History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Benjamin Henry Latrobe

2014-05-29T18:03:16Z

Emily Pugh:

[[File:507px-Benjamin_latrobe_by_peale.jpg‎|thumb|Charles Willson Peale, Portrait of Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1804)]] '''Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe''' (May 1, 1764 – September 3, 1820) was a British-born architect and engineer, widely regarded as the first professional architect in the United States. Best known for his work on the [[United States Capitol]], the Bank of Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore Roman Catholic Cathedral, Latrobe had wide-ranging interests which included drawing, botany, geology, public health, and city planning.

From a young age, Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and buildings. In England, he studied architecture under [[Samuel Pepys Cockerell]] and engineering under [[John Smeaton]] before immigrating to the United States in 1795. Latrobe documented his travels through Virginia and Pennsylvania in an important series of topological and landscape watercolors carried out from 1795 to 1798. He also wrote a two-volume “Essay on Landscape” (1798–99), an illustrated guide to elementary watercolor that retinks the English [[picturesque]] tradition. In addition to numerous sketchbooks, Latrobe kept an eleven-volume journal (1795–98) which records anecdotes and observations on Virginia society, manners, and politics, as well as descriptions of topography, flora, and fauna.

In 1798 Latrobe settled in Philadelphia, where he designed the Bank of Pennsylvania, the first neoclassical building in the United States to display a Grecian order. Latrobe associated classical art with classical virtues and democratic political and social idea. In 1799 Latrobe designed the first American country house in the Gothic Revival style ("[[Sedgeley]]" on the banks of the [[Schuylkill River]], demolished, 1857), and the same year began the [[Philadelphia Waterworks]] (1799–1801) that proved to be the model for other American cities. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society and the Society of Artists.

Latrobe was hired by President [[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1803 to fill the position of "Surveyor of Public Buildings," with the principal responsibility of constructing the [[Capitol]]’s south wing. His architectural designs conceive of the building’s interior, exterior, and landscape setting as a unified whole, and bear a resemblance to the drawings of the British landscape gardener and architect [[Humphry Repton]], who also drew buildings in a park-like setting. In commending the natural surroundings of [[Monticello]] to Latrobe in a letter of 1809, [[Jefferson]] wrote: “You could not fail to take out your pencil & to add another specimen of its excellence in landscape to your drawing of the [[Capitol]] & [[Capitol hill]].”

For most of the balance of his life the [[Capitol]] and the Baltimore Cathedral (1804–1820) would be Latrobe's overriding concerns, although was also responsible for work at the [[President’s House]] and the [[Navy Yard]], and continued to design buildings for clients in other parts of the nation, including Philadelphia where his erstwhile assistants [[Robert Mills]] and [[William Strickland]] were establishing successful careers. Latrobe’s buildings and his personal influence had a profound influence on the development of architecture and the profession of architect in nineteenth-century America.

==Sites==
[[Harper's Estate, Oakland]], [[Place D'Armes]] (renamed [[Jackson Square]]), [[Sedgeley]], [[United States Capitol]], [[United States Navy Hospital and Asylum]]

==Terms==
[[Ancient style]], [[Basin]], [[Canal]], [[Clump]], [[Column/Pillar]], [[Flower Garden]], [[French style]], [[Gate/Gateway]], [[Grove]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence]], [[Landscape Gardening]], [[Lawn]], [[Mall]], [[Obelisk]], [[Parterre]], [[Piazza/Veranda/Porch/Portico]], [[Picturesque]], [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden]], [[Quarter]], [[Square]], [[Statue]], [[Temple]], [[Wood/Woods]]

==Texts==
[[File:1731.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 1, "Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia," June 14, 1796.]]
* 14 June 1796, describing [[Horsdumonde]], house of Col. Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Va. (quoted in Carter, Van Horne, and Brownell 1985: 80–81) <ref name="Latrobe_1985">Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1980. ''The Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1799–1820: From Philadelphia to New Orleans''. Edited by Edward C. Carter II, John C. Van Horne, and Lee W. Formwalt. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3JDJ99E/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
: "In other respects there is a great deal of worldly beauty and convenience about it. The house is a strange building, but whoever contrived it, and from whatever planet he came he was not a ''Lunatic'', for there is much comfort and room in it, though put together very oddly. Before the South front is a range of hills wooded very much in the Stile of an [[English]] park. To the East runs the Apomatox to which a lawn extends." [Fig. 1]

* 19 July 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 1:163) <ref name="Latrobe_1977"> Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1977. ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798''. Edited by Edward C. Carter II. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
:"The general plan of the building is as at Mr. Man Pages at Mansfield near Fredericsburg, of the old School. . . . The center is an old house to which a good dining room has been added at the North end, and a study &c. &c., at the South. The House is connected with the Kitchen offices by [[arcades]]. . . . Along the other front is a [[portico]] supported by 8 square pillars, of good proportions and effect...The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level lawn bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine walk, shaded by weeping Willows. . . . On one side of this lawn is a plain Kitchen garden, on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in squares, and boxed with great precission. Along the North Wall of this Garden is a plain Greenhouse. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time again since I left Germany, I saw here a parterre, chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry." [Fig. 2]
[[File:1041.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 2, Sketch plan of serpentine walks at Mount Vernon, July 19, 1796.]]

* 1798, describing the countryside of Virginia (1977: 473–75)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"When you stand upon the summit of a hill, and see an extensive country of woods and fields without interruption spread before you, you look at it with pleasure. On the Virginia rivers there are a thousand such positions. But this pleasure is perhaps very much derived from a sort of consciousness of superiority of position to all the monotony below you. But turn yourself so as to include in your [[view]] a wide expanse of Water, contrasting by its cool blue surface, the waving, and many colored carpet of the Earth, your pleasure is immediately doubled, or rather a new and much greater pleasure arises. An historical effect is produced. The trade and the cultivation of the country croud [''sic''] into the mind, the imagination runs up the invisible creeks, and visits the half seen habitations. A thousand circumstances are fancied which are not beheld, and the indications of what probably exists, give the pleasure which its [[view]] would afford. Having satiated your eye with this prospect, retire within the Grove, so that the foreground shall consist of trees, and shadowy earth. The landscape is immediately lightened up with a thousand new beauties, arising from the novelty of the Contrast. This particular effect, of seeing a distant [[view]] glittering among near objects is familiar to every observer. The Landscape is now become a perfect composition."

* 28 November 1798, describing a prison in Richmond, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The Ground floor contains the Kitchen and Bakehouse and an open [[Arcade]], the use of which is to admit air into the Area of the building from the Westward, the Quarter from which the Summer winds most usually blow."

* 28 November 1798, describing a prison at Richmond, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
: "The front Walls were built as high as the Ground line, and considerable progress had been made in erecting the [[Gate]]. . . . The [[Gateway]] is carried up to its utmost highth, and will be perfectly finished during the winter. It contains two lodges for a porter and Guards, and on each Wing, a bath and storeroom, on the East for the Women, on the West, for the Men."

* 1798–99, "An Essay on Landscape" (1977: 469–70)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"Mr. Knight in his elegant, but illnatured poem, on [[Landscape gardening]] (as the art of decorating Grounds is called in England) has lines, which have the following sentiment, although I am uncertain about Versification:
::'Search, as you will, the whole creation round
::'Tis after all but Water, Trees, and Ground:
::Vary your spot,—seek something new to please;
::What see you? Water,—ground,—and trees!'"

* 24 April 1800, describing a statue in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"A very striking proof of the folly of expecting that any [[statue]] will be always respected exists in Williamsburg, where Lord Botetourts [[statue]] which had remained untouched during the whole war, was mutilated, and decapitated, by the young collegians, in the first frenzy of the French revolutionary maxiums, because it was the [[statue]] of a Lord. The [[Statue]] now graces Mrs. Hunt's Garden in a very mutilated state. The pedestal has these inscriptions which remained the libel of the country and age, beneath the decapitated statue in 1797 . . . I could furnish you with many other proofs of the perishability of [[statues]], and the immortality of pyramids, from Rome Westminster Abbey, the cedevant place Louis XV, the cidevant Church St. Genevieve, Egypt, Greece and Italy, and (if Mr. Reed will permit) from South Carolina. General Washington's [[statue]] at Richmond has already lost a spur. We know that even his virtues are hated, by fools and rogues, and unfortunately that sort of animals crawl much about in public buildings."

* 26 March 1805, describing a design for a house in Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"From the kitchen a door leads to the Back stairs, which communicate immediately with the Dining room, and the Lady's apartment above stairs. At the foot of these stairs is a small room, which can be well adapted to the purpose of a [[bath]], or a store room."

* 26 March 1805, describing a design for a house in Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The design No. I, if no larger in extent as to the ground it occupies than is wished combines as far as I possess the talent to combine them, the separate advantages of an English and a French town residence of a genteel family. My objects in this residence design were: 1. To avoid back buildings, for which the ground is indeed to shallow if a [[pleasure ground]] and stables on the Alley, both necessary appendages to a good house, are required."

* 11 May 1805, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, describing the White House, Washington, D.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The upper floor of the Middle [[pavilions]], level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses...The obstructions to the colonnade from the stables, may be prevented by giving them a North door, as horses will easily ascend or descend the [[terras]] on the North side. But the most difficult of all is the adjustment of the new connecting building to the different levels of the three existing buildings. Nothing can be admitted short of the [[terras]] of the offices from the Pres.'s House to the pavilions each way being absolutely in the level of the floor of the house."

* 1806, describing a sculpture created for the Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 158)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"> Lounsbury, Carl R., ed. 1994. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape''. New York: Oxford University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/q/Lounsbury view on Zotero]</ref>
:"[Italian sculptor Franzoni is] now engaged in a Free Eagle, also Colossal for the [[Gate]] of the Navy Yard."

* 17 March 1807, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, describing the White House, Washington, D.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"My idea is to carry the road below the hill under a Wall about 8 feet high opposite to the center of the president's house. At this point, I should propose, at a future day to throw an [[Arch]], or [[Arches]] over the road in order to procure a private communication between the pleasure ground of the president's house and the park which reaches to the river, and which will probably be also planted, and perhaps be open to the public.
:"In removing the ground, it would certainly be necessary to go down in front of the colonnade to the level of about one foot below the bases of the Columns but, it will certainly not deprive this colonnade of any part of its beauty to pass behind a few gentle Knolls and [[groves]] or Clumps in its front, and much expense of removing earth would be thereby saved."

* 13 January 1819, describing New Orleans, La. (1951: 23)<ref name="Latrobe_1951"></ref>
:"The public [[square]], which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water view of the city. This [[square]] extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church."

