” replaced it, as did specific names used to describe its precise contents, such as “pinery” (for pineapples), “peachery,” and “grapery” or “vinery.” <br /> <br /> [[File:1779.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130.]]<br /> [[File:1645.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14.]]<br /> Although several imported treatises contain the term “orangery,” it is conspicuously absent in major American publications by [[Bernard M’Mahon]], [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]], and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]—except when describing 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s. For example, in 1837 [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey]] used orangery to describe [[William Bartram|Bartram's]] by-then venerable century-old greenhouse in Philadelphia. In his “Historical Sketches,” [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] described the 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s at [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] seat, [[The Woodlands]], as orangeries. These colonial [[greenhouse]]s were called orangeries in the 19th century because they represented an older building type that was characterized by unglazed roofs. This earlier type of plant-keeping structure, built of stone or brick with large windows and a solid, unglazed roof was found at [[Wye House]] [Fig. 2]; Fairhill [Fig. 3]; and Lt. Gov. James Hamilton’s estate, Bush Hill, near Philadelphia. This type had an architectural style consistent with the main house, with a regular entablature and cornice and large windows that were often roundheaded, separated by [[column]]s or piers. At the time they were built, they were most probably [[greenhouse]]s, [[hothouse]]s, or [[conservatories]], although it is clear that they were used for keeping citrus trees (see [[Greenhouse]] and [[Hothouse]] for a discussion of heating systems). <br /> <br /> [[File:0340.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.]]<br /> This type of [[greenhouse]] construction fell out of fashion once gardeners began to realize the benefits of increased light and perpendicular light for growing plants. As a greater proportion of glazing became technically possible with cast-iron construction, the design of plant houses shifted from the shingle-roofed brick or stone orangery to the glasshouse [Fig. 4]. With these changes in structure and material, [[J. C. Loudon]], writing in the early 19th century, concluded that the orangery was the [[greenhouse]] of the previous century [Fig. 5]. Thus, 19th-century authors writing about historical [[greenhouse]]s distinguished them from the cast-iron and glass structures by calling them orangeries. 20th-century garden historians and archaeologists have continued this practice. The orangery, however, did not completely disappear as an option in new construction. [[Jane Loudon]] provided a late reference in 1845 when she wrote that the orangery was a house with an opaque roof intended only for orange trees. She asserted the suitability of non-[[greenhouse]] construction to that use. Further evidence of the orangery’s continued use is in Robert B. Leuchars’s 1850 ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'', in which he described John Hopkins’s very large structure at Clifton Mansion [Fig. 6]. <br /> <br /> Scholars have pointed out that in the early colonial period, several [[greenhouse]]s for citrus cultivation were built by wealthy families who had access to international trade networks. It took skill and money to build a good [[greenhouse]] for citrus because glass was expensive, servants were required to maintain it, and skilled gardeners needed to cultivate the fruit.<ref> Anne Yentsch, “The Calvert Orangery in Annapolis, Maryland: A Horticultural Symbol of Power and Prestige in an Early Eighteenth Century Community,” in ''Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology'', ed. William M. Kelso and Rachel Most (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J4R38J9C view on Zotero].</ref> Therefore, they were associated with the privileged and cultured elite [Fig. 7]. Archaeologist Carmen Weber has argued that this association was so well established in the colonial period that in a portrait of Margaret Tilghman Carroll by [[Charles Willson Peale]] the simple inclusion of orange leaves was sufficient to symbolize and convey her control of property and considerable wealth.<ref>Carmen A. Weber, “The Greenhouse Effect: Gender-Related Traditions in Eighteenth-Century Gardening,” in ''Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape'', ed. Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/92DA3QAZ/ view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> —''Therese O’Malley''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Shippen, Thomas Lee, 1790, describing Stratford, estate of Thomas Lee, Westmoreland County, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:68)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“It was with difficulty that my Uncles, who accompanied me, could persuade me to leave the hall to look at the gardens, vineyards, '''orangeries''' and [[lawn]]s which surround the house.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Marshall Plantation, on the San Juan River, FL (1928: 84)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the afternoon, the most sultry time of the day, we retired to the fragrant shades of an orange grove. The house was situated on an [[eminence]], about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. On the right hand was the '''orangery''', consisting of many hundred trees, natives of the place, and left standing, when the ground about it was cleared. These trees were large, flourishing, and in perfect bloom, and loaded with their ripe golden fruit. On the other side was a spacious garden, occupying a regular [[slope]] of ground down to the water; and a pleasant [[lawn]] lay between.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1837, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 210)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Nurseries and Private Gardens, visited in the early part of March,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 6 (June 1837): 201–13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3AJ3MAG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the '''orangery''' attached to the large [[greenhouse]] are a great number of very old orange and lemon trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1900.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161. The orangery is the shed roofed building on the left.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], December 1839, describing Cheshunt Cottage, property of William Harrison, near London, England (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15: 644)<ref>J. C. Loudon, “Descriptive Notices of Select Suburban Residences, with Remarks on Each; Intended to Illustrate the Principles and Practices of Landscape-Gardening,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 633–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5WDEBI9 view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“3. The '''orangery'''. The paths are of slate, and the centre [[bed]], or pit, for the orange trees, is covered with an open wooden grating, on which are placed the smaller [[pot]]s; while the larger ones, and the boxes and tubs, are let down through openings made in the grating, as deep as it may be necessary for the proper effect of the heads of the trees. This house, and that for Orchidàceæ, are heated from the boiler. . . . “ [Fig. 8]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 4, 1849, diary entry describing tasks completed on Rosedown Plantation, Lousiana (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Jany. 1849 4 we have spaded all the Garden today—the first time. Sewed Peas, Irish Potatoes. Set out the '''Orangery''' today.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1849; repr. 1991: 42)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . at a time when the introduction of rare exotics was attended with a vast deal of risk and trouble, the extensive [[green-house]]s and '''orangeries''' of this [[seat]] contained all the richest treasures of the exotic flora.”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''''Orangery''''' is a place stocked with Orange Trees, whether within doors or without.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3: 113, 115–16)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“when I consider how much the Beauty and Advantage of the '''''Orangery''''' is owing to the good Condition of the ''Conservatory'', I am the less surprized to meet every Day with valuable Collections of Trees half poison’d with Charcoal, or pinch’d to Death with the Frosts. . . . <br /> :“[referring to Plate II] D D are the Benches for the most hardy [[Green-House]] Plants, such as ''Orange'', ''Limons'', ''Myrtles'', &c. they are so disposed, as to admit of [[Walk]]s about them, for convenience of Watering. . .. <br /> :“I leave every one to judge how great an Ornament this will be, as well in Winter, when the Plants are in the House; and in Summer, when the House will be made a Room of Entertainment.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–98)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . . <br /> :“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to . . . and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, of small Meadows, Hop-Gardens, '''Orangeries''', Melon-Grounds, Vineyards, [[Orchard]]s, [[Nurseries]], Physick-Gardens, Warrens, Paddocks of Deer, Sheep, Cows, ''&c''. with the rural Enrichments of Hay-Stacks, Wood-Piles, ''&c''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''', a gallery in a garden, or [[parterre]], exposed to the south, but well closed with a glass window, to preserve oranges in, during the winter season. The '''''orangery''''' of Versailles is the most magnificent that ever was built: It has wings, and is decorated with a Tuscan order. <br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is also used for the [[parterre]], where the oranges are exposed in kindly weather.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''O’RANGERY'''. ''n.s''. [''orangerie'', Fr.] [[Plantation]] of oranges.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 811–14)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“6161. ''The [[hot-house]]s of floriculture'' are the frame, glasscase, [[green-house]], '''orangery''', [[conservatory]], dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the [[flower-garden]], or [[pleasure-ground]]; and the pit and hot-[[bed]] in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial heat with the least labor and expense. . . . <br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> :“6171. ''The '''orangery''''' is the [[green-house]] of the last century, the object of which was to preserve large plants of exotic evergreens during winter, such as the orange tribe, myrtles, sweet bays, pomegranates, and a few others. . . . The '''orangery''' was generally placed near to or adjoining the house, and its elevation corresponded in architectural design with that of the mansion. From this last circumstance has arisen a prejudice highly unfavorable to the culture of ornamental exotics, namely, that every plant-habitation attached to a mansion should be an architectural object, and consist of windows between stone piers or [[column]]s, with a regular cornice and entablature. By this mode of design, these buildings are rendered so gloomy as never to present a vigorous vegetation, and vivid glowing colors within; and as they are thus unfit for the purpose for which they are intended, it does not appear to us, as we have already observed at length (1590.), that they can possibly be in good taste. Perhaps the only way of reconciling the adoption of such apartments with good sense, is to consider them as lounges or [[promenade]] scenes for recreation in unfavorable weather, or for use during fêtes, in either of which cases they may be decorated with a few scattered tubs of orange-trees, camellias, or other evergreen coriaceous-leaved plants from a proper [[greenhouse]], and which will not be much injured by a temporary residence in such places, which, as Nicol has observed, ‘often look more like tombs or places of worship, than compartments for the reception of plants; and, we may add that the more modern sort look like a combination of shop-fronts, of which that at Claremont is a notable example.’ Sometimes structures of this sort are erected to conceal some local deformity, of which, as an instance, we may refer to that . . . erected by Todd, for J. Elliot, Esq., at Pimlico. ‘This building was constructed for the purpose of preventing the [[prospect]] of some offices from the dwelling-house. The architectural ornaments, and the roof, not being of glass, are points in the construction not generally to be recommended; but, as it was built for the purpose above mentioned, the objections were overruled. There are three circular stages to this house, which are made to take out at pleasure. The ceiling forms part of a circle, and the floor is paved with Yorkshire stone. It is fifty feet long, and thirteen feet six inches wide, and heated by one fire, the flue from which makes the circuit of the house under the floor.’ (''Plans of Green-Houses'', &c. p. 10)” [Fig. 9] <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 302–3)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY'''.—A house intended only for Orange trees may be opaque at the back, and even the roof, with lights only in front, provided the plants be set out during summer. In fact, so that the plants are preserved from the frost, they will do with scarcely any light during winter; and in many parts of the Continent, they are kept in a cellar.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth (1847), 404, fig. 104.]]<br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 404)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is a [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]] devoted to the cultivation of the genus Citrus. The best plan for the construction of such a building is that erected at Knowsley Park, and thus described by the gardener, Mr. J. W. Jones. . . . [Fig. 10] <br /> :“‘Measured inside, this house is fourteen and a half yards long, eight broad, and six high. In the centre of the house are eight [[border]]s, in which the oranges, &c., are planted; these borders are all marked ''a''. The two [[border]]s against the back wall are sixteen inches broad, and three feet deep. The six borders immediately in the centre of the house are fourteen inches broad, and three feet deep; the paths are marked ''c'', the front [[wall]] ''d'', and the back one ''e''; ''p, p, p'', represent ornamental cast iron [[pillar]]s, which, besides supporting the roof, serve also to support light wire [[trellis]]es; there is one of these [[pillar]]s in each row for each rafter. The house is entirely heated by smoke flues, two furnaces being placed at ''f''. The dotted lines along the central path show the direction of the flues beneath, from the back to the front entrance, when they diverge, the one entering a raised flue, ''g'', on the right, the other also entering a raised flue on the left. These flues again cross the house at each end, and the smoke escapes by the back [[wall]]; it being found inconvenient to place the furnaces in any other situation. <br /> :“‘Two stoves immediately connected with each end of the '''orangery''' contain the collection of tropical plants bearing fruit. The communication between these stoves and the '''orangery''' is uninterrupted by any glass or other division, so that the orange tribe are subjected to nearly as high a temperature as the tropical plants. The central borders of the '''orangery''', as may be seen in the section, are raised a little above each other, as they recede from the front of the house. The oranges, citrons, &c., are all trained as [[espalier]]s; a light wire [[trellis]] being stretched from [[pillar]] to [[pillar]] parallel with the [[border]]s, and about eight feet high. The spaces, b, between the [[border]]s being about three feet wide, permit a person to walk along between the plants, for the purpose of pruning, watering, &c. These spaces are of the same depth as the [[border]]s, and were originally filled with tan; but part of this is now removed, and its place is filled with good soil. In this some fine climbing plants have been turned out, amongst which are several plants of ''Passiflora quadrangularis'', which bear an abundant crop of fine fruit. Besides these, there are also two fine plants of the beautiful new ''Gardenia Sherbourniae''. These, are other climbers, are trained up the rafters, &c., in such a manner as not to materially intercept the light from the orange. The great advantage of having the trees trained on the [[trellis]] system is, that every part of the tree is fully exposed to the light, and by planting them in rows one behind the other, a larger surface is obtained for the trees to cover than could be got by adopting any other plan; and consequently, for the space, a larger quantity of fruit is procured. The trees being hung loosely and irregularly to the wires, assume as natural an appearance as circumstances will permit, and the introduction here and there of large plants in [[pot]]s has a tendency to prevent formality. Two plants are placed in each [[border]].’—''Gard. Chron.''” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 776)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', revised and enlarged (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''OR’AN-GER-Y''', ''n''. [Fr. ''orangerie''.] <br /> :“A place for raising oranges; a [[plantation]] of orange-trees.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1770.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570. <br /> <br /> File:1773.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Section and plan for a building to house orange trees, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 974, fig. 785a and b. <br /> <br /> File:1779.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130. <br /> <br /> File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 642, fig. 159. <br /> <br /> File:1844.jpg|[[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth, (1847), 404, fig. 104.<br /> <br /> File:1645.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1900.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. <br /> <br /> File:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.<br /> <br /> File:1833.jpg|Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.<br /> <br /> File:0629.jpg|E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Glass Houses]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Orangery&diff=36168 Orangery 2019-06-12T14:35:46Z

<p>K-lee: /* Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>(Orangerie) {{break}}<br /> See also: [[Conservatory]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Hothouse]], [[Nursery]]<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:1833.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.]]<br /> [[File:0629.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.]]<br /> [[File:0180.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. The orangery is located to the left and rear of the main house.]]<br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> The term orangery described both a [[grove]] of orange trees and a structure in which citrus trees were cultivated. [[William Bartram]] used the term in 1791 to describe a [[grove]] of native trees left standing within a cleared ground and incorporated into a designed [[plantation]], and, therefore, a natural feature in the landscape. [[Samuel Johnson]] (1755) and [[Noah Webster]] (1848) defined an orangery as an area where orange trees were planted, or as [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741–43) wrote, “used for the [[parterre]].” John Evelyn, in his 1693 translation of Jean de La Quintinie, used the term to refer to any place stocked with orange trees, whether indoors or out. The most common usage, however, refers to the architecture of plant-keeping houses, often synonymous with [[greenhouse]], [[hothouse]], or [[conservatory]]. In this sense, the orangery could be a separate building, or a structure that was either part of or attached to a [[greenhouse]] in which citrus and other exotic fruits and flowers were kept [Fig. 1]. <br /> <br /> The term “orangery” originated in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries when citrus fruit was highly valued. The orangery was a showcase for the nobility with the best-known examples found at Versailles, St. Petersburg, and Vienna. In 18th-century America, however, the term seems to have been used rarely outside garden treatises. Perhaps its aristocratic associations made Americans reluctant to use it. The more generic terms “[[greenhouse]]” and “[[conservatory]]” replaced it, as did specific names used to describe its precise contents, such as “pinery” (for pineapples), “peachery,” and “grapery” or “vinery.” <br /> <br /> [[File:1779.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130.]]<br /> [[File:1645.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14.]]<br /> Although several imported treatises contain the term “orangery,” it is conspicuously absent in major American publications by [[Bernard M’Mahon]], [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]], and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]—except when describing 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s. For example, in 1837 [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey]] used orangery to describe [[William Bartram|Bartram's]] by-then venerable century-old greenhouse in Philadelphia. In his “Historical Sketches,” [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] described the 18th-century [[greenhouse]]s at [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] seat, [[The Woodlands]], as orangeries. These colonial [[greenhouse]]s were called orangeries in the 19th century because they represented an older building type that was characterized by unglazed roofs. This earlier type of plant-keeping structure, built of stone or brick with large windows and a solid, unglazed roof was found at [[Wye House]] [Fig. 2]; Fairhill [Fig. 3]; and Lt. Gov. James Hamilton’s estate, Bush Hill, near Philadelphia. This type had an architectural style consistent with the main house, with a regular entablature and cornice and large windows that were often roundheaded, separated by [[column]]s or piers. At the time they were built, they were most probably [[greenhouse]]s, [[hothouse]]s, or [[conservatories]], although it is clear that they were used for keeping citrus trees (see [[Greenhouse]] and [[Hothouse]] for a discussion of heating systems). <br /> <br /> [[File:0340.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.]]<br /> This type of [[greenhouse]] construction fell out of fashion once gardeners began to realize the benefits of increased light and perpendicular light for growing plants. As a greater proportion of glazing became technically possible with cast-iron construction, the design of plant houses shifted from the shingle-roofed brick or stone orangery to the glasshouse [Fig. 4]. With these changes in structure and material, [[J. C. Loudon]], writing in the early 19th century, concluded that the orangery was the [[greenhouse]] of the previous century [Fig. 5]. Thus, 19th-century authors writing about historical [[greenhouse]]s distinguished them from the cast-iron and glass structures by calling them orangeries. 20th-century garden historians and archaeologists have continued this practice. The orangery, however, did not completely disappear as an option in new construction. [[Jane Loudon]] provided a late reference in 1845 when she wrote that the orangery was a house with an opaque roof intended only for orange trees. She asserted the suitability of non-[[greenhouse]] construction to that use. Further evidence of the orangery’s continued use is in Robert B. Leuchars’s 1850 ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'', in which he described John Hopkins’s very large structure at Clifton Mansion [Fig. 6]. <br /> <br /> Scholars have pointed out that in the early colonial period, several [[greenhouse]]s for citrus cultivation were built by wealthy families who had access to international trade networks. It took skill and money to build a good [[greenhouse]] for citrus because glass was expensive, servants were required to maintain it, and skilled gardeners needed to cultivate the fruit.<ref> Anne Yentsch, “The Calvert Orangery in Annapolis, Maryland: A Horticultural Symbol of Power and Prestige in an Early Eighteenth Century Community,” in ''Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology'', ed. William M. Kelso and Rachel Most (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J4R38J9C view on Zotero].</ref> Therefore, they were associated with the privileged and cultured elite [Fig. 7]. Archaeologist Carmen Weber has argued that this association was so well established in the colonial period that in a portrait of Margaret Tilghman Carroll by [[Charles Willson Peale]] the simple inclusion of orange leaves was sufficient to symbolize and convey her control of property and considerable wealth.<ref>Carmen A. Weber, “The Greenhouse Effect: Gender-Related Traditions in Eighteenth-Century Gardening,” in ''Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape'', ed. Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/92DA3QAZ/ view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> —''Therese O’Malley''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> ===Usage===<br /> *Shippen, Thomas Lee, 1790, describing Stratford, estate of Thomas Lee, Westmoreland County, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:68)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/ view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“It was with difficulty that my Uncles, who accompanied me, could persuade me to leave the hall to look at the gardens, vineyards, '''orangeries''' and [[lawn]]s which surround the house.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Marshall Plantation, on the San Juan River, FL (1928: 84)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the afternoon, the most sultry time of the day, we retired to the fragrant shades of an orange grove. The house was situated on an [[eminence]], about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. On the right hand was the '''orangery''', consisting of many hundred trees, natives of the place, and left standing, when the ground about it was cleared. These trees were large, flourishing, and in perfect bloom, and loaded with their ripe golden fruit. On the other side was a spacious garden, occupying a regular [[slope]] of ground down to the water; and a pleasant [[lawn]] lay between.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1837, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 210)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes on Nurseries and Private Gardens, visited in the early part of March,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 6 (June 1837): 201–13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3AJ3MAG view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“In the '''orangery''' attached to the large [[greenhouse]] are a great number of very old orange and lemon trees.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1900.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161. The orangery is the shed roofed building on the left.]]<br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], December 1839, describing Cheshunt Cottage, property of William Harrison, near London, England (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15: 644)<ref>J. C. Loudon, “Descriptive Notices of Select Suburban Residences, with Remarks on Each; Intended to Illustrate the Principles and Practices of Landscape-Gardening,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 633–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5WDEBI9 view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“3. The '''orangery'''. The paths are of slate, and the centre [[bed]], or pit, for the orange trees, is covered with an open wooden grating, on which are placed the smaller [[pot]]s; while the larger ones, and the boxes and tubs, are let down through openings made in the grating, as deep as it may be necessary for the proper effect of the heads of the trees. This house, and that for Orchidàceæ, are heated from the boiler. . . . “ [Fig. 8]<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 4, 1849, describing the construction of moss house (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V/q/turnbull view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Jany. 1849 4 we have spaded all the Garden today—the first time. Sewed Peas, Irish Potatoes. Set out the '''Orangery''' today.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1849; repr. 1991: 42)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . at a time when the introduction of rare exotics was attended with a vast deal of risk and trouble, the extensive [[green-house]]s and '''orangeries''' of this [[seat]] contained all the richest treasures of the exotic flora.”<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> *La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''''Orangery''''' is a place stocked with Orange Trees, whether within doors or without.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *Bradley, Richard, 1720, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1720: 2.3: 113, 115–16)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical . . .'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“when I consider how much the Beauty and Advantage of the '''''Orangery''''' is owing to the good Condition of the ''Conservatory'', I am the less surprized to meet every Day with valuable Collections of Trees half poison’d with Charcoal, or pinch’d to Death with the Frosts. . . . <br /> :“[referring to Plate II] D D are the Benches for the most hardy [[Green-House]] Plants, such as ''Orange'', ''Limons'', ''Myrtles'', &c. they are so disposed, as to admit of [[Walk]]s about them, for convenience of Watering. . .. <br /> :“I leave every one to judge how great an Ornament this will be, as well in Winter, when the Plants are in the House; and in Summer, when the House will be made a Room of Entertainment.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–98)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . . <br /> :“XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to . . . and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, of small Meadows, Hop-Gardens, '''Orangeries''', Melon-Grounds, Vineyards, [[Orchard]]s, [[Nurseries]], Physick-Gardens, Warrens, Paddocks of Deer, Sheep, Cows, ''&c''. with the rural Enrichments of Hay-Stacks, Wood-Piles, ''&c''.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''', a gallery in a garden, or [[parterre]], exposed to the south, but well closed with a glass window, to preserve oranges in, during the winter season. The '''''orangery''''' of Versailles is the most magnificent that ever was built: It has wings, and is decorated with a Tuscan order. <br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is also used for the [[parterre]], where the oranges are exposed in kindly weather.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''O’RANGERY'''. ''n.s''. [''orangerie'', Fr.] [[Plantation]] of oranges.” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 811–14)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“6161. ''The [[hot-house]]s of floriculture'' are the frame, glasscase, [[green-house]], '''orangery''', [[conservatory]], dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the [[flower-garden]], or [[pleasure-ground]]; and the pit and hot-[[bed]] in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial heat with the least labor and expense. . . . <br /> [[File:1770.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 813, fig. 570.]]<br /> :“6171. ''The '''orangery''''' is the [[green-house]] of the last century, the object of which was to preserve large plants of exotic evergreens during winter, such as the orange tribe, myrtles, sweet bays, pomegranates, and a few others. . . . The '''orangery''' was generally placed near to or adjoining the house, and its elevation corresponded in architectural design with that of the mansion. From this last circumstance has arisen a prejudice highly unfavorable to the culture of ornamental exotics, namely, that every plant-habitation attached to a mansion should be an architectural object, and consist of windows between stone piers or [[column]]s, with a regular cornice and entablature. By this mode of design, these buildings are rendered so gloomy as never to present a vigorous vegetation, and vivid glowing colors within; and as they are thus unfit for the purpose for which they are intended, it does not appear to us, as we have already observed at length (1590.), that they can possibly be in good taste. Perhaps the only way of reconciling the adoption of such apartments with good sense, is to consider them as lounges or [[promenade]] scenes for recreation in unfavorable weather, or for use during fêtes, in either of which cases they may be decorated with a few scattered tubs of orange-trees, camellias, or other evergreen coriaceous-leaved plants from a proper [[greenhouse]], and which will not be much injured by a temporary residence in such places, which, as Nicol has observed, ‘often look more like tombs or places of worship, than compartments for the reception of plants; and, we may add that the more modern sort look like a combination of shop-fronts, of which that at Claremont is a notable example.’ Sometimes structures of this sort are erected to conceal some local deformity, of which, as an instance, we may refer to that . . . erected by Todd, for J. Elliot, Esq., at Pimlico. ‘This building was constructed for the purpose of preventing the [[prospect]] of some offices from the dwelling-house. The architectural ornaments, and the roof, not being of glass, are points in the construction not generally to be recommended; but, as it was built for the purpose above mentioned, the objections were overruled. There are three circular stages to this house, which are made to take out at pleasure. The ceiling forms part of a circle, and the floor is paved with Yorkshire stone. It is fifty feet long, and thirteen feet six inches wide, and heated by one fire, the flue from which makes the circuit of the house under the floor.’ (''Plans of Green-Houses'', &c. p. 10)” [Fig. 9] <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 302–3)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY'''.—A house intended only for Orange trees may be opaque at the back, and even the roof, with lights only in front, provided the plants be set out during summer. In fact, so that the plants are preserved from the frost, they will do with scarcely any light during winter; and in many parts of the Continent, they are kept in a cellar.” <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:1844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth (1847), 404, fig. 104.]]<br /> *[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 404)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''ORANGERY''' is a [[green-house]] or [[conservatory]] devoted to the cultivation of the genus Citrus. The best plan for the construction of such a building is that erected at Knowsley Park, and thus described by the gardener, Mr. J. W. Jones. . . . [Fig. 10] <br /> :“‘Measured inside, this house is fourteen and a half yards long, eight broad, and six high. In the centre of the house are eight [[border]]s, in which the oranges, &c., are planted; these borders are all marked ''a''. The two [[border]]s against the back wall are sixteen inches broad, and three feet deep. The six borders immediately in the centre of the house are fourteen inches broad, and three feet deep; the paths are marked ''c'', the front [[wall]] ''d'', and the back one ''e''; ''p, p, p'', represent ornamental cast iron [[pillar]]s, which, besides supporting the roof, serve also to support light wire [[trellis]]es; there is one of these [[pillar]]s in each row for each rafter. The house is entirely heated by smoke flues, two furnaces being placed at ''f''. The dotted lines along the central path show the direction of the flues beneath, from the back to the front entrance, when they diverge, the one entering a raised flue, ''g'', on the right, the other also entering a raised flue on the left. These flues again cross the house at each end, and the smoke escapes by the back [[wall]]; it being found inconvenient to place the furnaces in any other situation. <br /> :“‘Two stoves immediately connected with each end of the '''orangery''' contain the collection of tropical plants bearing fruit. The communication between these stoves and the '''orangery''' is uninterrupted by any glass or other division, so that the orange tribe are subjected to nearly as high a temperature as the tropical plants. The central borders of the '''orangery''', as may be seen in the section, are raised a little above each other, as they recede from the front of the house. The oranges, citrons, &c., are all trained as [[espalier]]s; a light wire [[trellis]] being stretched from [[pillar]] to [[pillar]] parallel with the [[border]]s, and about eight feet high. The spaces, b, between the [[border]]s being about three feet wide, permit a person to walk along between the plants, for the purpose of pruning, watering, &c. These spaces are of the same depth as the [[border]]s, and were originally filled with tan; but part of this is now removed, and its place is filled with good soil. In this some fine climbing plants have been turned out, amongst which are several plants of ''Passiflora quadrangularis'', which bear an abundant crop of fine fruit. Besides these, there are also two fine plants of the beautiful new ''Gardenia Sherbourniae''. These, are other climbers, are trained up the rafters, &c., in such a manner as not to materially intercept the light from the orange. The great advantage of having the trees trained on the [[trellis]] system is, that every part of the tree is fully exposed to the light, and by planting them in rows one behind the other, a larger surface is obtained for the trees to cover than could be got by adopting any other plan; and consequently, for the space, a larger quantity of fruit is procured. The trees being hung loosely and irregularly to the wires, assume as natural an appearance as circumstances will permit, and the introduction here and there of large plants in [[pot]]s has a tendency to prevent formality. Two plants are placed in each [[border]].’—''Gard. Chron.''” <br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 776)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', revised and enlarged (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“'''OR’AN-GER-Y''', ''n''. [Fr. ''orangerie''.] <br /> :“A place for raising oranges; a [[plantation]] of orange-trees.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> ===Inscribed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1770.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Pimlico, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 813, fig. 570. <br /> <br /> File:1773.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Section and plan for a building to house orange trees, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 974, fig. 785a and b. <br /> <br /> File:1779.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Orangery at Baden Gardens, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', new ed. (1834), 174, fig. 130. <br /> <br /> File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 642, fig. 159. <br /> <br /> File:1844.jpg|[[George William Johnson]], “Orangery,” ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening,'' ed. David Landreth, (1847), 404, fig. 104.<br /> <br /> File:1645.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Orangery at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14. <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Associated===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:1900.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “General View of the Hot-houses, as seen across the American Garden,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 646, fig. 161.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> ===Attributed===<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century. <br /> <br /> File:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, March 13, 1803.<br /> <br /> File:1833.jpg|Lewis Reeves Gibbes, ''Sketch of c.1747 Drayton Hall Conservatory (Garden House)'' in the ''Lewis Reeves Gibbes Sketchbook'', part of the Drayton Papers Collection, c. 1845.<br /> <br /> File:0629.jpg|E. H. Pickering and Jack E. Boucher, ''Wye House Orangery'', c. 1933.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> [[Category: Keywords]]<br /> [[Category: Glass Houses]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36163 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-11T19:50:48Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria, Virginia between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation (1845–1848), near Powhatan, Virginia, was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] (1835–1845) in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 7], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 8]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 9]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The English collegiate style, is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE.<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36162 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-07T14:52:38Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation, near Powhatan, Virginia (1845–1848), was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 7], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 8]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 9]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The [[English style|English collegiate style]], is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE [[English style|ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE]].<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36161 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-07T14:50:52Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas).</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation, near Powhatan, Virginia (1845–1848), was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 7], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 8]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 9]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="RuralResidences"></div>[Davis, Alexander Jackson, 1837, introduction to ''Rural Residences'' (Davis 1837: n.p.)<ref>Davis 1837, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#RuralResidences_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“RURAL DESIGNS.<br /> :“ADVERTISEMENT.<br /> :“THE following series of designs has been prepared in compliance with the wishes of a few gentlemen who are desirous of seeing a better taste prevail in the Rural Architecture of this country.<br /> :“The bald and uninteresting aspect of our houses must be obvious to every traveller; and to those who are familiar with the [[picturesque]] Cottages and Villas of England, it is positively painful to witness here the wasteful and tasteless expenditure of money in building.<br /> :“Defects are felt, however, not only in the style of the house but in the want of connexion with its site,—in the absence of appropriate offices,—well disposed trees, [[shrubbery]], and vines,—which accessories give an inviting and habitable air to the place.<br /> :“The Greek Temple form, perfect in itself, and well adapted as it is to public edifices, and even to town mansions, is inappropriate for country residences, and yet it is the only style ever attempted in our more costly habitations. The [[English style|English collegiate style]], is for many reasons to be preferred. It admits of greater variety both of plan and outline;—is susceptible of additions from time to time, while its bay windows, oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts , give pictorial effect to the elevation.<br /> :“The principal object aimed at in these designs has been to give as much character to the exteriors as possible;—should they answer in any degree the purposes for which they were projected, the architect may submit, at a future period, designs for more expensive structures. . . .<br /> :“VILLA IN THE [[English style|ENGLISH COLLEGIATE STYLE]].<br /> :“This plan was designed for Robert Donaldson, Esq. of [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River, to whose taste and aid, in selecting designs, the public are mainly indebted for the present publication.<br /> :“The design is irregular, and suited to scenery of a [[picturesque]] character, and to an [[eminence]] commanding an extensive [[prospect]]. . . . ”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Introduction"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 12, 1838, letter to arrange a first meeting with Alexander Jackson Davis (quoted in Pierson 1978: 351)<ref>Pierson 1978, 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Introduction_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Dear Sir—<br /> :“I am at present busily engaged in preparing a work for the press on Landscape Gardening and Rural Residences with the view of improving if possible the taste in these matters in the United States.<br /> :“My friend, R. Donaldson, Esq., has informed me that he has mentioned my name to you and that you were so kind as to offer to show me any work, views or plans in your possession which might be of any service to me.<br /> :“I shall probably be in town on Saturday morning next when I shall have the pleasure of calling up on you and be glad to avail myself of your very kind offer.