[[File:0060.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, "Taste. Anno 1620," in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).]]
* 20 February 1819, describing Montgomery House, New Orleans, La. (1951: 43–45)<ref name="Latrobe_1951">Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1951. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820''. Edited by Samuel Wilson. New York: Columbia University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in square walks & flower beds in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick hedge of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The Walks are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant. The house itself is one of the usual [[French]] plantation houses of the first class &, I think, by far the best kind of house for the climate, namely, a mansion surrounded entirely by a portico or gallery of two stories. The roof is enormous, however. . . . In order to build the redoubt the corner of the garden was cut off, and part of the orange hedge still grows, in a very decayed state, within the line of the redoubt . . . Mr. Montgomery intends restoring his garden to its former state, when the ruins of this work will entirely disappear." (Fig. 4)

==Images==
===not dated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0086.jpg|"Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia," n.d.

</gallery>

===1790s===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0563.jpg|"View of the North Front of Belvidere, Richmond," late 1790s.
Image:1731.jpg|"Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia," June 14, 1796.
Image:0087.jpg|"View of Mount Vernon looking to the North," July 17, 1796.
Image:0088.jpg|"View to the North from the Lawn at Mount Vernon," 1796.
Image:0089.jpg|"View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South," 1796.
Image:1296.jpg|"Sketch of the House of Mr. Francis Eps on the Appomattox," June 16, 1796.
Image:1041.jpg|Sketch plan of serpentine walks at Mount Vernon, July 19, 1796.
Image:0084.jpg|"Sketch of Airy Plain, Estate" [detail], March 1797.
Image:0458.jpg|"Sketch of Col'l. John Mayo's house at the Hermitage near Richmond, Virginia," July 10, 1797.
Image:0085.jpg|"York River, looking N.W. up to West Point," 1797.
Image:0058.jpg|Houses and a church. Garden plan with outbuildings, 1795-1799
Image:0059.jpg|Houses and a church. Spring house - elevation and plan, 1795-1799.
Image:0062.jpg|Studies of Trees, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0060.jpg|"Taste. Anno 1620," in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:1920.jpg|Venus Flycatcher, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0061.jpg|Studies of Trees, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0083.jpg|''Sedgeley'', 1799.
</gallery>

===1800s===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0412.jpg|"Principal Story of a Military School," 1800.
Image:0413.jpg|''Military academy. North elevation, rendered'', 1800.
Image:0099.jpg|Sketch plan for landscaping the grounds of the President's House, c.1802-1805.
Image:0594.jpg|Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 1803.
Image:0610.jpg|"View of the East front of the President's House, with the additions of the North & South Porticos," 1807.
Image:1952.jpg|House, Richmond, Virginia. Site plan and landscaping.
Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to Latrobe, U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c.1814-1820.
Image:0035.jpg|Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.
Image:1237.jpg|"General Plan of a Marine Asylum and Hospital proposed to be built at Washington," 1815-16.
Image:0414.jpg|"Plan of the West end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall . . .," 1816.
Image:0404.jpg|"Elevation of the South front of the President's house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807," January 1817.
Image:0934.jpg|Plan of the New Orleans, Louisiana Battleground [detail], February 20, 1819.
Image:0063.jpg|"Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819.
Image:1475.jpg|General view of the Billiard Room, from the southeast, spring 1968. Photo by Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard.

</gallery>

==References==
http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79142786

Architect of the Capitol website: http://www.aoc.gov/aoc/architects/latrobe.cfm/

University of Pennsylvania archives: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/latrobe_benj.html

Library of Congress: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/95858242/

Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Latrobe

==Notes==
<references />

Benjamin Henry Latrobe

2014-05-29T18:02:28Z

Emily Pugh:

[[File:507px-Benjamin_latrobe_by_peale.jpg‎|thumb|Charles Willson Peale, Portrait of Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1804)]] '''Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe''' (May 1, 1764 – September 3, 1820) was a British-born architect and engineer, widely regarded as the first professional architect in the United States. Best known for his work on the [[United States Capitol]], the Bank of Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore Roman Catholic Cathedral, Latrobe had wide-ranging interests which included drawing, botany, geology, public health, and city planning.

From a young age, Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and buildings. In England, he studied architecture under [[Samuel Pepys Cockerell]] and engineering under [[John Smeaton]] before immigrating to the United States in 1795. Latrobe documented his travels through Virginia and Pennsylvania in an important series of topological and landscape watercolors carried out from 1795 to 1798. He also wrote a two-volume “Essay on Landscape” (1798-99), an illustrated guide to elementary watercolor that retinks the English [[picturesque]] tradition. In addition to numerous sketchbooks, Latrobe kept an eleven-volume journal (1795-98) which records anecdotes and observations on Virginia society, manners, and politics, as well as descriptions of topography, flora, and fauna.

In 1798 Latrobe settled in Philadelphia, where he designed the Bank of Pennsylvania, the first neoclassical building in the United States to display a Grecian order. Latrobe associated classical art with classical virtues and democratic political and social idea. In 1799 Latrobe designed the first American country house in the Gothic Revival style ("[[Sedgeley]]" on the banks of the [[Schuylkill River]], demolished, 1857), and the same year began the [[Philadelphia Waterworks]] (1799-1801) that proved to be the model for other American cities. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society and the Society of Artists.

Latrobe was hired by President [[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1803 to fill the position of "Surveyor of Public Buildings," with the principal responsibility of constructing the [[Capitol]]’s south wing. His architectural designs conceive of the building’s interior, exterior, and landscape setting as a unified whole, and bear a resemblance to the drawings of the British landscape gardener and architect [[Humphry Repton]], who also drew buildings in a park-like setting. In commending the natural surroundings of [[Monticello]] to Latrobe in a letter of 1809, [[Jefferson]] wrote: “You could not fail to take out your pencil & to add another specimen of its excellence in landscape to your drawing of the [[Capitol]] & [[Capitol hill]].”

For most of the balance of his life the [[Capitol]] and the Baltimore Cathedral (1804-1820) would be Latrobe's overriding concerns, although was also responsible for work at the [[President’s House]] and the [[Navy Yard]], and continued to design buildings for clients in other parts of the nation, including Philadelphia where his erstwhile assistants [[Robert Mills]] and [[William Strickland]] were establishing successful careers. Latrobe’s buildings and his personal influence had a profound influence on the development of architecture and the profession of architect in nineteenth-century America.

==Sites==
[[Harper's Estate, Oakland]], [[Place D'Armes]] (renamed [[Jackson Square]]), [[Sedgeley]], [[United States Capitol]], [[United States Navy Hospital and Asylum]]

==Terms==
[[Ancient style]], [[Basin]], [[Canal]], [[Clump]], [[Column/Pillar]], [[Flower Garden]], [[French style]], [[Gate/Gateway]], [[Grove]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence]], [[Landscape Gardening]], [[Lawn]], [[Mall]], [[Obelisk]], [[Parterre]], [[Piazza/Veranda/Porch/Portico]], [[Picturesque]], [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden]], [[Quarter]], [[Square]], [[Statue]], [[Temple]], [[Wood/Woods]]

==Texts==
[[File:1731.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 1, "Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia," June 14, 1796.]]
* 14 June 1796, describing [[Horsdumonde]], house of Col. Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Va. (quoted in Carter, Van Horne, and Brownell 1985: 80–81) <ref name="Latrobe_1985">Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1980. ''The Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1799–1820: From Philadelphia to New Orleans''. Edited by Edward C. Carter II, John C. Van Horne, and Lee W. Formwalt. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3JDJ99E/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
: "In other respects there is a great deal of worldly beauty and convenience about it. The house is a strange building, but whoever contrived it, and from whatever planet he came he was not a ''Lunatic'', for there is much comfort and room in it, though put together very oddly. Before the South front is a range of hills wooded very much in the Stile of an [[English]] park. To the East runs the Apomatox to which a lawn extends." [Fig. 1]

* 19 July 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 1:163) <ref name="Latrobe_1977"> Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1977. ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798''. Edited by Edward C. Carter II. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
:"The general plan of the building is as at Mr. Man Pages at Mansfield near Fredericsburg, of the old School. . . . The center is an old house to which a good dining room has been added at the North end, and a study &c. &c., at the South. The House is connected with the Kitchen offices by [[arcades]]. . . . Along the other front is a [[portico]] supported by 8 square pillars, of good proportions and effect...The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level lawn bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine walk, shaded by weeping Willows. . . . On one side of this lawn is a plain Kitchen garden, on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in squares, and boxed with great precission. Along the North Wall of this Garden is a plain Greenhouse. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time again since I left Germany, I saw here a parterre, chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry." [Fig. 2]
[[File:1041.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 2, Sketch plan of serpentine walks at Mount Vernon, July 19, 1796.]]

* 1798, describing the countryside of Virginia (1977: 473–75)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"When you stand upon the summit of a hill, and see an extensive country of woods and fields without interruption spread before you, you look at it with pleasure. On the Virginia rivers there are a thousand such positions. But this pleasure is perhaps very much derived from a sort of consciousness of superiority of position to all the monotony below you. But turn yourself so as to include in your [[view]] a wide expanse of Water, contrasting by its cool blue surface, the waving, and many colored carpet of the Earth, your pleasure is immediately doubled, or rather a new and much greater pleasure arises. An historical effect is produced. The trade and the cultivation of the country croud [''sic''] into the mind, the imagination runs up the invisible creeks, and visits the half seen habitations. A thousand circumstances are fancied which are not beheld, and the indications of what probably exists, give the pleasure which its [[view]] would afford. Having satiated your eye with this prospect, retire within the Grove, so that the foreground shall consist of trees, and shadowy earth. The landscape is immediately lightened up with a thousand new beauties, arising from the novelty of the Contrast. This particular effect, of seeing a distant [[view]] glittering among near objects is familiar to every observer. The Landscape is now become a perfect composition."

* 28 November 1798, describing a prison in Richmond, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The Ground floor contains the Kitchen and Bakehouse and an open [[Arcade]], the use of which is to admit air into the Area of the building from the Westward, the Quarter from which the Summer winds most usually blow."

* 28 November 1798, describing a prison at Richmond, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
: "The front Walls were built as high as the Ground line, and considerable progress had been made in erecting the [[Gate]]. . . . The [[Gateway]] is carried up to its utmost highth, and will be perfectly finished during the winter. It contains two lodges for a porter and Guards, and on each Wing, a bath and storeroom, on the East for the Women, on the West, for the Men."

* 1798–99, "An Essay on Landscape" (1977: 469–70)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"Mr. Knight in his elegant, but illnatured poem, on [[Landscape gardening]] (as the art of decorating Grounds is called in England) has lines, which have the following sentiment, although I am uncertain about Versification:
::'Search, as you will, the whole creation round
::'Tis after all but Water, Trees, and Ground:
::Vary your spot,—seek something new to please;
::What see you? Water,—ground,—and trees!'"