<br /> :“Yours truly,<br /> :“[[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Recommendation"></div>Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1843, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, concerning Davis’s work on designs for the campus<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Letter from Robert Donaldson to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc03-10/unc03-10.html December 16, 1843], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A4CMVKKW view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Recommendation_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[[Blithewood]] Decr. 16th 1843<br /> :“Dear Sir<br /> :“Your favor of the 28th came to hand in due time and I have since communicated with Mr Davis. He is ready to make you a visit ‘about the middle of next month,’ for which purpose, remit, if you please, a Draft for $100 in my [power] upon some New York Bank and I will forthwith give him directions to proceed. The $100 will barely pay his traveling expenses, though he is willing for that sum to go on & stay three days, during which time he will make any pencil Drawings of Buildings, [[gate]]s, &c &c that you may desire. But if more elaborate working drawings & specifications are required he will charge accordingly & as you may agree on before using them. Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may surprise the restraining taste of another.<br /> :“There is no room for attempting [[Landscape Gardening]], about the College Buildings. All that can be done, in my opinion, is to trim the defective limbs of trees, remove the failing trees, grade the roads & cover them (if it can be got) with gravel, remove the surface stone from the grounds & enrich them so as to get grass to grow (at least in the more open spaces). The rears of the adjoining Lots to be excluded from sight by planting a thick belt of trees along the boundary of the campus. This belt may vary in width & be composed of any trees, most likely to you—viza. Willows, Elms, Thorns, &c.<br /> :“Buy all the stable manure which you can get & mix it in alternate layers with swamp muck or vegetable mould, of which I think there is a deposit South East of the Colleges, and this compost will answer admirably for top dressing the campus and for planting trees & shrubs.<br /> :“Substantial [[wall]]s of enclosure & handsome [[Gate]]s, and good roads of approach to the Village is all that I would recommend to be attempted until you are ready to proceed with my favorite plan of a [[Botanic Garden]] &c about which I intend to write more fully.<br /> :“Unless I am prevented by something unforeseen, I intend to visit North Carolina in March and as I shall have occasion to go into Chatham County, I may deviate from my route, so far as to go through C Hill, if you should think that I can be of any service in promoting the plans of improvement in what you are engaged.<br /> :“Yours very truly,<br /> :“Robert Donaldson<br /> :“Gov. Swain<br /> :“Chapel Hill<br /> :“P S The Cedar tree or any evergreen will answer well for the belt of trees, but they are difficult to transplant”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Davis, Alexander Jackson, April 17, 1844, letter to David L. Swain (1801–1868), president of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from A. J. Davis to David L. Swain,” [https://docsouth.unc.edu/unc/unc02-33/unc02-33.html April 17, 1844], University of North Carolina Papers (#40005), University Archives, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/L9YB4X3C view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“. . . .The Committee adopted my plans, and seemed disposed to carry through the proposed alterations in the South Building, such as <u>adding a Dome</u>, and <u>fitting up the attic</u>: <u>Working Drawings</u> for the Dormitories, and also drawings for the South building I engaged to make for one hundred dollars, in addition to what I have already received for traveling expenses, on receiving instructions from you to that effect with intelligence of the work being in progress. At my leisure I intend to add a plan for your botanic garden. Have you seen, and what do you think of Dr. Dewey’s Discourse on Slavery? If you have not seen it in the papers, I will send it to you in pamphlet.<br /> :“After leaving you, I passed a very pleasant time at the Governor’s in Raleigh, the weather being fine and admitting of some rambles with the young ladies on sketching expeditions. . . .”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Villa"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d. [after 1845 when Davis designed a house for William Coventry Waddell], draft of an entry for ''Rural Residences'' or another uncompleted publication<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A152010#page/1/mode/1up “Suburban Gothic Villa”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DSJ49Y7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Villa_cite|Back up to HIstory]]<br /> :“SUBURBAN GOTHIC VILLA<br /> :“IT is an object of this work to exhibit at least one illustration in each of the several prominent styles of building, with hints on construction, so that proprietors (their own landscape gardeners) consulting it, may determine upon that most fitting their particular site, as well as bias of mind in association of thought, and account of accommodation. We therefore give two subjects upon suburban dwellings: the one more simple and economical than the other, but each exhibiting features characterising the pointed (gothic or [[picturesque]]) manner of building. The [[View]] and plan of Mr. Waddell’s house is sufficiently explanatory without minute description in words. It stands upon high ground south of the Croton reservoir, on the west side of the fifth [[avenue]], between 37th and 38th streets overlooking the greater part of N.Y. island,—the [[view]] from the [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]] being very extensive, commanding the bay, Staten Island, Long island, West Chester, and the Jersey shore. The grade of the [[avenue]] at this site being the natural surface of the ground, has enable the owner to preserve several of the ancient trees, which so much adorn it, rendering it thereby a spot unequalled in a city of so much change as N.Y. The [[park]] in which it is situated, with its carriage road, lined with stately elms and black walnuts, was formerly the residence of the late Wm. Ogden, Esq., who from his lofty seclusion, looked upon the distant city, as a place only to be reached by great exertion, and some travel, little dreaming that the city would come to him. The Vth [[avenue]] commences at the Washington parade ground and terminates at Harlem river. No [[avenue]] in the city affords finer sites for building, salubrity of air, or extensive [[prospect]].<br /> :“Description.<br /> :“Construction.—The Great tower, is 10 ft in diameter, containing a spiral stair way, leading to a [[prospect]] room at the summit. The closet turret is 4ft. The S. gable presents corbelled turrets, with a finial on top. Below is a semi octagon bay window, glazed on 3 sides, with stained glass. The oval window of 2nd story, like all windows of this name, is corbelled in the under part, and it projects a semi-hexagon from the wall. An oriel window may be circular or polygonal. The projection on the left, flanked by square turrets, is part of a picture gallery. Beyond this is a [[Greenhouse|green house]], and gardener’s cottage. On the right is seen the verge board gable of the coach house, and beyond is part of the great distributing reservoir of the croton. The material for such a building may be brick, laid open, or hollow in the walls, and stuccoed in imitation of marble or other stone. The cornice may be of wood, painted to match. Most of the trimmings, such as battlements copings, window hoods, water table and steps, are of sand stone. The roof is covered with slate.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Advertisement"></div>Davis, Alexander Jackson, n.d., draft text for an advertisement<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151968#page/1/mode/1up “Draft of Advertisement for A.J. Davis’s Architecture Firm, with Notice of Sale of 6.25 Acres of Land on the S. Orange Mountain on Verso”] (Manuscript, n.d.), Alexander Jackson Davis collection, 1837-1888, Series 2. Notes, drafts, and drawings, New-York Historical Society, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TRA28KYP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Advertisement|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Practical Architecture.<br /> :“Designs and specifications, with working details for building.<br /> :“City and Country.<br /> :“Store fronts, Banks, ~Churches,~ Dwellings, Schools.<br /> :“Also, [[Landscape gardening]] and furniture.<br /> :“Alex. J. Davis., Architect, N.Y. No. 203 West 11th St.<br /> :“From long study and extensive practice in construction and the accumulation of plans, books, models and prints, he is enabled to exhibit illustrations in varied style, and point to executed works; which may be visited by those wishing to build, comment upon and improve, for convenience, fitness and economy; see the ‘House of Mansions’ Murray Hill; E.C. Litchfield’s Prospect Park; Kent’s, Bayside; S. Wilde’s, Montclair; Geo. Merrit, Tarrytown. Terms for full professional services, five per ct. on given estimate. Without superintendence, three per cent on probable cost. Set of drawings with specifications to obtain an estimate 1 per cent. <br /> :“Drawings when taken separately, Medium class of buildings, <br /> :“Principal floor plan— 15.00 Section showing interior 10.00<br /> :“Elevation principal front— 15.00 Upper story plans— 5.00<br /> :“Basement Plan— 5.00 Specification in detail— 15.00<br /> :“BUILDING COMMITTY [''sic'']”<br /> :“Plans examined & errors exposed in writing.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderJacksonDavis A Digitization of Davis’s ''Rural Residences'']<br /> <br /> [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/davs/hd_davs.htm Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892)]<br /> <br /> [https://tclf.org/pioneer/alexander-jackson-davis The Cultural Landscape Foundation]<br /> <br /> [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_3460564/ Finding Aid for A. J. Davis papers at Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University]<br /> <br /> [https://web.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/davisaj.pdf Finding Aid for the Alexander Jackson Davis Papers in the New York Public Library]<br /> <br /> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/davis/ Finding Aid] and [http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A151586 Digitized documents from the Alexander Jackson Davis papers] at the New York Historical Society<br /> <br /> [http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/col114.html Finding Aid for Alexander Jackson Davis papers at Winterthur]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: People|Davis, Alexander Jackson]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Blithewood&diff=36160 Blithewood 2019-06-07T14:10:15Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>Situated on a bluff overlooking the Hudson River, '''Blithewood''' brought together some of the most famous architects and landscape gardeners of early nineteenth-century America under the patronage of Robert and Susan Gaston Donaldson. Between 1835 and 1853, American and European publications described, praised, and illustrated the farm, pleasure grounds, and ornamental gardens of the property. Plans and woodcut reproductions of the house, gardens, and outbuildings inspired patrons of rural estates and shaped the language of American picturesque landscapes.<br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> '''Alternate Names:''' Mill Hill; Annandale; Annandale-on-Hudson; Blithe Wood; Blythe Wood; Blithwood; Blythewood<br/><br /> '''Site Dates:''' 1795 to present<br/><br /> '''Site Owner(s):''' Barent van Benthuysen (1725–1795?); John and Alida Livingston Armstrong (1795–1801); John and Mary Johnston Allen (1801–1810); John Cox Stevens and Maria Cambridge Livingston (1810–1833); John Church Cruger (1833–1835); Robert and Susan Gaston Donaldson (1835–1853); John and Margaret Johnston Bard (1853–1897); Saint Stephen’s College (1897–1899); Captain Andrew Christian and Frances Hunter Zabriskie (1899–1916); Frances Hunter Zabriskie (1916–1951); Bard College (1951–present)<br/><br /> '''Associated People:''' Walter Elder (gardener), George Kidd (gardener), [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] (landscape gardener), [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (architect), Hans Jacob Ehlers (landscape gardener)<br/><br /> '''Location:''' Dutchess County, NY<br/><br /> '''Condition:''' altered<br/><br /> [https://goo.gl/maps/Md6EfdMf5352 View on Google Maps]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:1927.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.]]<br /> Between 1795 and 1836 the property that would come to be known as Blithewood exchanged hands several times. Several of its owners were connected by birth or by marriage to the Livingston and Armstrong families. In 1795, the soldier and politician John Armstrong (1758–1843) and his wife Alida Livingston Armstrong (1761–1822) purchased a 125-acre estate, which they named Mill Hill. The Armstrongs built a Federal-style house on the property and developed the land as a farm. John and Mary Johnston Allen bought the estate in 1801, which they called Annandale after the Scottish ancestral home of Mary’s family. In 1810, John Cox Stevens (1785–1857), best known as the founder of the New York Yacht Club, and his wife Maria Cambridge Livingston (1799–1865) acquired the property. Stevens was later credited with planting some of the most impressive trees on the estate. <span id="Praise_cite"></span>One 1856 article went so far as to call his trees “a successful instance of planting attaining perfection in the lifetime of a single individual” ([[#Praise|view text]]). In 1833, the lawyer John Church Cruger purchased Mill Hill and the adjacent peninsula, on which he built his own country [[seat]], known as Cruger’s Island. Two years later, in 1835, Cruger sold the southern part of his property to the banker Robert Donaldson (1800–1872) and his wife Susan Gaston (1808–1866), who renamed the estate Blithewood. <br /> <br /> Upon purchasing the estate, Donaldson hired the architect [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (1803–1892) to renovate the existing house as an ornamental cottage, and design a new gatehouse, later used as a gardener’s house. [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] and Donaldson collaborated closely on the design, and the two would go on to create other outbuildings for Blithewood including a spring house, an Egyptian revival toolhouse, assorted [[picturesque]] [[Seat|seats]], and a [[hermitage]].<ref>For the collaboration between Donaldson and Davis, see Jean Bradley Anderson, ''Carolinian on the Hudson: The Life of Robert Donaldson'' (Raleigh: Historic Preservation Foundation of North Carolina, 1996), 169.</ref> Their collaborations are well illustrated by [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis’s]] many surviving ink and watercolor preparatory drawings [Fig.1]. In 1841, [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] negotiated a joint purchase of the Sawkill Creek, which ran between Blithewood and its neighboring estate, Louise Livingston’s [[Montgomery Place]], to ensure that the southern border of his property would not be marred by “the countless vexations & annoyances of Factories.”<ref>For the negotiations between Donaldson, Livingston, and John C. Cruger, who owned the Sawkill property, see Anderson 1996, 173–75.</ref> That same year, Blithewood received lavish praise in the first edition of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', a description which was quickly reprinted abroad in respected journals like [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|John Claudius Loudon’s]] ''The Gardener's Magazine''.<ref>Anonymous, “Review of A. J. Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 7 (1841): 422.</ref> <span id="MalteseVases_cite"></span>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] described “delightful [[Walk|walks]] leading in easy curves to [[Rustic style|rustic]] [[Seat|seats]], [[summerhouse|summer houses]], etc. disposed in secluded spots, or to openings affording the most lovely [[Prospect|prospects]],” and “Maltese [[Vase/Urn|vases]]” that were “disposed in such a manner as to give a classic air to the grounds” ([[#MalteseVases|view text]]). The [[Rustic style|rustic]], [[picturesque]] aesthetic was complemented by the gothic-influenced “English cottage style” of Donaldson’s early additions.<ref>Reprinted in “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Cultivator: A Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 2, no. 3 (March 1845): 83.</ref> <br /> <br /> [[File:2198.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Printed by Gavit & Co., Albany, NY, “Prince Albert”, in Luther Tucker, ed. ''Cultivator'' 2, n.s. (1845): pl. opp. p. 249.]]<br /> A working farm on the property provided food for the estate and space for experimental animal husbandry. In 1845, the agricultural journal the ''Cultivator'' published a print of Donaldson’s short-horn bull Prince Albert, probably based on a drawing by [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] [Fig. 2].<ref>“Our Plate—Mr. Donaldson’s Farm,” ''The Cultivator: A Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 2, no. 8 (August 1845): 249. An earlier article published in the same journal also mentions Prince Albert. “The State Fair at Poughkeepsie,” ''The Cultivator: A Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 1, no. 10 (October 1844): 314. For an excerpt of the correspondence discussing this drawing, see Anderson 1996, 172.</ref> The bull looms over the new gardener’s cottage and hexagonal gatehouse at Blithewood, uniting the agricultural, horticultural, and social functions of the estate. In 1848, a cow named Kaatskill who had already gained celebrity in 1844, was depicted in the ''New England Farmer'' standing in front of a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cascade]], which evokes the dramatic topography of the Sawkill Creek between Blithewood and [[Montgomery Place]].<ref>“Kaatskill, A Native Cow,” ''The New England Farmer'' 1, no. 1 (December 9, 1848): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/V7C8TL6Q view on Zotero]. For Kaatskill’s 1844 prize at the New York State Agricultural Society exhibition in Poughkeepsie, see Franco̧is Guènon and John Stuart Skinner, ''[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t5bc4g38k A Treatise on Milch Cows, Whereby the Quality and Quantity of Milk Which Any Cow Will Give May Be Accurately Determined by Observing Natural Marks or External Indications Alone; the Length of Time She Will Continue to Give Milk, &c.]'', 20th ed. (New York: McElrath, 1853), 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W6VV2US8 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:1928.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Map of Blithewood,” c. 1840s.]]<br /> The Donaldsons began designing and planting an ornamental garden at Blithewood in 1844. <span id="Visitor_cite"></span>A visitor in 1845 described how the topography of the site required “terracing the eastern declivity of a hill” with “substantial stone [[Wall|walls]],” and went on to marvel at the “extensive [[conservatory]] and grape-house” and “rich profusion of flowers and [[shrubbery]]. . . .and various [[Labyrinth|labyrinthine]] [[Walk|walks]] and shady [[Bower|bowers]]” ([[#Visitor|view text]]). A year later, an article in the March 1846 edition of the ''American Agriculturist'' described a finished garden “in the [[geometric style]], [. . . .] concealed by [[Hedge|hedges]] and [[shrubbery]]. The upper plateau is devoted to fruits and flowers, and the [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]] are given up to vegetables. The [[Greenhouse|green-house]] and fruit houses, 90 feet long, are so arranged as to present a very handsome architectural appearance. Besides a great variety of foreign grapes, the fig, apricot, nectarine, plum, and peach, are grown in these houses as [[Espalier|espaliers]], and dwarf standards.” [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis’s]] undated watercolor plan of the property differentiates [[Wood/Woods|wooded areas]] from open [[Lawn|lawns]], and indicates several different types of [[Drive|drives]] and paths through the use of color and outlining [Fig. 3]. Labelled elements include a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs.<br /> <br /> [[File:2199.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “Picture Window,” n.d.]]<br /> The [[picturesque]] ideal that motivated Donaldson and his collaborators also prompted the inclusion of a unique architectural element in the picture gallery that was added to the main house in 1845. Amid the painted portraits and landscapes of the Donaldson art collection, visitors marveled at “the ''Landscape Window'', a novelty introduced by Mr. D., which quite took us by surprise. It is an oval plate glass, 3 by 4½ feet, inserted in the wall, and surrounded by rich mouldings, in imitation of a picture frame. <span id="PictureWindow_cite"></span>One feels that the natural beauties here revealed surpass even the glowing compositions [of the paintings that surround it]” ([[#PictureWindow|view text]]). This self-conscious presentation of the grounds, the Hudson, and the mountains beyond as if they were elements of a skillfully composed painting [Fig. 4] blurred the line between art and nature. At times the picturesque landscape appeared unkempt. <span id="Mow_cite"></span>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] implied in 1847 that the [[Lawn|lawns]] at Blithewood were not “well kept” when he advised Donaldson to “mow regularly every fortnight” ([[#Mow|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:2201.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, F. Walsh, Water tower in the form of an Italian campanile, in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturalist'' 3, n.s. (January-December 1853): p. 129]]<br /> Supported by Donaldson’s wealth, the gardeners at Blithewood were able to experiment with novel techniques and share their findings. One gardener in particular, named George Kidd, was especially prolific in this regard. <span id="GeorgeKidd_cite"></span>He submitted a letter about his success growing potted grapes in [[Greenhouse|greenhouses]] ([[#GeorgeKidd|view text]]) and another about [[Kitchen garden|kitchen gardens]] to the Horticulturist in 1848, both with a practical eye toward localizing garden theory and practice for the colder climate of the Hudson.<ref>Geo. Kidd, “A Hint on Kitchen Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 10 (April 1849): 471–472, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9G2UB2XS view on Zotero].</ref> Another one of his communications, published in 1849-1850, shared new techniques for cultivating roses.<ref>Geo. Kidd, “Domestic Notices: Budding Roses,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): 246, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z55KTVCE view on Zotero]. At some point after his employment at Blithewood, Kidd left New York for Columbus, Georgia, where he continued to contribute short articles on gardening techniques to publications. Geo. Kidd, “Editor’s Table: Dear Sir,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7 (1857): 390, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZRTIIEAV view on Zotero]; Geo. Kidd, “The Scuppernong,” ''The Plantation'' 1, no. 12 (April 9, 1870): 180, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SLRJNBDP view on Zotero]. It is not clear if he is the same George Kidd mentioned in relation to the London-based retirement charity known as the Gardeners’ Royal Benevolent Institution. G. Bond, “Gardeners’ Royal Benevolent Institution,” ''The Gardener’s Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette'', no. 29 (July 21, 1855): 487, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D8WFN6W7 view on Zotero].</ref> Donaldson himself helped spread the knowledge he gained transforming Blithewood. His short letter to the ''Horticulturist'', published in 1853, describes the design and hydraulic engineering of a forty-five-foot-tall “tower in the form of an Italian campanile” at Blithewood [Fig. 5]. <span id="Campanile_cite"></span>This disguised water tower, which was filled by the Sawkill Creek, supplied water for “irrigation, the cattle yard, stable, the garden, the house and [[Fountain|fountains]]” and served “also as a [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]]” ([[#Campanile|view text]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:1907.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Implement in use at Blithewood for cleaning gravel roads,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) p. 532, fig. 20.]]<br /> Thanks to such articles, published in magazines like ''The Cultivator'' and the ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'', mechanical and architectural prototypes employed at Blithewood were publicized in the American northeast and adapted for new sites and contexts. One 1845 article described a novel plow designed to cut [[picturesque]] [[Walk|walks]] exactly three-and-a-half feet wide ([[#Visitor|view text]]) [Fig. 6]. While the device was purportedly first used within the region at William B. Astor’s villa, gardeners learned of it in articles about Blithewood. <span id="Greenhouse_cite"></span>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] published a view and plan of the [[greenhouse]] at Blithewood in an 1846 issue of the ''Horticulturist'' ([[#Greenhouse|view text]]) [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]]. <span id="Brighton_cite"></span>Two years later, Samuel Bigelow (1807–after 1898) relied on these descriptions and drawings when he designed and built a new [[greenhouse]] “upon the plan of one at Blithewood” at his estate in Brighton, Massachusetts ([[#Brighton|view text]]).<ref>This is the so-called Faneuil mansion, which Bigelow had purchased a decade earlier in 1839. John Perkins Cushing Winship, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ewHYJmrF3rYC&lpg=PA51&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=true Historical Brighton: An Illustrated History of Brighton and Its Citizens]'', vol. 1 (Boston, MA: George A. Warren, 1899), 51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SU8RTWHW/q/historical%20brighton view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> By 1848, Blithewood was so firmly established in the circles of American [[landscape gardening]] that writers could use it as a point of reference when describing less well-known estates.<ref>Horace William Shaler Cleveland, “Foreign Notices: Notes from Our Foreign Correspondent,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 5 (November 1848): 244, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FSXEG4M7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Swede_cite"></span>It also gained international exposure thanks to publications like the 1853 ''Homes of the New World'' by Swedish writer Frederika Bremer (1801–1865), in which she recounted her visit to the estate with [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] in 1849 ([[#Swede|view text]]). During their explorations of the surrounding area, visitors like Bremer were astonished by a false ruin on John Church Cruger’s peninsula to the north of Blithewood, known as “Cruger’s folly,” which incorporated real fragments of Mayan sculpture.<ref>Cruger had funded an expedition to the Yucatan peninsula led by John Lloyd Stephens, the Special Ambassador to Central America, and Frederick Catherwood, a prominent artist and architect who designed the greenhouse at the neighboring Montgomery Place. In exchange for his sponsorship, Cruger received a group of Mayan stone sculptures discovered in the ruins at Kabah and Uxmal, which he installed in his folly sometime after 1842. In 1919, Cruger’s daughter Cornelia sold the authentic Mayan sculptures to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Herbert J. Spinden, “The Stephens Sculptures from Yucatan,” ''Natural History: The Journal of the American Museum'' 20, no. 4 (1920): 381, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RZE3ABJU view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] use of Blithewood as an exemplar of good taste in landscape gardening also unintentionally marked it as a target for his own critics. Most vocal among these was the German landscape gardener Hans Jacob Ehlers, who worked for a number of prominent garden patrons in the Hudson Valley. When Ehlers became embroiled in a dispute with Cora and Thomas Barton, owners of the neighboring [[Montgomery Place]], he attacked [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] credentials as an arbiter of taste by singling out his illustrations and descriptions of Blithewood. <span id="Ehlers_cite"></span>Ehlers criticized the design of the estate, asserting that trees surrounded the main house as if it were “a privy” the gardener sought to hide, that the [[Walk|walks]] resembled “ditches, hardly fit for cattle to walk in,” and, most importantly, that “there are at Blithwood [''sic''] no points ''accessible'' and ''decent'', from which a [[picturesque]] [[View/Vista|view]] can be obtained” ([[#Ehlers|view text]]). In Ehlers’s view, [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis’s]] illustration of the property [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]], selected by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as a frontispiece for his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', was a dishonest, composite image that combined multiple points of view into a composition more [[picturesque]] than any single [[View/Vista|vista]] on the property. Ehlers’s skeptical criticism of the estate and its depictions demonstrates how Blithewood became central to disputes about the veracity and taste of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] didactic illustrations.<br /> <br /> Donaldson sold Blithewood to John Bard in 1853, one year after [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] death, and moved to an 1820s Greek revival mansion at Barrytown known as Edgewater. John, the grandson of the famous physician [[Samuel Bard]] of [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], renamed the estate Annandale (or Annandale-on-Hudson), and within a decade of his purchase he made several major alterations to the property. In 1856, he donated part of the grounds to found an Episcopalian seminary named St. Stephen’s College. On the land that he retained, he constructed new “[[Conservatory|conservatories]] and forcing houses” and planned a much larger residence ([[#Praise|view text]]). In 1899, Captain Andrew C. and Frances Hunter Zabriskie bought the property, demolished the Donaldson house, and built a neoclassical mansion. Around the year 1903, the Zabriskies commissioned Francis Hoppin (1867–1941) to design a new Italianate garden called Blithewood in homage to Donaldson’s earlier [[picturesque]] estate. The property was acquired by Bard College in 1951.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> <div id="Fig_7"></div>[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'' (1841), frontispiece.]]<br /> *<div id="MalteseVases"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1841, describing the landscape at Blithewood (Downing 1841: 23)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''[https://archive.org/details/treatiseontheory41down/page/23 A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture]'', 1st ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1841), 23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MalteseVases_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“''Blithewood'', the [[seat]] of R. Donaldson, Esq. near Barrytown on the Hudson river, is one of the most tasteful villa residences in the Union. The [[lawn]] or [[park]], which commands a [[View/Vista|view]] of surpassing beauty, is studded with groups of fine forest trees, beneath which are delightful [[Walk|walks]] leading in easy curves to [[Rustic style|rustic]] [[Seat|seats]], [[Summerhouse|summer houses]], etc. disposed in secluded spots, or to openings affording the most lovely [[Prospect|prospects]] [Fig.7]. In various situations near the house and upon the [[lawn]], Maltese [[Vase/Urn|vases]] exquisitely sculptured in stone, are disposed in such a manner as to give a classic air to the grounds. The entrance lodge, built in the English cottage style, is exceedingly neat and appropriate, and the whole place may be considered quite a model of elegant arrangement; such indeed as may fairly come within the reach of numbers of our wealthy proprietors, did they possess the ''taste'', as well as the means, for this species of refined enjoyment.”<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:0381.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "The Cataract at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' 2nd ed. (1844), opp. p. 336. fig. 38.]]<br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, description of Blithewood in the second edition of Downing’s ''Treatise'' (Downing 1844: 35–36)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''[https://archive.org/details/treatiseontheory00down_2/page/n49 A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture]'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), 35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D4TQS59B view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“''Blithewood'', the [[seat]] of R. Donaldson, Esq. near Barrytown on the Hudson river, is one of the most charming villa residences in the Union. The natural scenery here, is nowhere surpassed in its enchanting union of softness and dignity—the river being four miles wide, its placid bosom broken only by islands and gleaming sails, and the horizon grandly closing in with the tall blue summits of the distant Kaatskills. The smiling, gently varied [[lawn]] is studded with groups and masses of fine forest and ornamental trees, beneath which are [[Walk|walks]] leading in easy curves to [[Rustic style|rustic]] [[Seat|seats]], [[Summerhouse|summer houses]] placed in secluded spots, or to openings affording the most lovely [[Prospect|prospects]] [Fig. 7]. In various situations near the house and upon the [[lawn]], sculptured [[Vase/Urn|vases]] of Maltese stone are also disposed in such a manner as to give a refined and classic air to the grounds. <br /> :“As a pendant to this graceful landscape, there is within the grounds scenery of an opposite character, equally wild and [[picturesque]]—a fine, bold stream, fringed with woody banks, and dashing over several rocky [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cascades]], thirty or forty feet in height, and falling, altogether, a hundred feet in half a mile [Fig. 8]. There are also, within the grounds, a pretty gardener’s lodge, in the rural cottage style, and a new entrance lodge by the [[Gate/Gateway|gate]], in the bracketted mode; in short, we can recall no pace of moderate extent, where nature, and tasteful art, are both so prodigal of beauty, and so harmonious in effect.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Visitor"></div>Anonymous, August 1845, “Our Plate—Mr. Donaldson’s Farm” (''Cultivator'' 2: 249)<ref>“Our Plate—Mr. Donaldson’s Farm” 1845, 249, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HSXIR4RS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Visitor_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Few places that we have ever seen exhibit such marked evidence of refined taste, and correct appreciations of rural beauty, as BLITHEWOOD. The spot itself is one possessing great natural attractions, and these have been heightened and improved to the greatest possible advantage. It is a promontory on the east bank of the Hudson, embracing the greatest variety of magnificent landscape scenery of any spot of the same extent within our knowledge. The river here is of unusual width, and there are several pretty islands nearly opposite, by which the force of the current is so broken that the water has the placid quietness of a sheltered [[lake]], and reflects with mirror-like vividness, every object on its banks, or floating on its surface. On the west side of the river, a little to the north-west, the Kaatskill group of mountains appear in all their majestic beauty, forming a grand, but varied and [[picturesque]] outline to the view for a considerable extent in that direction.<br /> :“The mansion of Mr. Donaldson, constitutes the frontispiece to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing’s]] elegant work on Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture. Representations of several of the other buildings, as well as various sketches of the scenery at Blithewood are also given in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing’s]] work, to which we would refer for a more particular description. The scenery in the background of our engraving, is copied from nature—the building on the right being the [[Gate/Gateway|gate]]-lodge, and the one on the left the gardener’s cottage—the farm-yard building buildings with a grove in the rear, showing between.<br /> :“The credit of introducing to this country the Rural Gothic, or pointed style of architecture, belongs to Mr. Donaldson. The first specimen of this style was the gardener’s cottage above-mentioned, which, for its taste and simplicity, excels anything of the kind we have ever seen. Mr. Donaldson was also, we believe, the first to introduce what is called the Bracketted style, several pretty specimens of which are shown among his numerous buildings.<br /> :“Mr. D.’s garden has been but lately laid out—the present being the first season that the principal portion of it has been appropriated to plants. To secure a favorable site, he has been under the necessity of [[Terrace|terracing]] the eastern declivity of a hill, and forming a soil somewhat artificially. The [[Terrace|terraces]] are formed in a beautiful manner, supported by the most substantial stone [[Wall|walls]]. An extensive [[conservatory]] and grape-house has just been erected, in the most tasteful style. A rich profusion of flowers and [[shrubbery]] adorn the garden, and various [[Labyrinth|labyrinthine]] [[Walk|walks]] and shady [[Bower|bowers]].<br /> :“The soil of Mr. Donaldson’s farm has been much improved, and its productiveness vastly increased, since he came into possession of it, about nine years ago. His outside [[Fence|fences]] are mostly stone [[Wall|walls]], laid in the most systematic and durable manner. His wet grounds, of which there is a considerable portion, have been mostly under-drained, and latterly he has commenced subsoiling which promises to be of great benefit, particularly to the tenacious soil. A piece of oats on some of the under-drained land, is about the best we have seen this season. His barn is constructed on a convenient plan; his barnyard is well protected by sheds, and is well contrived for making and saving manure. His young cattle are not pastured by soiled. They are fed in the sheds and yard, mostly with mowed grass, and are allowed the run of a small shady lot. They are in good order, an appear healthy and thrifty.<br /> :“We saw here a superior machine for cleaning [[Walk|walks]], invented by Mr. Donaldson. Its general form, is that of the frame of a wheel-barrow. Two bars of iron, representing the legs, reach down to the ground, and attached to the bottom of them is a transverse bar of steel, about two and a half inches wide, one edge of which is made sharp. Three or four inches of the lower end of the upright bars are also made sharp, in order to cut the sides of the [[walk]]. The handles are held by a man, and the machine is drawn by a horse. A space three-and-a-half feet wide is shaved at once, the man at the handles regulating the working of the implement so as effectually to cut up the weeds and grass. It is to be recommended for its simplicity and efficiency.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Anonymous, March 1846, “Farm and Villa of Mr. Donaldson” (''American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3: 88–90)<ref>A. B. Allen, ed., “Farm and Villa of Mr. Donaldson,” American Agriculturist 5, no. 3 (March 1846): 88–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RGGDSZCC view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“FARM AND VILLA OF MR. DONALDSON.<br /> :“WITHIN the past ten years, there has been quite a revolution in the Northern States with respect to country life; it is now rapidly assuming here the rank it has so long held in Great Britain, and in some parts of the Continent. In England, especially where the love of rural pleasures pervades all classes, the most affluent and noble of the land seem to consider their town houses as merely temporary accommodations during the whirl of the fashionable season, and the sitting of Parliament, after which they fondly return to their ancestral castles, where for many generations all that wealth, taste, and skill could contribute, have been accumulating to make their homes desirable. [. . . .] <br /> :“Blithewood, the residence of Robert Donaldson, Esq. is situated in Dutchess County, on the Hudson river, about a hundred miles above this city. It was formerly the [[seat]] of General Armstrong, of Revolutionary memory, who was Secretary of War under Mr. Madison. [. . . .]<br /> [[File:0385.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Gate-Lodge,” in ''American Agriculturist'' 5, no.3 (March 1846): p. 88, fig. 24.]]<br /> :“To visit Blithewood, we landed at Barrytown, two miles below, and in approaching it, the gatehouse or lodge [Fig. 9] was the first object tha[t] attracted our attention. It is a hexagonal brick building, stuccoed and colored in imitation of freestone; and strikingly placed on a [[Terrace/Slope|terrace]] in the midst of a group of forest trees, it is no less ornamental than useful. An excellent macademized road leads through the estate from the lodge to the mansion.<br /> [[File:1887.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “Gardener's House” in A. B. Allen, ''American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3, (March 1846): p. 88, fig. 25.]]<br /> :“Soon after entering the [[Gate/Gateway|gate]], we lose sight of all boundary [[Wall|walls]] and [[Fence|fences]], and pass the gardener’s house [Fig. 10]. This is in the Cottage Gothic style, and with its pointed and projecting gables, and miniature [[porch]], covered with honeysuckles and Boussault roses, it has a very neat and pretty appearance.<br /> :“Approaching the house, the road winds among white pines, through which may be seen the graceful [[Terrace/Slope|slopes]] of the grounds, and the noble masses of [[Wood/Woods|wood]]. The [[View/Vista|view]] which is disclosed, as you sweep round to the river front, assures you that nature has been lavish of her beauties here. Our readers will get a very good idea of the [[View/Vista|view]] presented at this point by looking at the frontispiece to Downing’s Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture.<br /> :“The Kaatskill mountains, on the opposite side of the river, reach a height of nearly 4,000 feet, and the range may be seen for fifty miles, clothed in the enchanting hues that distance ever lends to bold mountain scenery. The unusual width of the river here—the [[Wood/Woods|wooded]] isles—the promontories, with their quiet bays—the spires of the neighboring villages—the Mountain House—all combine to form a landscape of extraordinary attraction. The scenery along the Sawkill, which forms the southern boundary of this place, reminds one of Trenton Falls. The stream descends in [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cascades]] and rapids, 150 feet in a quarter of a mile. A [[lake]] has been formed about half way up its course, through the estate, the placid waters of which contrast finely with the rushing [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataracts]].<br /> :“By an overshot water wheel which could be made ornamental, and a simple hydraulic machine, a portion of the water of this stream might be forced up to the adjoining height, and thence conducted to the house, garden, stables, and cattle yard; it might also be made to irrigate the grass land, and to form fish [[Pond|ponds]], and ''[[Jet|jets d’eau]]''.<br /> :“The dwelling house is 160 feet above the river. It is a low, but most commodious structure, embosomed in trees, stuccoed and colored in imitation of freestone, with a deep [[Veranda|verandah]] on three sides, and a boldly projecting and richly bracketted roof; and whatever may have been its original plan, it has been so enlarged and transformed by its present owner, as to present a most inviting aspect. The interior is very tastefully arranged, but on this we cannot enlarge, and confine ourselves to a description of the picture room—an apartment on the river side of the house, 16 by 32 feet, of a high pitch, and receiving its strongest light through an ornamented sash in the ceiling. In this choice, though limited collection, there are the Picnic Party in Epping Forest, by C. R. Leslie; a Landscape, by John Both; the Billet Doux, by Terburg; the Lute Lesson, by Gaspar Netcher; a most lovely Madonna and Child, supposed to be by Luini; the Physician and Invalid, by the elder Palamedes; the Benevolent Family, a highly finished painting, by a Flemish Master; together with some portraits by Leslie, and some carefully made copies of well known pictures. But more striking than all these is the ''Landscape Window'', a novelty introduced by Mr. D., which quite took us by surprise. It is an oval plate glass, 3 by 4½ feet, inserted in the wall, and surrounded by rich mouldings, in imitation of a picture frame. One feels that the natural beauties here revealed surpass even the glowing compositions.<br /> [[File:0380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Ravine Walk” in A. B. Allen, ed. ''The American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3, (March 1846): p. 89, fig. 26.]]<br /> :“[[Walk|Walks]] lead away in the most alluring manner, for two miles, through the varying scenes of this place, along which [[Rustic style|rustic]] [[Seat|seats]] and [[Pavilion|pavilions]] are placed, at the best points of [[View/Vista|view]]. We give a view of one of them on the Sawkill [Fig. 11].<br /> :“The spring house, which is in course of erection, on the verge of the spacious [[lawn]], will be very ornamental. The water flows through a water lily, into a sculptured shell, from the scolloped [''sic''] lip of which it falls as from a dripping tazza.