* 24 April 1800, describing a statue in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"A very striking proof of the folly of expecting that any [[statue]] will be always respected exists in Williamsburg, where Lord Botetourts [[statue]] which had remained untouched during the whole war, was mutilated, and decapitated, by the young collegians, in the first frenzy of the French revolutionary maxiums, because it was the [[statue]] of a Lord. The [[Statue]] now graces Mrs. Hunt's Garden in a very mutilated state. The pedestal has these inscriptions which remained the libel of the country and age, beneath the decapitated statue in 1797 . . . I could furnish you with many other proofs of the perishability of [[statues]], and the immortality of pyramids, from Rome Westminster Abbey, the cedevant place Louis XV, the cidevant Church St. Genevieve, Egypt, Greece and Italy, and (if Mr. Reed will permit) from South Carolina. General Washington's [[statue]] at Richmond has already lost a spur. We know that even his virtues are hated, by fools and rogues, and unfortunately that sort of animals crawl much about in public buildings."

* 26 March 1805, describing a design for a house in Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"From the kitchen a door leads to the Back stairs, which communicate immediately with the Dining room, and the Lady's apartment above stairs. At the foot of these stairs is a small room, which can be well adapted to the purpose of a [[bath]], or a store room."

* 26 March 1805, describing a design for a house in Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The design No. I, if no larger in extent as to the ground it occupies than is wished combines as far as I possess the talent to combine them, the separate advantages of an English and a French town residence of a genteel family. My objects in this residence design were: 1. To avoid back buildings, for which the ground is indeed to shallow if a [[pleasure ground]] and stables on the Alley, both necessary appendages to a good house, are required."

* 11 May 1805, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, describing the White House, Washington, D.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"The upper floor of the Middle [[pavilions]], level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses...The obstructions to the colonnade from the stables, may be prevented by giving them a North door, as horses will easily ascend or descend the [[terras]] on the North side. But the most difficult of all is the adjustment of the new connecting building to the different levels of the three existing buildings. Nothing can be admitted short of the [[terras]] of the offices from the Pres.'s House to the pavilions each way being absolutely in the level of the floor of the house."

* 1806, describing a sculpture created for the Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 158)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"> Lounsbury, Carl R., ed. 1994. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape''. New York: Oxford University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/q/Lounsbury view on Zotero]</ref>
:"[Italian sculptor Franzoni is] now engaged in a Free Eagle, also Colossal for the [[Gate]] of the Navy Yard."

* 17 March 1807, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, describing the White House, Washington, D.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:"My idea is to carry the road below the hill under a Wall about 8 feet high opposite to the center of the president's house. At this point, I should propose, at a future day to throw an [[Arch]], or [[Arches]] over the road in order to procure a private communication between the pleasure ground of the president's house and the park which reaches to the river, and which will probably be also planted, and perhaps be open to the public.
:"In removing the ground, it would certainly be necessary to go down in front of the colonnade to the level of about one foot below the bases of the Columns but, it will certainly not deprive this colonnade of any part of its beauty to pass behind a few gentle Knolls and [[groves]] or Clumps in its front, and much expense of removing earth would be thereby saved."

* 13 January 1819, describing New Orleans, La. (1951: 23)<ref name="Latrobe_1951"></ref>
:"The public [[square]], which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water view of the city. This [[square]] extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church."

[[File:0060.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, "Taste. Anno 1620," in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).]]
* 20 February 1819, describing Montgomery House, New Orleans, La. (1951: 43–45)<ref name="Latrobe_1951">Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1951. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820''. Edited by Samuel Wilson. New York: Columbia University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in square walks & flower beds in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick hedge of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The Walks are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant. The house itself is one of the usual [[French]] plantation houses of the first class &, I think, by far the best kind of house for the climate, namely, a mansion surrounded entirely by a portico or gallery of two stories. The roof is enormous, however. . . . In order to build the redoubt the corner of the garden was cut off, and part of the orange hedge still grows, in a very decayed state, within the line of the redoubt . . . Mr. Montgomery intends restoring his garden to its former state, when the ruins of this work will entirely disappear." (Fig. 4)

==Images==
===not dated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0086.jpg|"Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia," n.d.

</gallery>

===1790s===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0563.jpg|"View of the North Front of Belvidere, Richmond," late 1790s.
Image:1731.jpg|"Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia," June 14, 1796.
Image:0087.jpg|"View of Mount Vernon looking to the North," July 17, 1796.
Image:0088.jpg|"View to the North from the Lawn at Mount Vernon," 1796.
Image:0089.jpg|"View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South," 1796.
Image:1296.jpg|"Sketch of the House of Mr. Francis Eps on the Appomattox," June 16, 1796.
Image:1041.jpg|Sketch plan of serpentine walks at Mount Vernon, July 19, 1796.
Image:0084.jpg|"Sketch of Airy Plain, Estate" [detail], March 1797.
Image:0458.jpg|"Sketch of Col'l. John Mayo's house at the Hermitage near Richmond, Virginia," July 10, 1797.
Image:0085.jpg|"York River, looking N.W. up to West Point," 1797.
Image:0058.jpg|Houses and a church. Garden plan with outbuildings, 1795-1799
Image:0059.jpg|Houses and a church. Spring house - elevation and plan, 1795-1799.
Image:0062.jpg|Studies of Trees, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0060.jpg|"Taste. Anno 1620," in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:1920.jpg|Venus Flycatcher, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0061.jpg|Studies of Trees, in "Essay on Landscape" (1798-1799).
Image:0083.jpg|''Sedgeley'', 1799.
</gallery>

===1800s===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0412.jpg|"Principal Story of a Military School," 1800.
Image:0413.jpg|''Military academy. North elevation, rendered'', 1800.
Image:0099.jpg|Sketch plan for landscaping the grounds of the President's House, c.1802-1805.
Image:0594.jpg|Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 1803.
Image:0610.jpg|"View of the East front of the President's House, with the additions of the North & South Porticos," 1807.
Image:1952.jpg|House, Richmond, Virginia. Site plan and landscaping.
Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to Latrobe, U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c.1814-1820.
Image:0035.jpg|Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.
Image:1237.jpg|"General Plan of a Marine Asylum and Hospital proposed to be built at Washington," 1815-16.
Image:0414.jpg|"Plan of the West end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall . . .," 1816.
Image:0404.jpg|"Elevation of the South front of the President's house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807," January 1817.
Image:0934.jpg|Plan of the New Orleans, Louisiana Battleground [detail], February 20, 1819.
Image:0063.jpg|"Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819.
Image:1475.jpg|General view of the Billiard Room, from the southeast, spring 1968. Photo by Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard.

</gallery>

==References==
http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79142786

Architect of the Capitol website: http://www.aoc.gov/aoc/architects/latrobe.cfm/

University of Pennsylvania archives: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/latrobe_benj.html

Library of Congress: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/95858242/

Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Latrobe

==Notes==
<references />

Lemon Hill

2014-05-29T18:01:19Z

Emily Pugh:

Lemon Hill (1799–1800) is one of the nation's finest examples of Federal-style architecture. Situated on a spectacular site overlooking the [[Schuylkill River]] in Philadelphia's [[Fairmount Park]], it is a fitting testament to Philadelphia's apogee as a cultural and political center in the post-revolutionary era.
The site of Lemon Hill was originally part of [[Springettsbury]], a proprietary manor owned by [[William Penn]] and his descendants. [[Robert Morris]] purchased 80 acres of this tract in 1770, expanding it to encompass 300 acres, naming it "[[The Hills]]." He lived there from 1770 to 1779. He constructed the [[greenhouses]], [[hot houses]], gardener's quarters, vaults, and root cellars on the property.

[[Henry Pratt]], a wealthy Philadelphia merchant, purchased the land at a sheriff’s sale in 1799. Included in the sale were 43 acres of ground, a large and elegant [[greenhouse]], [[hot houses]] and "[[pleasure gardens]].” Construction of Lemon Hill was completed in 1800. [[Pratt]] named his showplace after the median lemon, a variety of citrus grown in the [[greenhouse]]. He transformed Lemon Hill into one of the finest country estates of the colonial era. He opened the [[greenhouse]] and surrounding [[pleasure gardens]] to the public by "ticket of admission." The [[flower gardens]] were written up in numerous gardening publications and attracted visitors from all over the world. [[Pratt]] sold Lemon Hill in 1836. His plants were sold at auction on June 5, 1838. The catalog, published by the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, offered for sale over 2,700 individual plants of 700 varieties, all properly described with both botanical and common names.
Lemon Hill's famous gardens fell into disarray after [[Pratt]]'s death in 1838. Nevertheless, visitors continued to flock to Lemon Hill in the mid-1850s when it served as a recreational site for participants in German singing festivals, known as "Sangerfests. “Lemon Hill was leased to various concessionaires, who ran a restaurant, candy shop and ice cream parlor on the premises. The mansion and surrounding grounds were in such disrepair by the beginning of the twentieth century that it was hardly recognizable as a mansion in the Federal-style. Lemon Hill became part of [[Fairmount Park]] in 1855.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' The Hills

'''Site Dates:'''

'''Site Owner(s):''' [[Robert Morris]] (1734-1806), [[Henry Pratt]] (1761-1838)

'''Site Designer(s):'''

'''Location:'''<br/>
Philadelphia, PA<br/>
[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Lemon+Hill+Mansion,+Kelly+Drive,+Philadelphia,+PA&hl=en&sll=39.970712,-75.187233&sspn=0.018582,0.033689&oq=lemon+hill+man&hq=Lemon+Hill+Mansion,+Kelly+Drive,+Philadelphia,+PA&t=m&z=15 View on Google maps]

'''Related Sites:''' [[Belmont (Pennsylvania)]], [[Clermont]], [[Fairmont]]

'''Related Terms:''' [[Alley]], [[Border]], [[Bower]], [[Cascade]], [[Conservatory]], [[Eminence]], [[Espalier]], [[Fountain]], [[French style]], [[Gardenesque]], [[Geometric style]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Grotto]], [[Grove]], [[Hothouse]], [[Icehouse]], [[Jet]], [[Lake/Pond]], [[Mound]], [[Parterre]], [[Plat]], [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden]], [[Prospect]], [[Public garden/Public ground]], [[Seat]], [[Shrubbery]], [[Statue]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Trellis]], [[Vase/Urn]], [[Walk]]