<br /> :“The garden, which is in the [[geometric style]], though near the house, is concealed by [[Hedge|hedges]] and [[shrubbery]]. The upper plateau is devoted to fruits and flowers, and the [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]] are given up to vegetables. The [[Greenhouse|green-house]] and fruit houses, 90 feet long, are so arranged as to present a very handsome architectural appearance. Besides a great variety of foreign grapes, the fig, apricot, nectarine, plum, and peach, are grown in these houses as [[Espalier|espaliers]], and dwarf standards.<br /> :“''The Farm''.—This comprises 125 acres. The soil varies from a sandy to a clayey loam. Parts of the outer lots, where the subsoil was so adhesive as to retain the surface soil, have been subdrained with the small stones gathered from the surface. These lots can now be worked at the earliest opening of spring; and though forming a very superior soil for grass; they yet yield very heavy crops of small grain. As an evidence of this, although the season of ‘45 was very unfavorable to oats, we here saw a lot which turned out 50 bushels to the acre. Since acquiring possession of this place, ten years since, Mr. D. has doubled the crops; and though he has occasionally used alluvial mud (''limed'') from the Sawkill, as a topdressing, and also plaster and ashes, and applied guano and poudrette to the hoed crops, with satisfactory results; yet his main reliance for keeping up the fertility of his place, has been the barnyard. To this place all weeds, fallen leaves, butts of cornstalks, and offal of the farm are gathered, and through these the wash of the barnyard leaches. We think Mr. D. has gone through unnecessary trouble and expense in plowing in manure on the [[Terrace/Slope|slopes]] and banks to get them into grass, instead of pasturing South-down sheep, which might easily be done in hurdles. The growth of the sheep would in a single season defray the expense of the arrangement, and the sod would be left by them, topdressed and fertilized in the simplest and most efficient manner. We have often seen flocks of sheep pastured for this purpose on the [[Lawn|lawns]] and finest estates in England.<br /> :“The farm-buildings are judiciously placed near the centre of the land, and well constructed for sheltering the cattle and saving the manure. The boundary [[Wall|walls]] are well laid, and the expense and unsightliness of [[Fence|cross-fences]] have been greatly avoided by soiling most of the cattle. [. . . .]<br /> :“We could say much more of Blithewood; but should any of our readers chance to visit it, they will feel how inadequate words are to convey an idea of its varied scenes, some of which are worthy of the pencil of Ruysdael or Claude.<br /> :“''Stucco''.—We thought the Stucco used by Mr. D. in his buildings a superior kind, and copied his recipe for making it. Take pure beach sand, and add as much Thomaston lime as it will take up, then sufficient hydraulic cement to make it set, say about one-fifth of the whole mixture of sand and lime. To prevent cement attracting moisture, put a strip of sheet lead or zinc as wide as the foundation of the building over it, then lay up the [[Wall|walls]]. The [[Wall|walls]] should be hollow, as they are stronger than solid [[Wall|walls]], and they save nearly one-third of the brick. The finishing plaster can then be laid on inside without the expense of furrowing out and lathing, as hollow [[Wall|walls]] are always dry. The stucco is also more lasting and not likely to peel. The stucco can be painted a handsome fawn color by dissolving burnt ochre in ''sweet'' milk.<br /> :“We saw here a most useful labor-saving machine, first introduced at Mr. William B. Astor’s villa, for cleaning gravel [[Walk|walks]]. With this, a man, a boy, and a horse, may do the work of twenty men. We here annex an engraving of it. It is very simple in its construction, and costs about $10.<br /> :“Mr. Downing has kindly permitted us to make casts of the illustrations above, from the cuts executed for his “Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture,” a work which we cannot too highly and too often recommend to the public.”<br /> <br /> <br /> <div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:1000.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, "View of the Vinery at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. p. 58.]]<br /> *<div id="Greenhouse"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1846, “The New Vinery at Blithewood” (''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2: 58)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The New Vinery at Blithewood,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): 57–58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GR63XMQE view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Greenhouse_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“The New Vinery at Blithewood, erected about eighteen months ago, we have had engraved as the frontispiece embellishment of the present number.<br /> :“The glass structures in general use, both in this country and in England, it must be candidly confessed, are rather ugly and unsightly objects. They have frequently either the common-place glazed-shed appearance of a market gardener’s rude [[Greenhouse|green-house]], or the clumsy and heavy air imparted to them by some architect or builder, whose knowledge of the matter in hand is, at best, crude and imperfect.<br /> :“The building which we now present our readers a view, [Fig. 12], strikes us as a happy exception to these remarks. To much simplicity of detail and excellent arrangement for its purpose, it adds a chaste and becoming architectural character, which gives it an air of elegance and finish in every way worthy of a handsome country [[seat]].<br /> :“With regard to the exterior, we think the proportions excellent. The slope of the roof, about 40°, is one of the best for this climate. There is a particularly light yet firm and pleasing effect in the structure of the rafters, and especially the upright glass in front. The chaste ornaments, which terminate the rafters at the eave and ridge lines, joined to the very tastefully decorated gables, strike us as producing a very elegan[t] and harmonious effect—greatly superior to anything of the kind we have yet seen attempted.<br /> :“The length of this vinery is about 100 feet. Every one familiar with long uniform ranges of glass, is aware of a stiffness and monotony of effect in the exterior, which is by no means agreeable. In the present case, this is entirely avoided by a projecting compartment in the centre of the range. This central compartment is used as a [[Greenhouse|green-house]] for choice plants. In it is placed the principal door, and supposing this portion of the range, which is comparatively a small one, filled with summer blooming plants, such as the new Fuchsias, Gloxinias, Achimenes, &c., which are so gay and bright from May to December, we hardly know a more beautiful vestibule to a vinery range, filled with luxuriant and prolific grapes.*<br /> :“We should remark here that this range of glass is intended to be used as a cold vinery—that is, the grapes are to be grown without artificial heat. The perfection to which this mode of growing the Muscat of Alexandria, Black Hamburgh, &c., was carried in the old vinery at Blithewood, so well satisfied its proprietor, that he erected the present house for the same general plan of culture. Our sun in this latitude is at all times bright and powerful enough to mature the foreign grape perfectly, with the simple aid of glass and the power which it gives us of controlling the changes of the atmosphere, thus guarding against the too violent fluctuations to which we are often subject. The position of this vinery at Blithewood is remarkably good. It stands on the north boundary of the fruit garden, with a southern aspect, and is backed by a thick [[copse]] of [[Wood/Woods|wood]]; hence the rear of the building is never seen by the visitor, while the front appears to the best advantage. In a situation exposed on all sides, by doubling the rafters, forming a span roof, and pursuing the same general style, a very beautiful and perfect structure would be obtained for any purpose.<br /> :“The ground plan, fig. 18, we believe almost sufficiently explains itself. The height of the roof, and the clear width of the vinery itself, are each about 15 feet. The width between the rafters, from centre to centre, is four feet. Underneath the stage in the [[Greenhouse|green house]], is a large cistern for the supply of the cold range with water. At the back of the range are a potting shed, and a fruit and seed room. The vines are planted in the usual mode—one beneath each rafter.<br /> :“Most of our readers are already familiar, through the published views in our ''Landscape Gardening'', with Blithewood, one of the most beautiful of American [[Seat|country seats]], the residence of Robert Donaldson, Esq., situated on the east bank of the Hudson, about 100 miles from New-York. The present structure bears the same marks of superior taste and refinement in landscape embellishment and building, that we have before so gladly admired and commended in this demesne.”<br /> :“*Or to those who care little for a [[Greenhouse|green-house]], this compartment might be used for forcing an early crop of grapes.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="GeorgeKidd"></div>Kidd, George, November 1848, “Culture of Foreign Grapes in [[Pot|Pots]]” (''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 5: 212–215)<ref>Geo. Kidd, “Culture of Foreign Grapes in Pots,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 5 (November 1848): 212–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GV9HBRZJ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#GeorgeKidd_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“As you solicit communications from horticulturists, I avail myself of a few moments of leisure, to offer some remarks on the culture of grapes in [[Pot|pots]].<br /> :“The article from the Gardeners’ Chronicle, reprinted in the September number of the Horticulturist, though able, is unsuited in its detail to this climate. Your humble servant, having been educated in the same school with the writer of the article in the Gardener’s Chronicle, in giving his own practice, will not be found to differ in principle, but merely to ''Americanize'' the practice. . . .<br /> :“Mr. Donaldson, the proprietor of Blithewood, has been among the earliest and most successful cultivators of the grape under glass on the Hudson river. The [[border]] of his first grape-house, (which I understand was signally successful,) consisted entirely of leaf mould, or decayed vegetable matter. This house, however, has given place to a beautiful range; an engraving of which, together with the plan, is given in Vol. 1, No. 2, of the Horticulturist [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]]. When I commenced the management of these houses, I anticipated difficulty in ripening such grapes as the Muscat of Alexandria, Flame-coloured tokay, Black Morocco, &c., being 100 miles north of New-York, but strange to say they have all ripened two weeks earlier than most of the houses on the Hudson. I can only account for this from the houses being protected at the north by a thick belt of [[Wood/Woods|woods]], also from their being ''placed in a hollow or valley''. Another good effect of this latter position, is that the glare of the glass roof is kept out of sight.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Mow"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 24, 1847, letter to Robert Donaldson concerning the [[lawn]] at Blithewood (Anderson 1996: 180)<ref>As quoted in Anderson 1996, 180, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZTREYLL7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mow_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Do you know I have always felt that you do not sufficiently appreciate the beautiful shape and aspect of the Blithewood [[lawn]]. It and the unrivalled [[View/Vista|view]] are to my poor eye its crowning glories. Nothing therefore would give your place so much perfection and completeness as a very highly kept [[lawn]]. If I were you I should have a horse roller going after every shower & would mow regularly every fortnight. Try it one season & see if the beauty of the effect is not worth all the flowers in the world! There is a general opinion I know that a fine [[lawn]] is impossible in this country—but it is only an excuse for avoiding the small labour & expense attending it. Your neighbour Mrs. H. W. Livingston of the Upper Manor has proved this even upon her high & dry situation.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Brighton"></div>Anonymous, July 20, 1848, “Residence of S. Bigelow, Esq., Brighton, July 20th” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 14, 359–360)<ref>C. M. Hovey, ed., “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries. Residence of S. Bigelow, Esq., Brighton, July 20th,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 14 (August 1848): 359–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZKAPLH6 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Brighton_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“The principal feature of the garden is a new and substantial [[greenhouse]] completed last year, upon the plan of one at Blithewood, on the North river, and it makes a very handsome structure, in excellent keeping, with a Gothic cottage or villa, but not harmonizing with the Grecian or Italian style. It is one hundred feet long, and divided into three compartments, the centre, twenty feet wide, being the [[greenhouse]], and the two wings, forty feet each, the graperies.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], July 1848, “Hints to Rural Improvers” (''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1: 12)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints to Rural Improvers,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 1 (n.d.): 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KNXCW77T view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“Among these places, those which enjoy the highest reputation, are ''Montgomery Place'', the [[seat]] of Mrs. Edw’d Livingston, Blithewood, the [[seat]] of R. Donaldson, Esq., and [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]], the [[seat]] of W. Langdon, Esq. The first is remarkable for its extent, for the wonderful variety of scenery—[[Wood/Woods|wood]], water, and [[gardenesque]]—which it embraces, and for the excellent keeping of the grounds. The second is a fine illustration of great natural beauty—a mingling of the graceful and grand in scenery,—admirably treated and heightened by art. [[Hyde Park (on the Hudson River, NY)|Hyde Park]] is almost too well known to need more than a passing notice. It is a noble site, greatly enhanced in interest lately, by the erection of a fine new mansion.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Swede"></div>Bremer, Frederika, October 11, 1849, letter describing a visit to Blithewood, (Bremer 1853: 36–8)<ref>Frederika Bremer, ''[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015011827402 The Homes of the New World; Impressions of America]'', trans. Mary Howitt, vol. 1 (London: Arthur Hall, Virtue, & Co., 1853), 36–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZQ339LHQ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Swede_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“After a sail of about three hours we reached Blithewood, the beautiful [[seat]] of the D.’s, whither we were invited to a great breakfast. . . . <br /> :“. . . When, however, in the evening, I came forth into the open air, and, accompanied by the silent [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing]], wandered quietly beside the glorious calm river, and contemplated the masses of light and soft velvet-like shadow, which lay on the majestic Katskill mountains, behind which the sun sank in cloudless splendour; then did the heart expand itself and breathe freely in that sublime and glorious landscape; then did I drink from the mountain-springs; then did I live for the first time that day. . . .<br /> :“The following day. . . . In the afternoon I visited two or three beautiful places in the neighbourhood. On one of these, a point projecting into the river, has a ruin been built, in which ar placed various figures and fragments of [[Wall|walls]] and [[Column/Pillar|columns]], which have been brought from the remarkable ruins lately discovered in Central America or Mexico. The countenances and the head-dresses resembled greatly those of Egyptian statues: I was struck in particular with a sphynx-like countenance, and a head similar to that of a priest of Isis. This ruin and its ornaments in the midst of a wild, romantic, rocky, and [[Wood/Woods|wooded]] promontory, was a design in the best taste.<br /> :“In the evening we left this beautiful Blithewood, its handsome mistress and our friendly entertainers.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Elder, Walter, 1849, description of the gardener’s cottage at Blithewood (Elder 1849, 227)<ref>Walter Elder, ''[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t5x644q25 The Cottage Garden of America]'' (Philadelphia, PA: Moss & Brother, 1849), 227, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“While in the service of Robert Donaldson Esq., we were the first to occupy that neat cottage, so widely known as the ‘gardener’s house at Blithewood,’ and so favourably noticed in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] book on [[landscape gardening]]. There was an eighth of an acre of excellent ground attached to it; enclosed with a close board [[fence]], and stocked with choice fruit trees, as a garden for us; and a good well and windlass for our private use, and also a neat hog pen. The cottage had three rooms, on the first floor, and two rooms above, and a fine cellar; the two upper rooms were then occupied by the pious and philanthropic Miss Isabella Donaldson, sister to our employer, as a Sunday School. All the youths of the neighbourhood assembled there on Sunday afternoons, and we were an assistant teacher.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Ehlers"></div>Ehlers, Hans Jacob, April 1, 1852, letter to Thomas Barton of [[Montgomery Place]] disputing the taste and credibility of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (Ehlers 1852: 7–12)<ref>Hans Jacob Ehlers, ''Defence against Abuse and Slander, with Some Strictures on Mr. Downing’s Book on Landscape Gardening'' (New York. NY: Wm. C. Bryant & Co., 1852), 7–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NX8GA9BT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ehlers_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“On the first page of the last edition of his work on [[landscape gardening]], is a picture of Blithwood [''sic''], the residence of Mr. Donaldson. This, I presume, is given to us as a specimen of the excellent taste of the author in [[landscape gardening]]. In examining this picture, a little experience will enable the observer to judge of the distance at which the picture was taken by the draughtsman. The minute manner in which the smallest particulars of the building are copied, make it evident that the distance could not have been more than twenty yards. You, sir, are acquainted with the original of this picture. You know the place called Blithwood; you can bear me witness when I assert that the mansion at Blithwood is no part of the landscape, for it is concealed by the trees which surround it. If the visitor at Blithwood wishes to obtain a [[View/Vista|view]] of the mansion, he must push his way through the mass of trees which conceal it, until he arrives within some twenty yards of the house itself. It is then visible, and he may, if he pleases, take a sketch of it. But what has such an object to do with the landscape, treated, as it has been, by the person who laid out the grounds, as if it were a privy, rather than the mansion of the proprietor, of which, the landscape which surrounds it, should be an ornamental adjunct.<br /> :“Are we to regard such an arrangement as a specimen of excellent taste in [[landscape gardening]]? If we are, be pleased to show us where we are to look for this excellent taste? But we have not yet done with this picture of Blithwood. In the background of it are seen the Catskill mountains, and in the middle, the river with islands, &c. Now it happens that these objects are not visible from the point whence the dwelling house is taken. The draughtsman first drew the house with some of the trees around it, and was then compelled to alter his position, so as to get a [[View/Vista|view]] of the mountains, river, &c. But notwithstanding the different objects in the picture, in reality, represent [[View/Vista|views]] from different points, we have them all put down in the picture as if seen from one point. The picture is, therefore, an untrue one; it is false to nature. It may, indeed, furnish the clown the same sort of amusement which a piece of parti-colored calico, or a piece of speckled paper would a baby, but neither a landscape gardener, nor an amateur of the art, can look upon the scenery of Blithwood, as represented in that picture, as calculated to impress the mind with the charms of nature.<br /> :“Let it not be said that these are mere assertions, for the proof of them is near at hand. You are a witness to their truth, and every man of sound sense and reason, may be the same.<br /> :“There is another consideration which may not be without interest. It cannot be a matter of indifference to the landscape gardener, or the amateur of the art (it is for the latter class that [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing’s]] book is designed) from what point an object appears picturesque, or is shown to advantage. Blithwood might be very [[picturesque]] when seen from the moon, from the coal-shed, or from another little cabinet near the house. But the points of view ought at least to be accessible and decent. For, to what purpose is all the beauty created by the landscape gardener, if it can only be seen from points in the [[lawn]] or adjoining cornfields, where the observer is not permitted to tread, or must be sought near a coal-shed or cabinet-places which can only be approached with disgust? Now, the two or three points, from which the picture of Blithwood is taken, are not indeed situated in the moon, but they are near the places mentioned above. In truth, there are at Blithwood no points accessible and decent, from which a [[picturesque]] [[View/Vista|view]] can be obtained.<br /> :“The sense of sight is the medium by which the mind becomes acquainted with the [[picturesque]] and all the forms of beauty in the material world. This sense of sight and an unbiassed judgment, are all that is needed. The objects to be seen are there—yonder is Blithwood, ten miles north of Barrytown, on the banks of the Hudson under the open vault of Heaven. It is easy of access, and he, who is seeking for the truth, may see all that has been described, and more—he will see walks resembling ditches, hardly fit for cattle to walk in, and other things in equally good taste. [. . . .]