==Texts==
* [[Robert Morris|Morris, Robert]], 15 June 1784, in a letter to [[George Washington]], describing The Hills (later '''Lemon Hill'''), estate of [[Robert Morris]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Riley 1989: 8) <ref>Riley, John P. 1989. ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon''. Mount Vernon, Va.: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero]</ref>
:“My [[icehouse|Ice House]] is about 18 feet deep and 16 square, the bottom is a Coarse Gravell & the water which drains from the ice soaks into it as fast as the Ice melts, this prevents the necessity of a Drain which if the bottom was Clay or Stiff Loam would be necessary and for this reason the side of a hill is preferred generally for digging an [[icehouse|Ice House]], as if needful a drain can easily be cut from the bottom of it, through the side of the Hill to let the Water run out. The Walls of my [[icehouse|Ice House]] are built of stone without Mortar (which is called Dry Wall) untill within a foot and a half of the Surface of the Earth when Mortar was used from thence to the Surface to make the top more binding and Solid. When this Wall was brought up even with the Surface of the Earth I stopped there and then dug the foundation for another Wall, two foot back from the first and about two foot deep, this done the foundation was laid so as to enclose the whole of the Walls built on the inside of the Hole where the Ice is put and on this foundation is built the Walls which appear above ground and in mine they are about ten foot high. On these the Roof is fixed, these walls are very thick, built of Stone and Mortar, afterwards rough Cast on the outside. I nailed a Cieling of Boards under the Roof flat from Wall to Wall, and filled all the Space between that Cieling and the Shingling of the Roof with Straw so that the heat of the Sun Cannot possibly have any Effect.
:“In the Bottom of the [[icehouse|Ice House]] I placed some Blocks of Wood about two foot long and on these I laid a Plat form of Common Fence Rails Close enough to hold the Ice open enough to let the Water pass through, thus the Ice lays two foot from the Gravel and of Course gives room for the Water to soak away gradually without being in contact with the Ice, which if it was for any time would waste it amazingly. . . .
:“I find it best to fill with Ice which as it is put in should be broke into small pieces and pounded down with heavy Clubs or Battons such as Pavers use, if well beat it will after a while consolidate into one solid mass and require to be cut out with a Chizell or Axe. I tryed Snow one year and lost it in June. The Ice keeps until October or November and I believe if the Hole was larger so as [to h]old more it would keep untill Christmass, the closer it is packed the bet[ter i]t keeps and I believe if the Walls were lined with Straw between the Ice [and] Stone it would preserve it much, the melting begins next the Walls and Continues round the Edge of the Body of Ice throughout the Season.”

* [[Rev. Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], 13 July 1787, describing The Hills (later '''Lemon Hill'''), estate of [[Robert Morris]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1987: 1:256–57) <ref>Cutler, Manasseh. 1987. ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler''. Edited by William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler. 2 vols. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“We continued our route, in view of the [[Schuylkill]], and up the river several miles, and took a view of a number of Country-[[seat]]s, one belonging to Mr. R. Morris, the American financier, and who is said to be possessed of the greatest fortune in America. His country-[[seat]] is not yet completed, but it will be superb. It is planned on a large scale, the gardens and [[walk]]s are extensive, and the villa, situated on an [[eminence]], has a commanding [[prospect]] down the [[Schuylkill]] to the Delaware.”

* [[Lewis Beebe|Beebe, Lewis]], 1800, describing '''Lemon Hill''', estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Martin 1991: 113) <ref name="Martin_1991">Martin, Peter. 1991. ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson''. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/q/martin view on Zotero]</ref>
:"An [[ally]] of 13 feet wide runs the length of the garden thro' the centre—. Two others of 10 feet wide equally distant run parallel with the main [[alley]]. These are intersected at right angles, by 4 other [[alleys]] of 8 feet wide—Another [[alley]] of 5 feet wide goes around the whole garden, leaving a [[border]] of 3 feet wide next to the pales. This lays the garden into 20 squares, each square has a [[border]] around it of 3 feet wide. The [[border]] of the main [[alley]], is ornamented with flowers of every description. Likewise the [[border]] of every square, is decorated with pinks and a thousand other flowers, which it [is] impossible for me to describe. The remaining part of each square, within the [[border]], is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Beets, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuce, Radishes, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles. . . . Within the pales, on the out [[border]], one planted, Quince, snowball, Laylock, and various other small trees, producing the most beautiful flowers."

* Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, Pa. (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Lewis Beebe, 1799–1801, vol. 3)
:"Mr. Pratts garden for beauty and elegance exceeds all that I ever saw—The main [[alley]], 13 feet wide, and 20 rods long is upon each side graced with flowers of every kind and colours—and 18 wide. An [[alley]] of 13 feet wide runs the length of the garden thro' the centre—Two others of 10 feet wide equally distant run parallel with the main [[alley]]. These are intersected at right angles by 4 other [[alleys]] of 8 feet wide—Another [[alley]] of 5 feet wide goes around the whole garden, leaving a border around it of 3 feet wide . . . next to the pales. . . . The border of the main [[alley]] is ornamented with flowers of every description."

* [[Joshua Watson Rowley|Watson, Joshua Rowley]], 7 July 1816, describing '''Lemon Hill''', estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 299) <ref>Foster, Kathleen A. 1997. ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero]</ref>
:"We drove over the Upper Bridge to Mr Pratts who has a large collection of plants and extensive [[greenhouse|Greenhouses]] & ca. His grounds are too much after the [[French style|French]] manner of [[pleasure garden]]s."

* [[Benjamin L.C. Wailes|Wailes, Benjamin L.C.]], 29 December 1829, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Moore 1954: 359-60) <ref name="Moore_1954">Moore, John Hebron. 1954. "A View of Philadelphia in 1829: Selections from the Journal of B.L.C. Wailes of Natchez." ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 78 (July): 353–60. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z9IBV7A4/q/Moore view on Zotero]</ref>
:"But the most enchanting [[prospect]] is towards the grand pleasure [[grove]] & [[greenhouse|green house]] of a Mr. Prat[t], a gentleman of fortune, and to this we next proceeded by a circutous [''sic''] rout, passing in view of the fish [[pond]]s, [[bower]]s, rustic retreats, [[summerhouse|summer houses]], [[fountain]]s, [[grotto]], &c., &c. . . . Next is a round fish [[pond]] with a small [[fountain]] playing in the [[pond]]. An Oval & several oblong fish [[pond]]s of larger size follow, & between the two last is an artificial [[cascade]]. Several [[summerhouse|summer houses]] in [[rustic style]] are made by nailing bark on the outside & thaching the roof. There is also a rustic [[seat]] built in the branches of a tree, & to which a flight of steps ascend. In one of the [[summerhouse|summer houses]] is a Spring with [[seat]]s around it. The houses are all embelished [''sic''] with marble busts of Venus, Appollo, Diana and a Bacanti. One sits on an Island on the fish [[pond]]. All the [[pond]]s filled with handsome coloured fish."
:"The grounds are planted with a great variety of [[shrubbery]] & evergreens of various kinds of the pine & fir, and the [[hothouse|hot house]] is said to be the largest in the US. It is filled to overflowing with the choicest Exotics: the Chaddock Orange of different kinds & the Lemon loaded with fruit. There are two coffee trees with their berries. Some few [[shrubbery|shrubs]] were in flower & others seeded, & I was politely furnished with a few seed of 2 varieties of flowers (Myrtle & an accacia). In front of the [[hothouse|hot house]], one at each end, is a Lion of marble, well executed, & a dog in front. On the roof is a range of marble busts."

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing '''Lemon Hill''', estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 431-432) <ref name="Boyd_1929">Boyd, James. 1929. ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927''. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/q/boyd view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Undoubtedly this is the best kept garden in Pennsylvania, and when associated with the green and [[hothouse|hot house]] department, may be pronounced unrivalled in the Union. The gravel [[walk]]s, [[espalier]]s, plants, [[shrubbery|shrubs]], [[mound]]s, and grass [[plat]]s, are dressed periodically and minutely..."
:"The treasures contained in the hot and [[green houses]] are numerous. Besides a very fine collection of Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Shaddock, Bergamot, Pomgranate and Fig trees in excellent condition and full of fruit, we notice with admiration the many thousand of exotics to which Mr. Pratt is annually adding. The most conspicuous among these, are the tea tree; the coffee tree—loaded with fruit; the sugar cane; the pepper tree; Banana, Plantain, Guva, Cherimona, Ficus, Mango, the Cacti in great splendour, some 14 feet high, and a gigantic Euphorbia Trigonia—19 years old, and 13 feet high. The [[greenhouse|green houses]] are 220 feet long by 16 broad; exhibiting the finest range of glass for the preservation of plants, on this continent."
:"Colonel Perkins, near Boston, has it is true, a grapery and peach [[Espalier]], protected by 330 feet of glass, yet as there are neither flues not foreign plants in them, they cannot properly be called [[greenhouse|green houses]], whereas Mr. Pratt's are furnished with the rarest productions of every clime, so that the committee place the [[conservatory]] of [[Lemon Hill]] at the very head of all similar establishments in this country."
:"There are some pretty [[bower]]s, [[summerhouse|summer houses]], [[grotto]]s and fish [[pond]]s in this garden—the latter well stored with gold and silver fish. The mansion house is capacious and modern, and the [[prospect]]s, on all sides, extremely beautiful. In [[landscape gardening]], water and wood are indispensable for [[picturesque]] effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and lawn and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of [[Fairmount]]."

* [[A.J. Downing|Downing, A.J.]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” describing '''Lemon Hill''', estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 4)
:“For a long time the grounds of Mr. Pratt, at [[Lemon Hill]], near Philadelphia, have been considered the show-garden of that city: and the proprietor, with a praiseworthy spirit, opening his long-shaded [[walk]]s, cool [[grotto|grottoes]], [[jet|jets d’eau]], and the superb range of [[hothouse|hot-houses]], to the inspection of the citizens, contributed in a wonderful degree to improve the taste of the inhabitants, and to inspire them with a desire to possess the more beautiful and delicate productions of nature.”

* [[A.J. Downing|Downing, A.J.]], 1849, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 43) <ref name="Downing_1849">Downing, A.J. [Andrew Jackson]. [1849] 1991. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America''; . . . Reprint of 4th edition. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64/q/downing view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''Lemon Hill''', half a mile above the [[Fairmount]] water-works of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the [[geometric style|geometric]] mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial plantations, formal gardens with [[trellis|trellises]], [[grotto|grottoes]], spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d'eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the [[Schuylkill]], admirable; and its liberal proprietor, Mr. Pratt, by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city."

* [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon, J.C.]], 1850, describing '''Lemon Hill''', estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 331) <ref> Loudon, J.C. (John Claudius). 1850. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero]</ref>
:"850. '''''Lemon Hill''', near Philadelphia''. . . . [Downing observes:] '. . . An extensive range of [[hothouse|hothouses]], curious [[grotto|grottoes]] and spring-houses, as well as every other gardenesque structure, gave variety and interest to this celebrated spot, which we regret the rapidly extending trees, and the mania for improvement there, as in some of our other cities, have now nearly destroyed and obliterated.' (''Downing's Landscape Gardening adapted to North America.'')"

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill'', c.1800.