<br /> :“I have made Blithwood alone the subject of my strictures, in my comments upon the taste of Mr. D. as a landscape gardener. It may, therefore, be supposed that I consider it the worst of all the places which are lauded in the works of Mr. D. Let me not be misunderstood. This is not the case; I have other reasons for the choice of Blithwood.<br /> :“I am well aware that when the [[Seat|country seat]] of a gentleman is thus made the subject of remark, he may feel hurt and think that his feelings should have been spared. My excuse for the choice of Blithwood is this: In defending myself I was necessarily compelled to make a choice between many places, and should have considered myself inexcusable had I not made the choice with the view of causing as little pain as possible. In order to do this, I was compelled to look not so much to the ''place'', as to the ''owner'' of it, for I had to take into consideration the ability of the latter to bear a little mortification. Who would put a heavy load on the back of an individual, whose strength was not known, while one is at hand whose powers of endurance were well ascertained?<br /> :“I selected Blithwood for the following reasons: A few years ago I was engaged in laying out the grounds of a gentleman in the neighborhood of Blithwood. It was found necessary to drain the grounds by blind ditching. The owner of the estate chose to have the work done by his farmer. The result was that the work was insufficiently executed, the ditches having been made too shallow. I remonstrated against it from the beginning but in vain; no one would listen to me. In the following spring the insufficiency of the drainage was discovered when too late. Much labor and many trees were therefore lost. Although the facts of the case were universally known to the people living in the neighborhood, Mr. Donaldson nevertheless attributed the failure to me, and reported about that I did not know anything about draining and planting. He was contradicted by a gentleman, but still insisted upon the correctness of his statement. It is possible that Mr. Donaldson may have been ignorant of the facts above stated, but how could he dare to make such assertions without proof?<br /> :“One such act indicated the possession of a degree of carelessness which will enable him to bear a little depreciation of his vaunted [[Seat|country-seat]].<br /> :“Some ten years since I introduced upon the estate of a gentleman in the neighborhood of Blithwood a machine for clearing [[Walk|walks]] and roads. A year afterwards Mr. Donaldson, having examined the machine, caused one to be made by the same blacksmith who made the former one after my drawing, and under my direction. The machine has been known and used in Europe many years. But strange enough we had at the time in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing’s]] works, and since then in his book on [[Landscape gardening|Landscape-Gardening]], an article on this same machine, in which [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing]] states that is was “invented by the ingenious Mr. Donaldson of Blithwood.” Although Mr. Donaldson has not yet invented gunpowder, we must not be surprised if we somewhere meet with the assertion that he has at last succeeded in inventing it. [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Mr. Downing]] may have been ignorant of the above mentioned facts, but how does he know that the machine was invented by the ingenious Mr. Donaldson? Above all, how could the latter bear this undeserved praise—a burden to an honest man heavier than undeserved blame. If he can support this with ease, need we fear that a little truth-telling respecting Blithwood will bear heavy on him?”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Campanile"></div>Donaldson, Robert, 1853, “Importance of Water in Gardening” (''Horticulturist'' 8: 128–130)<ref>Robert Donaldson, “Importance of Water in Gardening,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 8 (1853): 128–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HXRD5UJ5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Campanile_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“At a distance of 2,100 feet from the dwelling and gardens, there is a hill 60 feet high, adjoining one of the [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataracts]] of the Sawkill—a stream which bounds the ornamental grounds. Upon this hill, which is level with the site of the house, I have erected a tower in the form of an Italian campanile, (see accompanying sketch,) which contains the reservoir, and serves also as a [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|prospect tower]]. The head of water below the [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]] is sufficient for driving hydraulic rams or forcing pumps to fill the reservoir to the top, 100 feet high and 300 feet distant.<br /> :“To avoid interruption by frost in the use of an overshot water wheel and pump, I adopted two hydraulic rams (in case one should stop,) for constant use, which are covered up, and operate incessantly. The supply by rams is sufficient for all purposes but [[Fountain|fountains]] and [[Jet|jets d’eau]], which will require a forcing pump to be used in the summer. The water tower is 18 feet square and 45 feet high, placed upon a [[Terrace/Slope|terrace] for beauty and to gain elevation. Within this is a reservoir 7 feet square and 34 feet high, constructed in the strongest manner, of oak timber, and bolted with 1-inch iron, and planked and lined with lead,—resisting at the bottom a pressure of about 85,000 pounds. I was induced to accumulate the water in this expensive manner, to obtain great pressure in the pipes to prevent the gathering of sediment and air—to supply baths and water closets in the house, and [[Jet|jets d’eau]] and [[Fountain|fountains]] in the garden and grounds.<br /> :“From the bottom the water is conducted by 2-inch iron pipes, 3 ½ feet below the sod, and lateral pipes of lead, varying in size, to supply hydrants for root culture, irrigation, the cattle yard, stable the garden, the house and [[Fountain|fountains]]. The water tower occupies a conspicuous position and is highly ornamental. The results are so satisfactory and beneficial, that I should recommend similar improvements wherever they can be made.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Praise"></div>Smith, John Jay, 1856, “Visits to Country Places, No. 5” (''Horticulturist'' 11: 547)<ref>John Jay Smith, “Visits to Country Places, No. 5,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6 (1856): 547, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NBHG337Q view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Praise_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“''Annandale'', some twenty miles above, and near Barrytown, was commemorated by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as Blithewood, then the seat of R. Donaldson, Esq., in his Landscape Gardening, with a lover’s praises. It is now the property of John Bard, Esq., who has changed its name to Annandale. Numerous improvements have been made by Mr. Bard and Mrs. Bard since they came into possession, and many others are in progress which must render it a very perfect example of all that is desirable in a [[Seat|country-seat]]. The river is four miles wide here, with islands interspersed,* and a full view of the Catskill Mountains on the opposite side, with their ever-varying shadows, sunshine, and clouds. Fine groups, and masses of trees and [[shrubbery]], beautiful [[Fountain|fountains]], [[Walk|walks]], [[Drive|drives]], and, to this, hospitality and open-handed charity added, we give to Annandale the meed of extraordinary attraction and beauty.<br /> :“The great water tower here, supplied from the noble brook between Mr. Bard’s and [[Montgomery Place]], is admirably contrived.<br /> :“Perhaps one of the most agreeable features at Annandale, is the great interest which the amiable proprietors take in the moral improvement of the neighborhood. With a noble and praiseworthy liberality, they have, we understand, established at their own expenditure, large and successful schools and churches, both upon the estate and at the neighboring village, where the whole expense of the erection of the buildings, the salaries of the clergymen and teachers, are defrayed from their private purse.<br /> :“It is, we believe, the intention of Mr. Bard to erect a mansion of a size and dignity commensurate with the beauty of the place. Many persons with his ample means, would perhaps have done this at once, but he, with a forbearance beyond all praise, preferred to render unto God before rendering unto Caesar.<br /> :“Annandale was planted by John C. Stevens, Esq., Admiral of the New York Yacht Club, who is still living; though is trees look old, he is not so, thus showing a successful instance of planting attaining perfection in the lifetime of a single individual. John C. Cruger bought it of Mr. Stevens.<br /> :“Mr. Bard is erecting fine [[Conservatory|conservatories]] and forcing houses; he already possesses a stove, and other arrangements, for winter use. A new dwelling in every respect worthy this fine property of nearly two hundred acres, is to be constructed the ensuing season.<br /> :“It was here that we remarked the fine groups of artistic Milan tables and chairs noticed on page 412.<br /> :“*Upon the extreme point of one (Cruger’s Island), is a fine group of ruins brought from Palenque by the late John L. Stevens, and remarkably striking in their effect.”<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> File:1927.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.<br /> File:0850.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840.<br /> File:0849.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud.[son] riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0381.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 2nd ed. (1844), opp. p. 336. fig. 38.<br /> File:2198.jpg|Printed by Gavit & Co., Albany, NY, “Prince Albert”, in Luther Tucker, ed. ''Cultivator'' 2, n.s. (1845): pl. opp. p. 249.<br /> File:0385.jpg|Anonymous, “Gate-Lodge” in A. B. Allen, ed. ''The American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3, (March 1846): p. 88, fig. 24.<br /> File:0380.jpg|Anonymous, “Ravine Walk” in A. B. Allen, ed. ''The American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3, (March 1846): p. 89, fig. 26.<br /> File:1887.jpg|Anonymous, “Gardener's House” in A. B. Allen, ed. ''The American Agriculturist'' 5, no. 3, (March 1846): p. 88, fig. 25.<br /> File:1000.jpg|Anonymous, "View of the Vinery at Blithewood," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. p. 58.<br /> File:0848.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Bank-Side Walk,” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849)<br /> File:1907.jpg|Anonymous, “Implement in use at Blithewood for cleaning gravel roads,” in A. J. Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1849) p. 532, fig. 20.<br /> File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:1928.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:1842.jpg|George Harvey, ''A Morning Rainbow, A Composition on the Grounds of R. Donaldson, Esq.'', 1840–50.<br /> File:2201.jpg|F. Walsh, Water tower in the form of an Italian campanile, in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturalist'' 3, n.s. (January-December 1853): p. 129<br /> File:2199.jpg|Anonymous, “Picture Window,” n.d.<br /> File:0851.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d.<br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Map==<br /> {{#display_map: <br /> 42.020816, -73.916989<br /> | service=google<br /> | enablefullscreen=yes<br /> }}<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://www.bard.edu/arboretum/gardens/blithewood/ Bard College: Blithewood Garden]<br /> <br /> [https://omekalib.bard.edu/exhibits/show/blithewoodgarden/past Blithewood Garden: Remember the Past]<br /> <br /> [https://www.gardenconservancy.org/preservation/preservation-portfolio/blithewood-garden The Garden Conservancy: Blithewood Garden]<br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references/><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> [[Category: Places]]</div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36159 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-07T14:07:32Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas).</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation, near Powhatan, Virginia (1845–1848), was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 7], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as [[Terrace/Slope|terraces]], [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, [[shrubbery]], grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 8]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, [[lawn]]s, and [[walk]]s. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square [[botanic garden]]s filled with geometric [[bed]]s arranged around oval [[fountain]]s, divided by a tree-lined [[avenue]] [Fig. 9]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined [[avenue]], but asymmetrically locates both sections of the [[botanic garden]]s on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> Davis developed his ideas about [[picturesque]] buildings and landscapes from popular English theoretical and practical texts. His library contained works on aesthetic theories of the picturesque such as Edmund Burke’s ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757), Uvedale Price’s ''Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful'' (1794), and Richard Payne Knight’s ''An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste'' (1805), as well as treatises by [[picturesque]] landscape painters like William Gilpin (1724–1804).<ref>Snadon 1988, 566, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Davis was also familiar with more practical books on [[landscape gardening]], especially the work of Humphry Repton and Thomas Whately, of whose 1770 ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' Davis asserted “this is ''the classic'' on modern gardening.”<ref>Typescript, Lyndhurst Archives, as cited in Brendel-Pandich 1992, 60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF/q/brendel view on Zotero].</ref> He saw [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as the latest in this illustrious series, writing in a letter to the noted artist and inventor Samuel Morse (1791–1872), “Of course your landscape gardening is going on according to Whatley, Repton, [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon]] & [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], and is immediately to exhibit the most finished illustrations of Natural Beauty—the art modestly retiring within the background.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, “Letter from Alexander Jackson Davis to Samuel Morse,” [https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.031001/?sp=167 September 5, 1852], Samuel Finley Breese Morse papers, 1793–1944, General Correspondence and Related Documents, Bound volume— 17 April 1852–7 January 1853, Library of Congress. Cited in O’Malley 2016, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero]. For a discussion of Davis collaboration with Morse, see Peter A. Watson, “Picturesque Transformations: A. J. Davis in the Hudson Valley and Beyond” (M.A., Columbia University, 2012), 139, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/C7YBAY2K view on Zotero].</ref> The works of these theorists emphasized a reciprocal aesthetic relationship between architecture and landscape that Davis echoed in the introduction to ''Rural Residences'', but sometimes overlooked in his practice.<ref>Snadon 1988, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Davis continued to design and redesign projects until his death in 1892, his commissions waned in the 1860s and 1870s following the American Civil War, as the Second Empire and High Victorian Gothic styles came to dominate popular taste.<ref>His most notable late commission consisted of designs drawn and built between 1853 and 1860 for a residential development in New Jersey known as Llewellyn Park. Richard Guy Wilson, “Idealism and the Origin of the First American Suburb: Llewellyn Park, New Jersey,” ''American Art Journal'' 11, no. 4 (1979): 79–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LYZNEUNK view on Zotero].</ref> Through his architectural designs and site plans, Davis established a spatial and stylistic vocabulary for [[picturesque]] rural villas that adapted European historical models for American clients and landscapes. His many lithographs, sketches, and watercolors document public and private landscapes as they were conceived and constructed in the early nineteenth century.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36158 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-07T13:45:38Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas).</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> In addition to his clients in the New York area, Davis found patronage among several owners of [[plantation]]s in the American south. These commissions reveal how Davis, like other architects of the era, adapted the [[picturesque]] to aestheticize or obscure built landscapes of slavery.<ref>See also the work of William Birch for Rosalie Stier Calvert at Riversdale, mentioned in Therese O’Malley, “‘Models in This Art’: Tracing the Brownian Landscape Tradition in America,” ''Garden History'' 44, no. Suppl. 1 (Autumn 2016): 78–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RUA439AW view on Zotero].</ref> With a workforce of more than 500 people, Philip St. George Cocke’s Belmead Plantation, near Powhatan, Virginia (1845–1848), was comparable in scale to large southern [[plantation]]s, such as Daniel and Martha Turnbull’s [[Rosedown Plantation]] in Louisiana.<ref>Daniel Bluestone, “A. J. Davis’s Belmead: Picturesque Aesthetics in the Land of Slavery,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 71, no. 2 (2012): 147, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FM7YPU9N view on Zotero].</ref> At Belmead, Davis and Cocke modified [[picturesque]] designs for cottages and gatehouses to function as slave [[quarter]]s. Architectural decorations featured heraldic depictions of cotton, tobacco, wheat, and corn that brought the landscape into the main house, but elided the bodies of the enslaved people who cultivated them.<ref>Snadon 1988, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Architectural historian Daniel Bluestone has shown that much of the construction labor at Belmead was carried out by enslaved people, and argued that Davis’s designs for the estate hid slavery behind a [[picturesque]] veneer connoting refinement and taste. At Loudoun Plantation near Lexington, Kentucky (1849–1852), Davis accommodated his client Francis Key Hunt’s requests to eliminate prominent windows from the northeast face of his residence, overlooking the “private [[yard]]” in which his enslaved African American servants lived and worked.<ref>Patrick Snadon, “Loudoun: Two New York Architects and a Gothic Revival Villa in Antebellum Kentucky,” The Kentucky Review 9, no. 3 (October 1, 1989): 68–72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BIK2NNHX view on Zotero].</ref> Whether by altering the designs of slave [[quarter]]s at Belmead or the main [[plantation]] house at Loudoun, Davis used [[picturesque]] designs to indulge the ideological blindspots of these clients.<br /> <br /> <span id="#Advertisement_cite"></span> In addition to marketing himself as an architect, Davis also advertised his ability to create designs and plans for “[[landscape gardening]]” ([[#Advertisement|view text]]). Several of Davis’s site plans for villas and universities survive. His most comprehensive residential site plan, made for [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 7], is labelled with a variety of features including a boathouse on the river, a [[Rustic style|rustic]] tent, a [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|cataract]], a barn, a grass field, and two springs. Davis provided a variety of [[landscape gardening]] services to his clients, producing a site plan for Glen Ellen (now lost), recommending books on the subject to George Merritt for his estate Lyndhurst, and meeting with Cocke to discuss planting at Belmead.<ref>Susanne Brendel-Pandich, “From Cottages to Castles: The Country House Designs of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 60 (book recommendations for Merritt), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WLVSXGXF view on Zotero]; Snadon 1988, 98 (lost Glen Ellen site plan), 208-209 (visit to Belmead to discuss planting), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Even his more modest residential floorplans sometimes indicated landscape elements such as terraces, walks, drives, shrubbery, grass, and plants, as in the 1849 drawings for his mother Julia Jackson Davis’s Kirri Cottage [Fig. 8]. Davis’s university campus proposals reveal a consistent approach to institutional landscapes, recognizing not only the aesthetic but also the educational and practical functions of gardens, lawns, and walks. His 1838 plan for the University of Michigan features two square botanic gardens filled with geometric beds arranged around oval fountains, divided by a tree-lined avenue [Fig. 9]. His later design for the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (1850–1858) likewise emphasizes a tree-lined avenue, but asymmetrically locates both sections of the botanic gardens on the east edge of the campus.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36157 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-07T13:30:44Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892, by Amelia Peck, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'', in periodical installments each containing four designs. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4].<ref>Snadon 1988, 73 (belvederes), 75 (verandas).</ref> Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley.<ref>Snadon 1988, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36156 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-06T21:06:48Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892'', by Amelia Peck, ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc., in Periodical Installments Each Containing Four Designs''. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero]. </ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design Downing’s own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, Downing used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82. <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[veranda]] or [[porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4]. Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley. Downing’s publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36155 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-06T21:05:31Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892'', by Amelia Peck, ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJUT3CUL view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P5FSVN2Q view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <span id="RuralResidences_cite"></span>With Donaldson’s support and encouragement, Davis began work on a book composed of architectural drawings and plans accompanied by short explanatory texts ([[#RuralResidences|view text]]). In 1837, Davis published this work, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc., in Periodical Installments Each Containing Four Designs''. The floorplans within ''Rural Residences'' do not extend to the surrounding landscape, but the perspectival drawings suggest complementary planting designs and Davis’s brief introduction emphasizes the “connexion [of a building] with its site.”<ref>Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rural Residences, Etc. Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farm-Houses, Villas, and Village Churches: With Brief Explanations, Estimates, and a Specification of Materials, Construction, Etc.'' (New York, 1837), n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LDE2TS2Z view on Zotero]. </ref> <br /> <br /> <span id="Introduction_cite"></span>Donaldson introduced Davis to the nurseryman and landscape gardener [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] in 1838 ([[#Introduction|view text]]), and Davis would go on to design Downing’s own Hudson River estate Highland Park (1838–1839).<ref>Patrick Alexander Snadon, “A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865” (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1988), 173, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8YX2TPPX view on Zotero].</ref> Between 1839 and 1850, Downing used woodcuts of designs and sketches by Davis to illustrate many of his publications, including ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (first published in 1841), ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), and ''The Horticulturist''. The publicity generated by these works made Davis one of the most desirable architects for wealthy owners of rural estates and [[plantation]]s. Donaldson was also instrumental in helping Davis obtain commissions for campus designs, including the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, writing in 1843 that <span id="Recommendation_cite"></span>“Mr Davis is the readiest & most skillful draughtsman that I know, and can furnish you with designs for Exterior Elevations or Interior Decorations—plans for [[Gate]]s, [[Fence]]s, & improving grounds about Buildings—in fact the danger is, when he mounts the Pegasus of Design, he may require the restraining taste of another” ([[#Recommendation|view text]]).<br /> <br /> In his publications and his flourishing practice throughout the 1840s, Davis developed two main types of residential structures: large, asymmetrical villas for wealthy clients characterized by two main wings in an L-shaped configuration, and smaller rectangular cottages intended for clients of more modest means.<ref>For a discussion of the villa designs, which employed massing and decorative elements to emphasize “river-front” and “road front” facades, see Snadon 1988, 81–82. <span id="#Villa_cite"></span>Both types featured a [[Piazza/Veranda/Porch/Portico|veranda]] or [[Piazza/Veranda/Porch/Portico|porch]] wrapped around the building, which connected the house to its immediate surroundings, while his villas often incorporated “[[prospect tower]]s” or “prospect rooms” that provided sweeping views of the landscape, as seen in his design for Murray Hill ([[#Villa|view text]]) [Fig. 4]. Davis also designed many small, free-standing structures for contemplating the landscape, including tented seats [Fig. 5], and [[summerhouse]]s [Fig. 6], inspired by the publications of [[John Claudius Loudon|J. C. Loudon]] and Batty Langley. Downing’s publications further emphasized the visual relationship between Davis’s designs and the surrounding landscape, recommending paint colors that harmonized with green foliage. <br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36154 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-06T20:26:12Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on [[landscape gardening]] and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American [[picturesque]] landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BCH6DYYR view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HTJSZXUM/q/donoghue view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of Benjamin Henry Latrobe during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892'', by Amelia Peck, ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D3AE978N view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Alexander_Jackson_Davis&diff=36153 Alexander Jackson Davis 2019-06-06T17:24:53Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Alexander Jackson Davis''' (1803–1892) was one of the most influential American residential architects of the nineteenth century. His designs for country houses illustrated publications on landscape gardening and rural life that established an architectural vocabulary for American picturesque landscape design between 1835 and 1850. Davis’s copious drawings and watercolors provide idealized documents of mid-nineteenth-century designed landscapes as they were built and imagined.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Born on July 24, 1803 in New York City, Alexander Jackson Davis was raised and educated in Utica and Auburn, New York. After apprenticing with a publisher in Alexandria between 1818 and 1823 (at the time still within the District of Columbia), Davis moved to New York City to study design at the American Academy of the Fine Arts, the New York Association of Artists, and the Antique School of the National Academy of Design.<ref>For an overview of Davis’s education, see Carrie Rebora, “Alexander Jackson Davis and the Arts of Design,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 25–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D3AE978N view on Zotero]; John Cornelius Donoghue, “Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892.” (Ph.D., New York University, 1977), 67–84, [view on Zotero].</ref> During this period, Davis published a series of lithographs depicting urban landscapes as ''Views of the Public Buildings in the City of New-York'', [Fig. 1], and provided material to early American illustrated journals like the ''New-York Mirror'' [Fig. 2]. Davis’s career as an architect began in 1829 when he entered into a partnership with the established architect Ithiel Town (1784–1844). For six years Davis collaborated with Town on civic projects and public buildings, mostly neoclassical in plan and elevation. As historian of architecture Patrick Snadon has noted, Davis studied the buildings of Benjamin Henry Latrobe during this period of his career, creating detailed drawings of the United States Capitol between 1832 and 1834 [Fig. 3].<ref>Patrick A. Snadon, review of ''Review of Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect 1803-1892'', by Amelia Peck, ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 52, no. 4 (1993): 495, [view on Zotero]. For an overview of Davis’s work on public buildings, see Francis R. Kowsky, “Simplicity and Dignity: The Public and Institutional Buildings of Alexander Jackson Davis,” in ''Alexander Jackson Davis, American Architect, 1803-1892'', ed. Amelia Peck (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rizzoli, 1992), 41–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/D3AE978N view on Zotero].</ref> Davis also worked with Town on the design of a residential villa known as Glen Ellen (1833), a building type to which Davis would devote much of his active career as an architect. In 1835, Davis parted ways with Town. By that time, Davis had already begun independently designing Hudson river estates for patrons like the banker Robert Donaldson (1834, never built).<br /> <br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:0053.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–1828. <br /> File:0675.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of the Battery and Castle Garden,” 1826–28.<br /> File:0811.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View of St. John’s Chapel, from the park,” 1829.<br /> File:2027.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Residence of Dr. David Hosack, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1830. <br /> File:0332.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Mount Vernon, c. 1831.<br /> File:1244.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.<br /> File:0424.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.<br /> File:1247.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.<br /> File:1927.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Rustic Cottage at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Canopied pavilion at Blithewood'', 1836.<br /> File:0425.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.<br /> File:0852.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.<br /> File:1928.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Map of Blithewood'', c. 1840s.<br /> File:0849.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud[son]. riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.<br /> File:0850.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840. <br /> File:0955.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.<br /> File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place—Shore Seat, c. 1847.<br /> File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Montgomery Place,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.<br /> File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.<br /> File:1253.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.<br /> File:0350.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.<br /> File:0848.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.<br /> File:0847.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849). <br /> File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850<br /> File:0855.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Garden Arch at Montgomery Place'', c. 1850.<br /> File:0851.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Blithewood looking towards Montgomery Place, n.d. ''The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook'', c. 1830–50.<br /> File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.<br /> File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.<br /> File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.<br /> File:2197.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Mount Gulian, Residence of G. C. Verplank, Esq.'', n.d.<br /> File:0854.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Shore Seat for Montgomery Place'', 1870–79.<br /> <br /> </gallery></div>

K-lee https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php?title=Rosedown_Plantation&diff=36152 Rosedown Plantation 2019-06-06T15:19:44Z

<p>K-lee: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Rosedown Plantation''' is one of the best-preserved and best-documented [[plantation]] gardens of early nineteenth-century Louisiana. Built and maintained with the profits from and labor of uncompensated enslaved people, the ornamental gardens of the cotton [[plantation]] synthesized local ideas about the spatial organization of agricultural and residential landscapes with [[picturesque]] principles and horticultural specimens popularized in New York and Philadelphia.<br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> '''Alternate Names:''' Rose Down<br/><br /> '''Site Dates:''' 1834–present<br/><br /> '''Site Owner(s):''' Martha and Daniel Turnbull (1834–1896); Sarah Turnbull Bowman (1896–1914); Nellie, Empsie, Isa, and Maggie Bowman (The Misses Bowman) (1914–1956); Milton Underwood and Catherine Fondren Underwood (1956–); Gene Raymond Slivka (1994–2000); the State of Louisiana (2000–present)<br/><br /> '''Associated People:''' Samuel Richardson (landscape gardener); Moses; Charles; Ben; Primus; Augustus; Dave; Jane; Jim (enslaved gardeners)<br/><br /> '''Location:''' St. Francisville, West Feliciana Parish, LA<br/><br /> '''Condition:''' altered<br/><br /> [https://goo.gl/maps/dJkR3wMC1DG2 View on Google Maps]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Located several miles inland on the eastern bank of the Mississippi river, the 3,455 acres of Rosedown Plantation were formed from seven tracts of land that Daniel Turnbull (1796–1861) and Martha Hilliard Barrow Turnbull (1809–1896) purchased between 1829 and 1861. The first of these purchases, which had been owned by members of Martha’s family, already contained an existing cotton [[plantation]] built and maintained by 74 enslaved people.<ref>Nesta Jean Anderson, “Comparing Alternative Landscapes: Power Negotiations in Enslaved Communities in Louisiana and the Bahamas, an Archaeological and Historical Perspective” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2004), 123, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref> Profits from the Turnbull’s other [[plantation]]s, Inheritance, Desoto, and Styopa, helped fund the construction and upkeep of Rosedown. In the 1840s and 1850s, just under 450 enslaved people worked without pay on the largest [[plantation]]s owned by Daniel and Martha Turnbull.<br /> <br /> Most information about the built landscape of Rosedown Plantation is preserved in Martha Turnbull’s garden diary, which documents a period from 1836 to 1895.<ref>Martha Barrow Turnbull, ''The Garden Diary of Martha Turnbull, Mistress of Rosedown Plantation'', ed. Suzanne Turner (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Martha’s diary provides insights into the plantings, maintenance, and design, of the [[kitchen garden]], [[orchard]], [[greenhouse]]s, and ornamental gardens located closest to the main house, as well as a separate [[plantation]] garden in which she grew vegetables for the enslaved residents of Rosedown.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 145, (plantation cabbages), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> It largely ignores, however, other landscapes on the [[plantation]], which included cotton fields, fields for fodder crops, pastures for livestock, and probably a [[cemetery]].<ref>Turnbull 2012, 217, (graveyard), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Her journal suggests that the functional landscapes of the [[plantation]] relegated to enslaved people, cash crops, livestock, and death were gendered male, while those dedicated to cultivating food and the leisure of the plantation owners were gendered female.<br /> <br /> [[File:2202.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Frances Benjamin Johnston, Lattice summerhouse at Rosedown Plantation, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.]]<br /> Like other early nineteenth-century garden diaries, such as that of the Hudson River head gardener [[James Francis Brown]], Martha Turnbull’s records of her garden are focused on weather and largely devoid of the stylistic terms that characterized prescriptive gardening literature. Later historians of gardens, however, have characterized the design of the ornamental gardens at Rosedown as an early and innovative southern example of [[picturesque]] elements inserted within a flat, symmetrical, axial plan that was typical of the region.<ref>Donna Fricker and Suzanne Turner, “Rosedown Plantation,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (Baton Rouge: Division of Historic Preservation, 2005), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]. See also Elaine Ware, “Formal Ornamental Gardens in the Ante-Bellum South,” ''Studies in Popular Culture'' 19, no. 2 (1996): 49–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NLRQ2WFK view on Zotero].</ref> An [[avenue]] lined with oak trees connected the main house to the road, bisecting a rectangular garden that visitors could navigate via gently curving [[walk]]s. Around the Turnbull house, geometric [[flower garden]]s featured [[parterre]]s bordered with boxwoods and flowering shrubs.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 92 (avenue), 106 (partarre [''sic'']), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> A [[kitchen garden]] and an [[orchard]] added in 1838 provided food for the Turnbulls to consume and sell at a local market. A variety of functional and recreational structures dotted the gardens. These included two [[greenhouse]]s, one built before 1836 and the other completed in 1855, hot [[bed]]s used to cultivate tropic fruits like pineapple, and cold [[bed]]s.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 109 (pineapple), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> A lattice [[summerhouse]] [Fig. 1], first mentioned in an 1858 entry but possibly built as early as 1835, stood among the [[flower garden]]s.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 124, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero]; Fricker and Turner 2005, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]. Two later summerhouses of uncertain date were placed in the north and south gardens on either side of the oak-lined avenue. Fricker and Turner, 18 (dated to before 1861), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero]; Richard Koch, “[https://www.loc.gov/item/la0045/ Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana],” Historic American Buildings Survey (New Orleans, LA, June 1958), 2 (dated to 1895), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FKU7UJBS view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Around the edges of these gardens, the grounds of Rosedown Plantation contained living [[quarter]]s and a church for enslaved people, a doctor’s office, a barn, and a milkshed.<ref>The church was moved relocated farther from the main house of the plantation in the mid-twentieth century. Thomas J. Durant, Jr., “The Enduring Legacy of an African-American Plantation Church,” ''The Journal of Negro History'' 80, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 81–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/S4D4MTVJ view on Zotero].</ref> Based on historic aerial photos, oral histories, and archaeological finds dateable to the period between 1820 and 1860, archaeologist Nesta Jean Anderson located the site of Rosedown’s slave [[quarter]]s in a depression to the northwest of the Turnbull house, between the main drive of the [[plantation]] and Alexander Creek.<ref>Anderson 2004, “Comparing Alternative Landscapes,” 127 (location), 161-162 (dateable ceramics), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Early inspiration for the Rosedown Plantation gardens would have come from a variety of descriptions, images, and firsthand experiences. The Turnbulls owned general works on gardening and agriculture by such notable figures as [[John Claudius Loudon]], and [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], and may also have been familiar with gardening literature adapted for the American South by Jacques-Felix Lelièvre (1795–1854), in French, and the nurseryman and plantation owner Thomas Affleck (1812–1868), in English.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Their library also contained more specialized works, like Robert Leuchars’s ''Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hot-Houses'', first printed in 1850.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 112, (Leuchars), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> The entrance hall of the main house was decorated with a panoramic Joseph Dufour wallpaper that depicted a dramatic landscape, one of many French imports that may also have shaped the taste of Martha and Daniel Turnbull.<ref>The wallpaper has been replaced at least twice, and the original subject matter of the panorama is unknown. Ola Mae Word, ''Reflections of Rosedown'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SHL4LDKA view on Zotero].</ref> They must also have found ideas in firsthand experience of leisure landscapes, which the Turnbulls encountered in their seasonal travels. To escape the Louisiana heat and outbreaks of yellow fever, the Turnbulls summered in Saratoga Springs, New York, and after 1850 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2204.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, “Italian walk,” in [[J. C. Loudon]], ''The Villa Gardener'' (1850), p. 182.]]<br /> In 1851, the Turnbull family embarked on a tour of Europe that reflected their taste in garden design and informed Martha’s approach to the Rosedown Plantation gardens in following years. Their itinerary included Liverpool Botanic Garden, Versailles, and Florence, offering them the opportunity to visit a variety of public and palatial gardens. Possibly inspired by one of [[John Claudius Loudon|Loudon’s]] illustrations of an “Italian walk,” [Fig. 2], Martha purchased twelve statues for the garden from F. Leopold Pisani in Florence, maker of marble and alabaster sculptures for wealthy travelers, which she installed throughout the garden upon her return.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 86; Ola Mae Word 1979, Reflections of Rosedown (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 25. For Leopold (or Leopoldo) Pisani see Giuseppe Formigli, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N3QM15fKOyYC&lpg=PA258&dq=Guida%20della%20citta%CC%80%20di%20Firenze%20e%20suoi%20contorni%20leopoldo%20pisani&pg=PA258#v=onepage&q=pisani%20leopoldo&f=false Guida per la città di Firenze e suoi contorni]'' (Firenze: Presso i F. Carini e Giuseppe Formigli, 1849), 258, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B7ZGAYSS view on Zotero].</ref> These included mythological figures as well as female allegorical personifications of Asia, Africa [Fig. 3], Europe, and America.<ref>The marble sculptures, several of which were photographed in the Carnegie Survey of the Architecture of the South, were removed by Gene Raymond Slivka. Cast-iron garden decorations from Rosedown appeared at Cakebread Auction (April 25–26, 2015).</ref> The seashell-encrusted [[rockery]] that Martha added in 1858 was probably also inspired by features that she observed on her journey.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 125, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> [[File:2203.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Frances Benjamin Johnston, Statue of the personification of Africa, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.]]<br /> Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, most of the construction and maintenance of Rosedown Plantation was undertaken by enslaved people. <span id="ForeignGardner_cite"></span>While the gardens of rich [[plantation]] owners like the Turnbulls were often assumed to have been designed by European immigrant landscape gardeners ([[#ForeignGardner|view text]]), the only professional gardener who can be identified in Martha Turnbull’s diary is Samuel Richardson, a landscape gardener who lived in Bayou Sara in the 1840s and left the service of Martha Turnbull in November of 1847.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Richardson_cite"></span>His advertisements in the local newspaper cite the Turnbulls of Rosedown among his references, as well as Isaac Johnson (1803–1853), the governor of Louisiana and owner of Fairview Plantation on Bayou Sara, David Austin at Bayou Sara, and Martha’s nephew Robert Hilliard Barrow (1824–1878), owner of the Rosale Plantation near St. Francisville ([[#Richardson|view text]]). By 1868, a gardener’s house stood on the [[plantation]] grounds, although Martha’s diary never mentions the title of head gardener.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 183, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> With the exception of her children Sarah (1831–1914) and William (1829–1856), most of the people named in Martha’s diary prior to the Civil War can be identified with enslaved individuals listed in an 1858 succession document: Moses (age 21), Charles (17); or an 1862 inventory of enslaved people: Ben, Primus (28), Augustus (16?), Dave (17?), Jane (28 or 31), and Jim (65 or 66?).<ref>Anderson 2004, 225-227 (1858), 57-63 (1862), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero]. Jane may in fact have been recaptured after fleeing enslavement in 1849, although it is not clear if the escaped woman is the same individual mentioned by Martha Turnbull.</ref> Charles may have specialized in propagating and potting [[greenhouse]] plants, <span id="Budding_cite"></span>Jane and Moses grafted fruit trees using a technique known as budding ([[#Budding|view text]]), and <span id="Strawberries_cite"></span>Ben sold vegetables and other produce at a nearby town market ([[#Strawberries|view text]]). Daniel Turnbull’s journal entries from 1860 frequently mention “invalids in garden,” suggesting that the enslaved people whom the Turnbulls regularly forced to work in the gardens at Rosedown had disabilities or illnesses that precluded more physically demanding tasks.<ref>Fricker and Turner 2005, 30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Early gardening literature from the region suggests that the number of enslaved people forced to work in the Turnbull gardens was atypically high, perhaps a consequence of the size and wealth their plantations. <span id="ExtraHeavy_cite"></span>Daniel Turnbull ranked among the “extra heavy” plantation owners of West Feliciana, one of the richest parishes in Louisiana, in which enslaved African Americans outnumbered white people five to one ([[#ExtraHeavy|view text]]). Thomas Affleck, owner of a [[nursery]] in Washington, Mississippi outside of Natchez, asserted in the 1851 edition of his ''Southern Rural Almanac and Plantation and Garden Calendar'', “Very rarely is any assistance given by the plantations hands, the whole [[kitchen garden|[kitchen] garden]] being kept in fine order by house-servants, during their leisure time.”<ref>Thomas Affleck, ''Affleck’s Southern Rural Almanac, and Plantation and Garden Calendar, for 1851'' (New Orleans: Office of the “Picayune,” 1850), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7SIH9KQH view on Zotero]. Via Turnbull 2012, 102, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Contrary to Affleck’s claims, large groups of enslaved people carried out labor intensive tasks in the gardens at Rosedown, especially during the busiest spring and fall months. <span id="Strawberries_cite"></span>One entry from April 1856 in Martha’s diary states “I had 18 negroes picking strawberries” ([[#Strawberries|view text]]), <span id="15Hands_cite"></span>while another from March 1860 records “Jim has had 15 hands cleaning Garden for a month” ([[#15Hands|view text]]).<br /> <br /> Martha Turnbull acquired the plants and seeds for her gardens from both long distance and local sources. The [[nursery]] of [[Robert Buist]] in Philadelphia was a preferred source for many of the seeds and plants for Rosedown, possibly by way of local nurserymen and importers in Louisiana, but Martha also bought from the [[nursery]] of Colonel Hebron near Vicksburg, Mississippi; Makenzie in Philadelphia; William Prince in Flushing, New York; and a nursery in Long Island.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 21 (Buist and Prince), 114 (Makenzie), 127 (Hebron), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Other plants and cuttings she acquired through exchanges with the owners of neighboring [[plantation]]s, including Mrs. Mathews of Oakley Plantation, Mr. Fort of Catalpa Plantation, and possibly Judge Thomas Butler of the Cottage Plantation, each of whom also had extensive gardens.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 41 (Judge Thomas Butler), 89 (Mrs. Mathews and Mr. Fort), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero]. For more about the gardens of Thomas Butler at his plantation, the Cottage, see Suzanne Louise Turner, “Plantation Papers as a Source for Landscape Documentation and Interpretation: The Thomas Butler Papers,” ''Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology'' 12, no. 3 (1980): 28–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3DVEFUZC view on Zotero].</ref><br /> <br /> Although Martha participated in the economy of plants and ideas that emerged in Philadelphia and New York, her diary reveals that her own ideas about gardening were mediated by local practicalities and regional preferences. Martha and Daniel Turnbull subscribed to the ''Horticulturist'', published by nurseryman and theorist [[A. J. Downing]]’s publications beginning in the 1840s. Yet as Turner notes, the phrase “[[pleasure ground]]s” does not appear in Martha’s garden diary until 1872, twenty years after [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] death, and several of Martha’s planting and maintenance decisions disregard [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] guidelines for producing [[picturesque]] landscapes.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 75 (trimming trees), 110-111 (lombardy poplars), 216 (pleasure ground), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MossHouse_cite"></span>A moss house that an enslaved man named Jim built in January of 1849 ([[#MossHouse|view text]]), could equally have been inspired by one of [[A.J. Downing|Downing’s]] publications, <span id="Richardson_cite"></span>or by the local landscape gardener Samuel Richardson, who mentioned such features by name in newspaper advertisements that appeared the same month ([[#Richardson|view text]]).<br /> <br /> Martha Turnbull continued to maintain the gardens following the death of Daniel Turnbull in 1861, the American Civil War, and the emancipation of her enslaved workforce. While some formerly enslaved gardeners, particularly Ben and Augustus, are also mentioned in entries dated after the war in 1865, <span id="Sharecroppers_cite"></span>the emergence of a sharecropping economy at Rosedown was reflected by a new group of paid laborers who appear in the garden diary ([[#Sharecroppers|view text]]). As a consequence of the economic hardship that the [[plantation]] faced, entries written after 1867 demonstrate a new and systematic emphasis on garden-related expenses.<ref>Turnbull 2012, 171, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> Following Martha’s death in 1896, the gardens survived largely unaltered, if somewhat neglected, until the property was acquired by Catherine Fondren Underwood in 1956. Underwood sponsored a restoration of the gardens overseen by Ralph Ellis Gunn, but she demolished the remains of slave [[quarter]]s north of the gardens in which many of Martha’s gardeners would have resided.<ref>Anderson 2004, 143, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QRGQ2RD8 view on Zotero].</ref> Gunn’s restoration has been praised for its historical accuracy, although it altered the planting and design with the addition of several [[fountain]]s, one built on foundations that originally supported a [[greenhouse]].<ref>Fricker and Turner 2005, 9, 19–20 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AGCFHILK view on Zotero].</ref> In 2000, the State of Louisiana purchased Rosedown, which it operates it as a State Historic Site.<br /> <br /> —''Alexander Brey''<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Texts==<br /> *<div id="Richardson"></div>Richardson, Samuel, January 13, 1849, advertisement for landscape and ornamental gardening services (''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', issue 161)<ref>Samuel Richardson, “Landscape and Ornamental Gardening,” ''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', January 13, 1849, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/YASNYULR view on Zotero]. Also printed in issues published January 2, 1849 and January 10, 1849.</ref> [[#Richardson_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL GARDENING<br /> :“THE undersigned respectfully tenders his services in the above line of work, and in building of MOSS and [[Rustic style|RUSTIC]] houses. Garden [[Seat]]s, will give places for [[greenhouse|Green-houses]], [[Conservatory|Conservitorys]], &c., in his depart- as a practical Gardener.<br /> :“REFERENCES<br /> :“His Excellency Isaac Johnson, Gov. of La.<br /> :“Daniel Turnbull, Esqr., ‘Rosedown,’ W.F.<br /> :“David Austin, Esqr., Bayou Sara.<br /> :“Robert H. Barrow, Esqr., near St. Francisville, where extensive specimens of his work will be seen.<br /> :“Communications to me, to the care of Mr. B. Marshall, Commission Merchant, will be immediately attended to.<br /> :“SAMUEL RICHARDSON<br /> :“Bayou Sara, Dec. 9, 1848.—Dec. 29–4t”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="MossHouse"></div>Turnbull, Martha, January 4–February 1, 1849, describing the construction of moss house (Turnbull: 65–66)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 65–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MossHouse_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Jany. 1849 4 we have spaded all the Garden today—the first time. Sewed Peas, Irish Potatoes. Set out the [[Orangery]] today.<br /> :“6 cleaning & trimming our [[Orchard]] over the creek—done all the other triming & putting out cuttings—set out all the flowers that were sewed in October<br /> :“14th still rainy walks very grassy. Putting down box, sewed Tomattoes—burnt off strawberry bed—Jim is mossing the house—Egg Plant<br /> :“20th put down corn, green house in good order—sewed Beets.<br /> :“22 Some more Mashanoc Irish Potatoes, still putting down box cuttings & trimed down the Wild Peach [[hedge]] to 14 inches—set out Pinks sown in October & all kinds of flowers—<br /> :“25 all cuttings, triming done, & gone to general gardening—still wet as water—forked asparagus [[bed]]—<br /> :“February 1st Sticking Peas—planting more Irish Potatoes—finished the walks on one side of garden—began on the other—got half of Moss house done mossing—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Daniel, November 17, 1849 (''Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette'', Issue 84)<ref>Daniel Turnbull, “$500 Reward,” Mississippi Free Trader and Natchez Gazette, November 17, 1849, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JPBWWWFL view on Zotero].</ref><br /> :“$500 REWARD!!<br /> :“RUNAWAY, or was enticed away on the evening of the 6th instant, girl JANE; she is a likely mulatto, 19 or 20 years old, five feet, four or five inches in height, she cannot straighten one of her small fingers, and one thumb is deformed from a whitlow, it is believed to be on the right hand; one of her large toes is also disfigured from the same cause; she has a good deal of fine clothing with her.<br /> :“I will give for her apprehension if secured in jail, so that I can get her, one hundred dollars if taken in this State, and two hundred dollars if taken out of the State; three hundred dollars for the apprehension and conviction of the person or persons who have abducted or conspired her abduction.<br /> :“DANIEL TURNBULL<br /> :“Rosedown, W. F. Nov. 10, 1849.<br /> :“P.S.—It is possible she may have been sent by steamboat up the river.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, November 1, 1852, describing work in the gardens at Rosedown mentioning several enslaved people, including Jane, Jim, and Primus, and Martha’s twenty-one-year-old daughter Sarah Turnbull, who had responsibility for half of the garden (Turnbull: 87–89)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 87–89, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Nov 1st Jane is sticking down all kinds of cuttings—Jim fixing hot [[bed]]—it was cool this morning—but really hot in the sun—& looks like too much fair weather—arranging all my shrubs that are too close—gathering hay—manure all hauled on Sarah’s side—Primus tying up the roses—& trimming the [[hedge]]s—& shrubs into shapes”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, July 4–July 8, 1853, describing some of the many pulses, vegetables, and fruit in her [[kitchen garden]] and [[orchard]] (Turnbull: 94–96)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 94–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“July 4th the first rain for six weeks—put down layers of many [[greenhouse]] plants & put down Tomattoes slips—Lettuce seed, Arbor beans, Snap, Watermelons, Cauliflower seed Cabbage & Celery set out & put down seed, Carrots, Parsnips, Salsify, Corn, & all sewed. My garden looked deplorable my violets I feared were gone—but everything now revived—My Paris Artichokes seed not good, also saved some of my old kind.<br /> :“8 A continuation of rains, too wet to plough or work in my garden—set out Celery & Cabbage plants—My Cuttings are much improved—<br /> :“July We had on the creek [[Orchard]] many Peach trees—8 Blue Figs—2 Pear Trees—11 apples—9 quince—30 Azelia’s—13 Heliotrope—15 Red flower from coast.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Budding"></div>Turnbull, Martha, September 1855, describing the autumnal tasks assigned to skilled enslaved workers in the garden (Turnbull: 101–103)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 101–103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Budding_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“Sept. 2nd Made two small Strawberry [[bed]]s & planted them down Sewed Carrots, Parsnips, Salsify—Turnips—Leeks Onions Beets Spinage &c—Mr. T. sewed his grass seed from Carolina—I had to put out all my servants in the Garden, it was overgrown with grass, weeds, &c—Jane & Moses budded many Peach, Pear, Roses Japonicas—2 whole days at it—very cloudy, threatening &—I have no Tomattoes, snap beans, Arbor beans, &c to eat—I gave a new Gardners line out—Charles is constantly potting off & put out many verbenas that he had in [[pot]]s during the summer—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Strawberries"></div>Turnbull, Martha, April 1–26, 1856, describing flowers and an abundant strawberry harvest (Turnbull: 122)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 122, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Strawberries_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“April 1st—My Chrysanthemums are beautiful—All new shrubs are exausted & I think will die—The Geraneams are beautiful I cut down—<br /> :“April 20 I shall put down all my Chrysanthemums in the ground—I am eating Peas for two weeks—Strawberries are very abundant—picked off of one 3rd of the [[bed]] enough for 30 people—& still the [[bed]] red—<br /> :“24 I picked 17 Quarts of Strawberries off 1 third of the [[bed]]<br /> :“25th I had 18 negroes picking strawberries until 11 O & did not go over but ½ the [[bed]]—I now have 8 Watering [[Pot]]s—2 Engines.<br /> :“26 I gathered 2 ½ bushels Strawberries—Ben made 9$—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="15Hands"></div>Turnbull, Martha, March 18–August 21, 1860, mentioning more than fifteen enslaved workers active in the gardens (Turnbull: 127)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#15Hands_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“18th All my Paris Artichokes to 6 killed—It look like an abundant Spring garden—Jim has had 15 hands cleaning Garden for a month—but since drouth it is getting clean—Charles is propigating.<br /> :“April One shower only—a drouth—Myrtle [[hedge]] &c all come up & things look better than I expected—I never had such a fine garden notwithstanding drouths—No more rain until July 7th a good shower—No more rain until August 21st such a drouth never saw before—Dave planted out Cauliflower, Broccoli, Celery & how he has managed to keep it alive I cannot tell.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="ExtraHeavy"></div>Anonymous (“Tourist”), May 21, 1860, “Louisiana in Slices. Parish of West Feliciana” mentioning Daniel Turnbull among the owners of the largest [[plantation]]s in Louisiana (''New Orleans Daily Crescent'', vol. 13, no. 66: 1)<ref>“Louisiana in Slices: Parish of West Feliciana,” ''New Orleans Daily Crescent'', May 21, 1860, Morning edition, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3RHHZ4ZI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#ExtraHeavy_cite|Back up to History]] <br /> :“West Feliciana is one of the wealthiest parishes of the State, being high among the second rates in wealth and population. [. . . .] The total population of the parish is 12,000, in round numbers, of which about 2000 are whites and about 10,000 slaves, the free negroes being few. [. . . .] Cotton is the principal product. Of the 227,367 acres forming its entire area, about 35,000 are in cotton, 5000 in cane and 19,000 in corn, leaving some 165,000 or 170,000 uncultivated. [. . . .] Many of the planters grown both cotton and cane, but they are generally engaged exclusively in raising either one or the other rather than both. Some of the planters of this parish rank among the largest in the State, and among the extra heavy men may be mentioned Mssrs. Joseph A. S. Acklen, David Barrow, Wm. Ruffin Barrow, Sr., Wm. J. Fort, John Scott Smith, Wm. H. Stirling, Daniel Turnbull, etc.”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="ForeignGardner"></div>Frederick Law Olmsted, 1861, ''The Cotton Kingdom'' (Olmsted 1861: 163–164)<ref>Frederick Law Olmsted, [https://archive.org/details/cottonkingdomtra00olms/page/n5 ''The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller’s Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States''], vol. 2 (New York: Mason Brothers, 1861), 163–64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RM4AZRBH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#ForeignGardner_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“‘Do you remember a place you passed?’ [describing the locality].<br /> :“‘Yes,’ said I; ‘a pretty cottage with a large garden, with some [[statue]]s or [[Vase/Urn|vases]] in it.’<br /> :“‘I think it likely. Got a foreign gardener, I expect. That’s all the fashion with them. A nigger isn’t good enough for them. Well, that belongs to Mr. A. J. Clayborn.[?] He’s got to be a very rich man. I suppose he’s got as many as five hundred people on all his places. He went out to Europe a few years ago, and sometime after he came back, he came up to Natchez. I was there with my wife at the same time, and as she and Mrs. Clayborn came from the same section of country, and used to know each other when they were girls, she thought she must go and see her. Mrs. Clayborn could not talk about anything but the great people they had seen in Europe. She was telling of some great nobleman’s castle they went to, and the splendid [[park]] there was to it, and how grandly they lived. For her part, she admired it so much, and they made so many friends among the people of quality she said, she didn’t care if they always stayed there. In fact, she really wanted Mr. Clayborn to buy one of the castles, and be a nobleman himself. “But he wouldn’t,” says she; “he’s such a strong Democrat, you know.” Ha! Ha! Ha! I wonder what old Tom Jeff. would have said to these swell-head Democrats.’”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, January 1863, describing the impact of the Civil War on her gardens at Rosedown Plantation (Turnbull: 151–152)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 151–152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“Jany. 1864—Up to this time, since the Federals landed in May neither field or garden has been worked, the garden is a [[wilderness]], sedge grass. It looks melancholly—My vegetable garden being plowed—I have commenced work, but slowly—before Christmas I put out trees &c—fixed up hot [[bed]]—& filled it with Pine Apple—continued rains & very hard—Celery very good—Spinage very good—put out a number of trees—put out the Strawberries I could find left in the [creek]—made my new road in field—all plow lines made—began to plow 5th—with 15 plows—making up fences, cutting wood, going in swamp, all plows, chains &c fixed up in Dec. by Old Joe—I have 30 lbs. of Pork & beef together—36 barrels Molasses & 8 hogshead of Sugar for the year—50 head of small cattle—8 old sheep &c—It is intensely cold, ground all frozen—creek higher than it has been for years—so soon as water falls it freezes. Thermometer at 12 O (clock) in the day 27°. [2nd Jan] It was 17 at sunrise [on Gallery]—22° in Study at 8 O morning—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *<div id="Sharecroppers"></div>Turnbull, Martha, March 4, 1869, mentioning the paid gardeners whom Martha employed following the emancipation of her enslaved gardeners (Turnbull: 188)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 188, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sharecroppers_cite|Back up to History]]<br /> :“[March] 4th Planted, Corn, Spinach, Ben hawling manure, John plowing Penny Lancaster & Bob helped me two days—Bicks, James, & Truckpatch Orchard contains 8 acres—I suppose I cultivate in vegetables 5 acres—Trees 3 acres—Flower garden—5 acres—Big Ben Prenter & John are to cultivate it—”<br /> <br /> <br /> *Turnbull, Martha, April 15, 1872, the first entry in which Turnbull uses the term “[[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]]” rather than “gardens” to describe part of Rosedown Plantation (Turnbull: 216)<ref>Turnbull 2012, 216, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FQ4JFX7V view on Zotero].</ref> <br /> :“[April] 15 Augustus worked two days for himself—& Ben in [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]], cleaning [[Statue|Stattues]]”<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Images==<br /> <span id="roundabout_img"></span><br /> <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7"><br /> <br /> File:2204.jpg|Anonymous, “Italian walk,” in [[J. C. Loudon]], ''The Villa Gardener'' (1850), p. 182, fig. 93. <br /> <br /> File:2202.jpg| Frances Benjamin Johnston, Lattice summerhouse at Rosedown Plantation, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.<br /> <br /> File:2203.jpg|Frances Benjamin Johnston, Statue of the personification of Africa, in ''Rosedown Plantation, St. Francisville, W. Feliciana Parish, Louisiana'', 1938.<br /> <br /> </gallery><br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Map==<br /> {{#display_map: <br /> 30.797698, -91.371521<br /> | service=google<br /> | enablefullscreen=yes<br /> }}<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Other Resources==<br /> [https://www.crt.state.la.us/louisiana-state-parks/historic-sites/rosedown-plantation-state-historic-site/index Louisiana State Historic Sites– Rosedown Plantation]<br /> <br /> [https://www.loc.gov/item/la0045/ Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) Documentation]<br /> <br /> <hr><br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <references></references><br /> <br /> <hr/><br /> <br /> [[Category:Places]]</div>

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