Image:0043.jpg|[[John Archibald Woodside Sr.]], ''Lemon Hill'', 1807.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1038.jpg|[[Frederick Graff, "Plan of Lemon Hill and Sedgley Park, Fairmount and Adjoining Property"]], 1851.

Image:1803.jpg|[[B.R. Evans]], ''Lemon Hill'', 1852.

</gallery>

==References==

Official website: http://www.lemonhill.org/

==Notes==
<references/>

Avenue

2014-05-08T15:27:06Z

Emily Pugh: /* Associated */

==Discussion==

[[File:0232.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 1, [[Charles Fraser]], "[[Golden Grove]], The [[Seat]] of Mrs. Sommers -- Stono," 1810.]]
As <span id="Webster_cite"></span>[[Noah Webster|Noah Webster’s]] definition states, the word avenue signifies a passage and is rooted in the French word ''venir'' (L. ''vinio''), to come or go ([[#Webster|view citation]]). In landscape design an avenue, which was typically planted with trees, varied in scale from a [[walk]] to a wide street. From [[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] 1712 description of Williamsburg, Va., to [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Rev. Nehemiah Adams’s]] 1842 account of [[Boston Common]], the avenue has figured prominently in the American designed landscape in a wide range of contexts. An avenue provided an approach to a house, as shown in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser’s]] painting of [[Golden Grove]] in South Carolina [Fig. 1]. It served as a public roadway suited to the monumental scale of a governor’s palace, a Native American [[mound]], or a domed capitol. Avenues were also common elements of gardens, public [[park]]s, and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], where they became popular settings for [[promenade]]s and elegant carriage drives.
[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 2, [[Charles Burton]], ''View of the United States Capitol along Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C.'', 1824.]]

Treatises such as [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley’s]] ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728) and [[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) extolled the benefits of avenues and emphasized the importance of designing them in relative proportion to surrounding architecture. Images of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. [Fig. 2], and [[Thomas S. Sinclair|Thomas S. Sinclair's]] plan of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] in Philadelphia [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|Fig. 17]]] illustrate the variety of American avenues from urban roadways to garden walkways, as well as their corresponding shifts in scale. One of the key characteristics distinguishing avenues from other circulation routes (such as the [[alley]], or path, and road, street, and [[walk]]) was their relative size (see [[Alley]] and [[Walk]]). <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M’Mahon]] noted in his 1806 treatise that avenues in gardens require “some spacious open space” ([[#MMahon|view citation]]), and <span id="Ingraham_cite"></span>[[Joseph Holt Ingraham|Joseph Holt Ingraham’s]] 1835 description of a plantation along the Mississippi River differentiated between the broad main avenue and the branching narrower [[walk]]s ([[#Ingraham|view citation]]).
[[File:0147.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Door panels at the [[Thaxter-Lincoln House]], 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.]]

The construction of avenues varied; descriptions mention surfaces of dirt, cobblestone, gravel, and brick. In 1829 the <span id="New_England_Farmer_cite"></span>''New England Farmer'' described an avenue in Albany, N.Y., as “McAdamized in the true English style” ([[#New_England_Farmer|view citation]]). The planting of avenues also varied depending on their context. As <span id="Chambers_cite"></span>[[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers’]] 1741–43 definition suggests, tree plantings were an essential element of an avenue, accentuating its scale and reinforcing its role in directing the gaze ([[#Chambers|view citation]]). <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon]] similarly commented in 1806 on the relative merits of deciduous and evergreen trees for avenue plantings ([[#MMahon|view citation]]). In the warmer climes, trees such as lemon, orange, live oak, and palm were planted along avenues, while in the mid-Atlantic poplar, cherry, lime [or linden], and cedar were popular choices. New England descriptions mention linden, larch, maple, elm, locust, and chestnut trees. <span id="Downing_1849_cite"></span>[[A.J. Downing]] recommended elms, plane trees, horse chestnuts, maples, and tulip trees for avenues ([[#Downing_1849|view citation]]). While the spreading branches, such as those described by <span id="Adams_1842_cite"></span> [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams]] on [[Boston Common]] in 1842 ([[#Adams_1842|view citation]]), created “ancient shade” and alluded to Gothic architecture, tall narrow trees such as poplar and palm enhanced the straight vistas that avenues created. As <span id="Warden_cite"></span>[[David Bailie Warden]] complained of Washington, D.C., in 1816, however, this vegetation offered little relief from the oppressive heat ([[#Warden|view citation]]).
[[File:0106.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 4, Anonymous, "A Plan of [[Westover]]" [detail], 1701, in [[William Byrd]], ''Title Book, 1637-1743'' (1743).]]

Avenues were typically planted with trees on both sides in single or double rows, although, as <span id="Deane_cite"></span>[[Samuel Deane]] (1790) noted, trees might also be planted on only one side ([[#Deane|view citation]]). In contrast to straight rows of trees, <span id="Complete_Farmer_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] (1759) recommended planting avenues in clumps, or as ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769) identified them, “platoons,” of seven or nine trees grouped at intervals of 300 feet ([[#Complete_Farmer|view citation]]). Clumped plantings were extolled further by <span id="Whately_cite"></span>[[Thomas Whately]], who advocated in 1770 that the “modern” winding avenue should be used as an approach to a house because it “commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective” ([[#Whately|view citation]]). This style of winding avenues and clumped plantings was rarely employed in America until the 1830s and 1840s, when more naturalistic designs can be seen at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], and later in 1850 at Mrs. Pratt’s residence in Boston. One early exception was the redesign of the garden at [[Mount Vernon]] in the 1780s, in which [[George Washington|Washington]] used serpentine avenues for the approach to the house and planted [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] and [[wilderness|wildernesses]] in the bends of the roadway.<ref>Dennis J. Pogue, “Mount Vernon: Transformation of an Eighteenth-Century Plantation System,” in ''Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake'', ed. Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 101–14. Although Washington and J. P. Brissot de Warville referred to the roadways as “avenues,” other descriptions called them walks. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3EMQF6M/q/Pogue view on Zotero]</ref>
<div id="Fig_5"></div>[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 5, [[James Stoddert]], A ground [[plat]] of the city and port of Annapolis, copy of James Stoddert's map of 1718, 1718 [1743]. [[#Fig_5_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]

Despite [[Thomas Whately|Whately’s]] criticism that straight avenues have “a tedious sameness” and the buildings to which they are “appropriated . . . [are] seldom shewn to advantage,” most American descriptions praised the effect of tree-lined avenues in directing one’s view to a terminal point. <span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] 1847 discussion of “Avenue” explains how this effect is achieved as the avenue “cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the prospect to a narrow [[vista]]” ([[#Johnson|view citation]]). <span id="Fithian_cite"></span>Such adjectives as “elegant,” “grand,” “noble,” and “handsome” were used repeatedly in descriptions of avenues framing a house, such as that at [[Nomini Hall]] in Westmoreland County, Va., which was described in 1774 by [[Philip Vickers Fithian]] ([[#Fithian|view citation]]). The painted door panels of the [[Thaxter-Lincoln house]] in Hingham, Mass. [Fig. 3], illustrate this framing effect, as do <span id="Mason_cite"></span>[[John Mason|John Mason’s]] recollections (c.1830) of his father’s avenue at [[Gunston Hall]], Va., with its double rows of black heart cherry trees on either side ([[#Mason|view citation]]). <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>[[Jean de La Quintinie]] (1693) described avenues as “more properly leading to the front of Houses” ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]), and some of the earliest landscaping in Virginia was the construction of avenues aligned with houses’ central axes, as in <span id="Byrd_cite"></span>[[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] description of the [[Governor’s Palace]] at Williamsburg (1712) ([[#Byrd|view citation]]), or seen on the 1701 plan of his own estate of [[Westover]] [Fig. 4].

Through the mid-nineteenth century, travelers in the South admired plantation dwelling houses fronted by straight, shaded avenues arched with mature live oaks. It is also interesting to note that despite treatise writers’ repeated assertions that avenues were becoming less fashionable, visitors continued to admire plantings of stately trees, and homeowners, such as [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], still planted avenues in the 1840s. Their lasting visual appeal and the legacy of mature trees have made avenues an enduring element of American design despite shifts in gardening styles.

<div id="Fig_6"></div>[[File:0031.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 6, [[Andrew Ellicott]], "Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia," 1795. [[#Fig_6_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]
Urban avenues—created by designers such as [[Francis Nicholson]] in Williamsburg; in Annapolis [<span id="Fig_5_cite"></span>[[#Fig_5|Fig. 5]]], and, possibly, in St. Mary’s City, Md.; and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] in Washington, D.C. [<span id="Fig_6_cite"></span>[[#Fig_6|Fig. 6]]]—were direct imports of eighteenth-century urban design principles.<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965). For a discussion of the design of St. Mary’s City, Md., see Henry Miller, “Baroque Cities in the Wilderness: Archaeology and Urban Development in the Colonial Chesapeake,” ''Historical Archaeology'' 22, no. 2 (1988): 57–73. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/Reps view on Zotero]</ref> <span id="Twining_cite"></span>[[Thomas Twining|Thomas Twining’s]] 1796 account of Washington in the early stages of construction detailed how, from the avenues clear cut through the [[woods]], he knew he was in a “metropolitan city" ([[#Twining|view citation]]). <span id="Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite"></span>The imagery of avenues cut through America’s abundant woodlands as a sign of advancing civilization was echoed as late as 1844 in a report about Rochester, N.Y., in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' ([[#Magazine_of_Horticulture|view citation]]). The width and unbroken length in American avenues were not only reminiscent of European models, but the feature also carried the same connotations of authority, monumentality, and status. Such a form, which did not deviate for any obstacle, suggested enormous resources and power. The convergence of avenues on a single point, as with the U.S. Capitol depicted in [[Robert P. Smith|Robert P. Smith’s]] 1850 view of Washington, D.C. [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|Fig. 7]]], reinforced the centrality of the monument and the authority that it represented by controlling both sight lines and movement within the urban fabric. Whether a visiting diplomat, a parading soldier, or protesting citizen, those who experienced the broad swath of Pennsylvania Avenue leading to the domed capitol had no doubt as to the central authority of the city and the nation that it represented. The scale of avenues also made them suited for larger landscape designs of institutional grounds, where they provided shaded walkways and directed views toward significant structures. Examples include the plan for the [[University of North Carolina]] of 1795 [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|Fig. 8]]] and the plan for the [[University of Michigan]] of 1838 [<span id="Fig_9_cite"></span>[[#Fig_9|Fig. 9]]].

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<div id="Fig_7"></div>[[File:0025.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 7, [[Robert P. Smith]], ''View of Washington'', c.1850. [[#Fig_7_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]
<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0410.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 8, [[Charles W. Harris]], "A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs," 1795. "Avenue runs N.96E" is inscribed at the center of the drawing. [[#Fig_8_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]
<div id="Fig_9"></div>[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Design for [[University of Michigan]] (elevation and plan of building and grounds)'', c.1838. [[#Fig_9_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]

==Texts==

===Common Usage===

* <div id="Byrd"></div>[[William Byrd II|Byrd, William, II]], 2 February 1712, describing a visit to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF) [[#Byrd_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“About 11 o’clock I went to see the Governor’s '''avenue''' and his great house which pleased him.”

* Anonymous, 1737, describing in the ''Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia'' the proposed improvements to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Lounsbury, Carl R., ed. 1994. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape''. New York: Oxford University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Ordered that there be paid to Mr. Philip Finch the sum of ten pounds for laying and planting the '''Avenue''' to the Governors House.”

* [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, S.C. (1972: 62) <ref>Pinckney, Eliza Lucas. 1972. ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney'', 1739–1762. Edited by Elise Pinckney. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I . . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the '''Avenue''' that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

* [[Hannah Callender|Callender, Hannah]], 1762, describing [[Belmont Mansion]], estate of [[Judge William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 12: 455) <ref>Vaux, George. 1888. “Extracts from the Diary of Hannah Callender.” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 12 (1): 432–56. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/STWXKSK3/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“A broad [[walk]] of English cherry trees leads down to the river. . . . One '''avenue''' gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City. . . . Another '''avenue''' looks to the [[obelisk]].”

* [[Contemporary Observer]] [pseud.], 1767, describing the [[William Trent House]], Trenton, N.J. (quoted in Dillon 1987b: 145B) <ref>Dillon, Clarissa F. 1987. “‘A Large, an Useful, and a Grateful Field’: Eighteenth-Century Kitchen Gardens in Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Uses of the Plants, and Their Place in Women’s Work”. Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJASV475/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“a genteel brick dwelling house . . . with a large handsome staircase and entry . . . a large handsome '''avenue''' of English cherry trees.”

* [[Hugh Finlay|Finlay, Hugh]], 2 January 1774, describing a journey through South Carolina (CWF)
:“now and then we see a swamp, consequently a rice [[plantation]] . . . we came sometimes to '''avenues''' leading from the high road terminated by a farm houses at a quarter, half and sometimes three quarters of a mile distant.”

* <div id="Fithian"></div>[[Philip Vickers Fithian|Fithian, Philip Vickers]], 18 March 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, Va. (1943: 108–9) <ref>Fithian, Philip Vickers. 1943. ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion''. Edited by Hunter D. Farish. Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Fithian_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Due East of the Great House are two Rows of tall, flourishing, beautiful, Poplars, beginning on a Line drawn from the School to the Wash-House; these Rows are something wider than the House, & are about 300 yards Long, at the Eastermost end of which is the great Road. . . . These Rows of Poplars form an extremely pleasant '''avenue''', & at the Road, through them, the House appears most romantic, at the same time that it does truly elegant.”

* Anonymous, 1778, describing in the ''South Carolina and American General Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"/>
:“Magnolia or Laurels fit for '''Avenues''' . . . any height from three feet to twenty.”

* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], 21 March 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:106) <ref>Jackson, Donald, and Dorothy Twohig, ed. 1976. ''The Diaries of George Washington''. 6 vols. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TDKNKCXK/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Staked up the largest of my Trees in the '''avenues''' and [[Wilderness]] and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning.”

* [[J.P. Brissot de Warville|Brissot de Warville, J.P.]], 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1792: 427–28) <ref>Brissot de Warville, J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre). 1792. ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788''. New York: T. & J. Swords. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . . On this rout traverse a considerable [[wood]], and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grassplats; on one side of the '''avenue''' are the stables, on the other a [[greenhouse|green-house]], and houses for a number of negro mechanics.”

[[File:1815.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 10, [[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, Georgia, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.]]
* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1789, describing Mount Royal near Lake George, Ga. (1853: 57-58)<ref>Bartram, William. 1789. “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 1789, with Prefatory and Supplementary Notes by E.G. Squier.” ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853): 1–81. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CWNCZI8N view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Fig. 6, is a perspective plan of this great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', the latter leading off to an expansive savanna or natural [[meadow]]. A, the [[mound]], about forty feet in perpendicular height; B, the highway leading from the [[mound]] in a straight line to the [[pond]] C, about a half mile distant. What may have been the motive for making this pond I cannot conjecture, since they are situated close to the banks of the river San Juan. It could not, therefore, be for the conveniency of water. Perhaps they raised the [[mound]] with the earth taken out of the [[pond]]. The sketch of the [[mound]] also illustrates the character of the [[mound]]s in the Cherokee country; but the last have not the highway or '''avenue''', and are always accompanied by vast square [[terrace]]s, placed upon one side or the other. On the other hand, we never see the square [[terrace]]s accompanying the high [[mound]]s of East Florida." [Fig. 10]

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a residence on St. Simon’s Island, Ga. (1928: 71–72) <ref name="Bartram_1928">Bartram, William. 1928. ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida''. Edited by Mark Van Doren. New York: Dover. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Following an old highway, now out of repair, across the Savanna, I ascended the sloping green bank, and entered a noble forest of lofty pines, and then a venerable [[grove]] of Live Oaks, under whose shady spreading boughs opened a spacious '''avenue''', leading to the former [[seat]] of general Oglethorpe, but now the property of capt. Raimond Demere. . . .
:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a view of the inlet. A cool area surrounded the low but convenient buildings, from whence, through the [[grove|groves]], was a spacious '''avenue''' into the island, terminated by a large savanna; each side of the '''avenue''' was lined with bee-hives, to the number of fifty or sixty; they seemed to be well peopled, and exhibited a lively image of a colony that has attained to a state of power and affluence, by the practice of virtue and industry.”

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Lake George, Ga. (1928: 101, 104) <ref name="Bartram_1928"/>
:“From this place we enjoyed a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the great Lake George, through a grand '''avenue''', if I may so term this narrow reach of the river, which widens gradually for about two miles, towards its entrance into the [[lake]], so as to elude the exact rules of perspective, and appears of an equal width. . . .
:“On the site of this ancient town, stands a very pompous Indian [[mount]], or conical pyramid of earth, from which runs in a straight line a grand '''avenue''' or Indian highway, through a magnificent [[grove]] of magnolias, live oaks, palms, and orange trees, terminating at the verge of a large green level savanna.”

* [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], 22 June 1791, in a report to [[George Washington]] describing L’Enfant’s plans for Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151) <ref name="Caemmerer_1950">Caemmerer, H. Paul. 1950. ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington''. Washington, D.C.: National Republic. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[I] made the distribution regular with streets at right angle north-south and east west but afterwards I opened others on various directions as '''avenues''' to and from every principal places, wishing by this not merely to contrast with the general regularity nor to afford a greater variety of pleasant [[seat]]s and [[prospect]] as will be obtained from the advantageous ground over the which the '''avenues''' are mostly directed but principally to connect each part of the city with more efficacy by, if I may so express, making the real distance less from place to place in menaging on them a reisprocity of sight and making them thus seemingly connected promot a rapide stellement over the whole.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 11, [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ," 1791.]]
* [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], 4 January 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City” describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 163–65)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950"/>
:“II. Lines or '''Avenues''' of direct communication have been devised, to connect the separate and most distant objects with the principal, and to preserve through the whole a reciprocity of sight at the same time. Attention has been paid to the passing of those leading '''avenues''' over the most favorable ground for [[prospect]] and convenience. . . .
:“Every Grand transverse '''Avenue''', and every principal divergent one, such as the communication from the President’s House to the Congress House etc. are 160 feet in breadth and thus divided:
::10 feet of pavement on each side . . . . . . 20
::30 feet of gravel [[walk]] planted
::with trees on each side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
::80 feet in the middle for carriage way . . 80
::::160 feet. . . .
:“H. Grand '''Avenue''', 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a slope from the houses on each side. This '''Avenue''' leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the
:“I. President’s park and the
:“K. well-improved field.” [Fig. 11]

* [[Francis Bailey|Bailey, Francis]], 1796, describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Reps 1965: 257) <ref>Reps, John W. 1965. ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States''. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The truth is, that not much more than one-half the city is ''cleared'':—the rest is ''in [[woods]]''; and most of the streets which are laid out are cut through these [[wood]]s, and have a much more pleasing effect now than I think they will have when they shall be built; for ''now'' they appear like broad '''avenues''' in a park, bounded on each side by thick [[wood]]s; and their being so many of them, and proceeding in so many various directions, they have a certain wild, yet uniform and regular appearance, which they will lose when confined on each side by brick walls.”

* <div id="Twining"></div>[[Thomas Twnining|Twining, Thomas]], 27 April 1796, describing Washington, D.C. (1894: 100–102) <ref>Twining, Thomas. 1894. ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago''. New York: Harper. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Twining_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“After some time this indistinct way assumed more the appearance of a regular '''avenue''', the trees here having been cut down in a straight line. Although no habitation of any kind was visible, I had no doubt but I was now riding along one of the streets of the metropolitan city. I continued in this spacious '''avenue''' for half a mile, and then came out upon . . . the centre of the city. . . . Looking from where I now stood I saw on every side a thick [[wood]] pierced with '''avenues''' in a more or less perfect state . . . all the '''avenues''' converged to that point.”

* [[John Davis|Davis, John]], 1798–1802, describing [[Ocean Plantation]], property of [[Thomas Drayton]], Jasper County, S.C. (quoted in Jones 1957: 79) <ref>Jones, Katharine M. 1957. ''The Plantation South''. New York: Bobbs-Merrill. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero]</ref>
: “To form an idea of [[Ocean Plantation]], let the reader picture to his imagination an '''avenue''' of several miles, leading from the Savannah road, through a continued forest, to a wooden-house, encompassed by rice-grounds, corn and cotton fields.”

* Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the Capitol in Milledgeville, Ga. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"/>
: “[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House square and '''avenues''' of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[promenade|prominade]] [sic].”

* <div id="Warden"></div>[[David Bailie Warden|Warden, David Bailie]], 1816, describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 100) <ref>Junior League of Washington. 1977. ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Warden_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“It is deeply to be regretted that the government or corporation did not employ some means for the preservation of the trees which grew on places destined for the public [[walk]]s. How agreeable would have been their shade along the Pennsylvania '''Avenue''' where the dust so often annoys, and the summer sun, reflected from the sandy soil, is so oppressive. The Lombardy poplar, which now supplies their place, serves more for ornament than shelter.”

* Anonymous, 1825, describing South Carolina (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 184) <ref name="Schwaab_1973">Schwaab, Eugene L., and Jacqueline Bull. 1973. ''Travels in the Old South''. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Many of the country [[seat]]s of the rich planters are elegant; the beautiful '''avenues''' of live-oak, which lead from the road to the doors of the mansions tend to give a grand and beautiful effect to the whole.”

* S., J.W., September 1829, describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] horticultural and botanical garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. (quoted in ''Gardener’s Magazine'', 8: 2)
:“To the left of the garden, an ''avenue'' leads to a rustic [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss.”

* <div id="New_England_Farmer"></div>Anonymous, 4 September 1829, “Country Seats Near New York,” describing a farm near Albany, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 8: 53) [[#New_England_Farmer_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“An ''avenue'', McAdamized in the true [[English style]], leads through a rich and extensive [[lawn]] to the mansion, which is finely shaded with aged elms, locust and chestnut.”

* [[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing New York, N.Y. (1832: 2:158) <ref>Trollope, Frances. 1832. ''Domestic Manners of the Americans''. 3rd ed. 2 vols. London: Wittaker, Treacher. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“From hence [the battery] commences the splendid Broadway, as the fine '''avenue''' is called, which runs through the whole city.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Sweet Briar]], [[seat]] of [[Samuel Breck]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425) <ref>Boyd, James. 1929. ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927''. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Several native lime trees (Tilia Americana and Tilia Europaea) are planted along the '''avenue''', exhibiting a remarkable difference in appearance; the first retaining its foliage in full vigour until the 15th of October, whilst the latter sheds its leaves as early as the 10th of August, and some years even in July.”

* <div id="Mason"></div>[[John Mason|Mason, General John]], c.1830, describing [[Gunston Hall]], [[seat]] of [[George Mason]], Mason Neck, Va. (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98) <ref>Rowland, Kate Mason. 1964. ''The Life of George Mason: 1725-1792''. 2 vols. New York: Russell and Russell. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Mason_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive [[lawn]] kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious '''avenue''', girded by long double ranges of that hardy and stately cherry tree, the common black heart, raised from the stone, and so the more fair and uniform in their growth, commencing at about two hundred feet from the house and extending thence for about twelve hundred feet; the carriage way being in the centre and the footways on either side, between the two rows, forming each a double range of trees, and under their shade.
:“But what was remarkable and most imposing in this '''avenue''' was that the four rows of trees being to be so alligned as to counteract that deception in our vision which, in looking down long parallel lines makes them seem to approach as they recede; advantage was taken of the circumstance and another very pleasant delusion was effected. A common centre was established exactly in the middle of the outer doorway of the mansion, on that front, from which were made to diverge at a certain angle the four lines on which these trees were planted, the [[plantation]] not commencing but at a considerable distance therefrom (about two hundred feet as before mentioned) and so carefully and accurately had they been planted, and trained and dressed in accordance with the other, as they progressed in their growth, that from the point described as taken for the common centre, and when they had got to a great size, only the first four trees were visible.”

* [[Joseph Story|Story, Joseph]], 24 September 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (p. 29) <ref>Story, Joseph. 1831. ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn''. Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The grounds of the [[Cemetery]] have been laid out with intersecting '''avenues''', so as to render every part of the [[wood]] accessible. These '''avenues''' are curved and variously winding in their course, so as to be adapted to the natural inequalities of the surface. By this arrangement, the greatest economy of the land is produced, combining at the same time the [[picturesque]] effect of landscape gardening. Over the more level portions, the '''avenues''' are made twenty feet wide, and are suitable for carriage roads.” [Fig. 12]
[[File:0598.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Wadsworth]], Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], November 1831.]]

* [[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 30 September 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Ward 1831: 47) <ref>Ward, Malthus A. 1831. ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society''. Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero]</ref>
:“As the tract which has been solemnly consecrated, by religious ceremonies, as a burial-place forever, is so abundantly covered with forest trees, many of which are more than sixty years old, it only requires the '''avenues''' to be formed . . . to put the grounds in a sufficiently complete state for the uses designed, and to render them at once beautiful and interesting.”

* [[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 76) <ref>Harris, Thaddeus William. 1832. ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832''. Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The approach from the main road leading to Watertown, was by a broad and umbrageous '''avenue''' to the foot of the hill, which closes the dale of consecration on the north. . . . In the rear, under the shade of a stately [[grove]] of walnuts, where the main '''avenue''' divides and gracefully sweeps round the lofty hills to the east and west, the company [attending the consecration] descended from their carriages, and entered the secluded and romantic silvan theatre, by two foot paths, which wound through lonely vales of arching verdure.”

* [[John Legare|Legare, John]], 1833, describing southern Georgia (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 254) <ref name="Schwaab_1973"/>
:“We were much pleased with the construction and arrangement of the negro houses, they are built on parallel rows, facing each other, and extending some distance, forming a wide '''avenue''' or street, which if we recollect aright, is planted throughout with trees. In the rear of the houses are the small gardens and hen houses of the occupants.”

* <div id="Ingraham"></div>[[Joseph Holt Ingraham|Ingraham, Joseph Holt]], 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1:230–31) <ref>Ingraham, Joseph Holt. 1835. ''The South-west''. 2 vols. New York: Harper. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Ingraham_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column|columns]] and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose fences were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence situated at the head of a broad, gravelled '''avenue''', bordered by lemon and orange trees, forming in the heat of summer, by arching naturally overhead, a cool and shady [[promenade]]. We drew up at the massive [[gateway|gate-way]] and alighted. . . .
:“From this point [around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the [[piazza]] of the dwelling] the main '''avenue''' branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrubbery|shrubs]], completely encircled the cottage.”

* [[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1 February 1836, “Gardens, Hothouses, &c., in the vicinity of Boston,” describing [[Bellmont Place]], residence of [[John Perkins Cushing]], Watertown, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding '''avenue''' through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first view of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

* [[James MacDonald|MacDonald, James]], October 1839, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, N.Y. (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86) <ref>Hawkins, Kenneth. 1991. “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America”. Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the view, the extent of the grounds, the various '''avenues''' gracefully winding through so large a [[lawn]]; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of landscape gardening.”

* [[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], c.1841, in a letter to [[Robert Dale Owen]], describing the proposed [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref name="Scott_1990">Scott, Pamela, ed. 1990. ''The Papers of Robert Mills''. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Three spacious '''avenues''' (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting vistas.”

[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 13, [[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Mall," 1841.]]
* [[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], 23? February 1841, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett, describing a design for the national Mall, Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref name="Scott_1990"/>
:“The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed building for the Institution; the adjacent streets and '''avenues''' are also shown, with the line of the [[Canal]] which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island.” [Fig. 13]

* <div id="Adams_1842"></div>[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 14–15) <ref>Adams, Nehemiah. 1842. ''Boston Common''. Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Adams_1842_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The trees on the eastern side of the [[Common]]. . . . The [[walk]] through their ancient shade is not surpassed in interest by any place of public resort, it is not too much to say, in this or any land. When their limbs are bare, a perspective view of them gives as good a representation of Gothic architecture as man ever copied. . . . It requires no history to show the most unpractised eye that Gothic architecture was borrowed from such places as the '''avenue''' under those arching elms.”

* W., February 1842, “An Account of Lowell [[Cemetery]],” Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)
:“Of the architectural department there is much to admire. One of the '''avenues''', called “Washington '''Avenue''',” embraces a circuit round the ground, and the whole extent of drive is a mile and a half.
:“Directly opposite the [[gateway]], and winding along the side of a natural ridge, leading to the chapel, is “Fenelon '''Avenue'''.” From the chapel, the '''avenues''' diverge, one extending along the central parts, and intersects with others at right angles: these '''avenues''', for the most part, are bordered by fine forest trees, of a variety of kinds and sizes.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 14, [[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. [[Fanny Longfellow]] described a “linden avenue . . . [which] runs along the northern boundry.”]]
* [[C.M. Hovey|Hovey, C.M.]], April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, & c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)
:“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an [[eminence]] which commands a fine view of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad '''avenues''' of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol. The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania '''Avenue''', where the grounds form a semicircle, of which the '''avenue''' is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular [[terrace]]. . . .
:“The grounds on the other side, or east front, form nearly a [[square]], laid out with two '''avenues''' through the centre, and a broad [[walk]] running round the whole, with a belt of trees, which forms the boundary line. On each side of the centre '''avenues''' rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass lawns which intervene between the centre and outer walks, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrubbery|shrubs]], dahlias, and other flowers.”

[[File:1077.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 15, [[James Smillie]], "Greenwood Cemetery," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.]]
* [[Fanny Longfellow|Longfellow, Fanny]], c.1844, describing the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Evans 1993: 38) <ref>Evans, Catherine. 1993. ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions''. Vol. 1. Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“They [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Alexander W. Longfellow] contrived together to plant a linden '''avenue''' in which my poet intends to pace in his old age, and compose under its shade, resigning to me all the serpentine [[walk]]s, where, in the abstraction of inspiration, he might endanger his precious head against a tree. This runs along the northern boundary, and it is to be hoped will be useful, moreover, in screening us from any unsightly buildings Mr. Wyeth may adorn his grounds with.” [Fig. 14]

[[File:1063.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 16, [[James Smillie]], “Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.]]
* <div id="Magazine_of_Horticulture"></div>B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17) [[#Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“[[Flower garden|Flower gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] are no longer objects of amazement; '''avenues''' of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

* [[Nehemiah Cleaveland|Cleaveland, Nehemiah]], 1847, describing [[Greenwood Cemetery]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (pp. iii, v) <ref>Cleaveland, Nehemiah. 1847. ''Green-wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland''. New York: R. Martin. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Its numerous '''avenues''' furnish a long and delightful drive, presenting, continually, scenes of varied beauty.
:“'''Avenues''' have been opened through every part of the ground, and converted, at great expense, into broad and durable carriage-roads.” [Fig. 15]
<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 17, [[John Notman]], ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to discussion]]]]

* [[Cornelia W. Walter|Walter, Cornelia W.]], 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (p. 14) <ref>Walter, Cornelia W. 1847. ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie''. New York: Martin and Johnson. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The '''avenues''' are winding in their course and exceedingly beautiful in their gentle circuits, adapted picturesquely to the inequalities of the surface of the ground, and producing charming landscape effects from this natural arrangement, such as could never be had from straightness or regularity. . . .
:“The [[gateway]] of [[Mount Auburn]] opend from what is known as the north boundary line of the Cemetery. This '''avenue''' forms a wide carriage-road, and is one of the most beautiful openings ever improved for such a purpose. With the exception of the necessary grading, levelling, and cutting done of the brushwood, and the planting of a few trees, it has been left as Nature has made it. On either side it is overshadowed by the foliage of forest-trees, firs, pines, and other evergreens; and here you first begin to see the monuments starting up from the surrounding verdure, like bright remembrances from the heart of earth.” [Fig. 16]

[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 18, [[Thomas S. Sinclair]], "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia," ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4 (April 1848), opp. p. 280.]]
* [[A.J. Downing|Downing, A.J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 45) <ref>Haley, Jacquetta M., ed. 1988. ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place''. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero]</ref>
:“On the east it [the natural boundary of the estate] touches the post road. Here is the entrance [[gate]], and from it leads a long and stately '''avenue''' of trees, like the approach to an old French chateau. Halfway up its length, the lines of planted trees give place to a tall [[wood]], and this again is succeeded by the [[lawn]], which opens in all its stately dignity, with increased effect, after the deeper shadows of this vestibule-like [[wood]].”

* [[John Notman|Notman, John]], 1848, describing his designs for the [[Hollywood Cemetery]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 143) <ref>Greiff, Constance. 1979. ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865''. Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I have not named on the plan the roads or '''avenues''', as it is common to do, after trees and plants, such as Elm '''Avenue''', Magnolia '''Avenue''' and so on; this has been done at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], and I think in [[Greenwood Cemetery|Greenwood]] and also Greenmount Cemeteries; but would suggest that they be called after the name of the first person who shall erect a handsome monument or family tomb, or to whom such shall be erected.” [Fig. 17]

* [[Thomas S. Kirkbride|Kirkbride, Thomas S.]], April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)
:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer park|deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine [[grove]] of large trees, several detached [[clump]]s of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in '''avenues''' along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The [[grove]]s are fitted up with [[seat]]s and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them.” [Fig. 18]

* [[Francis Eppes|Eppes, Francis]], c.1850, describing [[Eppington]], plantation of [[Francis Eppes]], on the James River, Va. (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31) <ref>Weaver, Bettie Woodson. 1969. “Mary Jefferson and Eppington.” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (autumn): 30–38. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The mansion . . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar—the most admired of all trees in the palmy days of old Virginia—and this row reached to another double row or '''avenue''' which skirted one side of the [[lawn]], dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables.”

* [[C.M. Hovey|Hovey, C.M.]], February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing the residence of Mrs. Pratt, near Boston, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 53)
:“The house is approached by a very beautiful drive, winding gracefully through the trees, forming a sort of serpentine '''avenue''', after the Reptonian fashion.”

* Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 444)
:“The approach from the [[gate]], on reaching this [[conservatory]], diverges east and west at right angles. That on the left entering an '''avenue''' of maples, about thirty feet high, and hung to the very ground with branches, so that their stems are entirely hidden by the umbrageous foliage. This '''avenue''' runs through the [[nursery]], about a quarter mile in length. . . . This extremity of the '''avenue''' opens on another broad street to the city, and forms another entrance to the grounds. Nothing can exceed the beauty of this '''avenue'''; and I am astonished that the landed proprietors of this country do not take the example which is here given them, and adorn their demesnes with '''avenues''' like this. But they like better to cut down '''avenues''' here than to plant them. To tell you the truth, I have never seen anything so grand as this in the middle of a [[nursery]], either here or in England.”

* [[C.M. Hovey|Hovey, C.M.]], October 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing a residence in Cambridge, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 462)
:“The main '''avenue''' has been planted with a row of fine Scotch larch, on each side, and the effect, when they get well established, will be excellent.”

* [[John Fanning Watson|Watson, John Fanning]], 1857, describing [[Wilton]], property of [[Joseph Turner]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (2:478) <ref name="Watson_1857">Watson, John Fanning. 1857. ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders''. 2 vols. Philadelphia: E. Thomas. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Many statues of fine marble [sold from a Spanish prize] were distributed through the grounds and '''avenues'''.”

* [[John Fanning Watson|Watson, John Fanning]], 1857, describing [[Bush Hill]], estate of [[Lt. Gov. James Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (2:479) <ref name="Watson_1857"/>
:“In the rear were '''avenues''' of stately cedars—some few still remaining; and in the front was a charmingly graceful descending green [[lawn]], gradually sloping down to Vine street.”

===Citations===

* <div id="Quintinie"></div>[[Jean de La Quintinie|La Quintinie, Jean de]], 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.) <ref>La Quintinie, Jean de. [1693] 1982. ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens. Translated by John Evelyn''. Translated by John Evelyn, 1693. Reprint, New York: Garland. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''''Avenues''''', are certain [[alley|Allies]] or [[Walk]]s in Gardens larger than ordinary, but more properly leading to the front of Houses, which are commonly accompanied with two Bye-[[Walk]]s, commonly call’d Counter-[[Walk]]s, which are both Bordered with great Trees, either ''Elms'', ''Linden Trees'', or ''Oaks'', and sometimes Standard Fruit-Trees.”

* [[Betty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: 195, 201) <ref>Langley, Batty. [1728] 1982. ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc. Reprint, London: Garland. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .
:“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of '''Avenues''' to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.
:“The entire Breadth of every '''Avenue''' should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand [[Walk]], must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-[[Walk]]s on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of '''Avenues''' fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand [[Walk]] be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

* <div id="Chambers"></div>[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Chambers, Ephraim. 1741. ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences...''' 2 vols. London: D. Midwinter et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Chambers_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''AVENUE''', in gardening, is a [[walk]], planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place.
:See [[GROVE]], GLADE.
:All '''''avenues''''', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an '''''avenue''''' to an house, whatever the length of the [[walk]] is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better.”

* [[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.) <ref>Miller, Philip. 1759. ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc''. 7th ed. London: Philip Miller. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Avenues''' are [[walk]]s of trees leading to a house, and are generally terminated by some distant object. There were formerly much more in request than at present, there being a few old [[seat]]s in the country that had one or more of these '''avenues'''. . . . Whenever the situation of a house will admit of a large open [[lawn]] in front, the road to the house should be carried round at a proper distance; and if it be carried sometimes through trees, and serpented in an easy natural way, it will be much more beautiful than any stiff formal '''avenue'''.”

* <div id="Complete_Farmer"></div>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce. 1769. ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry''. 2nd ed. London: R. Baldwin et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Complete_Farmer_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''AVENUE''', a [[walk]] planted on each side with trees, leading to an house, [[wood]], &c. . . .
:“The old method of planting '''avenues''' was with regular rows of trees, and this has been always kept till of late; but we have now a much more magnificent way of planting '''avenues''': this is by setting the trees in [[clump]]s or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the [[clump]]s of trees about three hundred feet distant from one other. In each of these [[clump]]s there should be planted either seven or nine trees; but it is to be observed, that this is only to be practised where the '''avenue''' is to be of some considerable length, for, in short [[walk]]s, this will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The '''avenues''' made by [[clump]]s are fittest of all for parks. . . . ''Miller’s Gard. Dict.''”

* <div id="Whately"></div>[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 138–40) <ref>Whately, Thomas. 1982. ''Observations on Modern Gardening''. 3rd ed. London: Garland. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Whately_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“in the ''approach'' . . . the idea of a [[seat]] is thereby extended to a distance; but that may be done by other means than by an '''avenue''' . . . if the entrance only be marked, simple preservation will retain the impression along the whole progress; or it may wind through several scenes distinguished by objects, or by an extraordinary degree of cultivation; and then the length of the way, and the variety of improvements through which it is conducted, may extend the appearance of domaine, and the idea of a [[seat]], beyond the reach of any direct '''avenue'''.
:“An '''avenue''' being confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great, it must be dull; and the object to which it is appropriated, is after all seldom shewn to advantage. Buildings, in general, do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful, when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular station, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective: but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections . . . but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]].”

* <div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (pp. 116–17) <ref>Deane, Samuel. 1790. ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary''. Worcester, Mass.: Isaiah Thomas. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“[[GROVE]]. . . .
:“In other situations [[grove]]s of larger trees are preferred. Lanes and '''avenues''' leading to mansion houses and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both sides: If only on one, it should be the southermost, on account of the advantage of shade. Such trees are best, the limbs of which are not apt to be low.”

* [[Charles Marshall|Marshall, Charles]], 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:119–20) <ref>Marshall, Charles. 1799. ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening''. 1st American from the 2nd London. 2 vols. Boston: Samuel Etheridge. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''''Avenues''''' are now seldom planted, but when they are, two good rows of ''elms'', ''limes'', ''chestnuts'', &c., should be set at the width of the house, at full thirty feet distance in the rows; to thicken which, intermediate plants may be set; and also an inner row, to be removed when the principal trees are full grown. '''''Avenues''''' to [[prospect]]s, should be fifty or sixty feet wide.”

* <div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (p. 63) <ref>M’Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The planting in [[grove]]s and '''avenues''' should consist principally of the tree kind, and such as are of straight and handsome growth, with the most branchy, full, regular heads, and may be both of the deciduous and ever-green tribes; but generally arranged separately. . . .
:“As to '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, '''avenues''' and grass walks, planted with fine ever-green trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the '''avenue''', though sometimes grand [[walk]]s of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s, at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

[[File:1186.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 19, [[J.C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a-f.]]
* [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon, J.C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 942–43) <ref>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius). 1826. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“6813. ''With respect to the disposition of the trees within the [[plantation]]'', they may be placed regularly in rows, squares, parallelograms, or quincunx; irregularly in the manner of groups; without undergrowths, as in [[''groves'']] . . . with undergrowths, as in [[''woods'']] . . . all undergrowths, as in ''copse-woods'' . . . Or they may form '''''avenues''''' . . . double '''avenues''' . . . '''avenues''' intersecting in the manner of a Greek cross . . . of a martyr’s cross . . . of a star . . . or of a cross patée, or duck’s foot . . . ” [Fig. 19]

* <div id="Webster"></div>[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Webster_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''AV’ENUE''', ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]
:“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.
:“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc.''
:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.”

* [[Zebedee Coo, Jr.|Cook, Zebedee, Jr.]], 1830, ''An Address, Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (p. 22) <ref>
Cook, Zebedee, Jr. 1830. ''An Address, Pronounced before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society''. Boston: Isaac R. Butts. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RJ7KE496 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The gravelling of garden '''avenues''' may be dispensed with. The ordinary soil levelled, and laid smooth with the roller, will present an agreeable surface with less labor and cost than the former.”

* [[Michael Floy|Floy, Michael]], 24 September 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)
:“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for '''avenues''' or large [[lawn]]s, or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . . .
:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for [[lawn]]s or '''avenues''', &c.”

* [[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], 1 November 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)
:“When it is required to intersect the [[lawn]] in front, this had better be done by a sunken '''avenue''' with grass banks, so that the extent of grass presented to the eye offers an unbroken surface.”

* [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1838, ''The Boston Common'' ([Adams] 1838: 21–22) <ref>Adams, Nehemiah. 1838. ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities''. Boston: George W. Light. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and [[park]]s, and '''avenues''', and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

* [[Franklin Farmer]], 1 April 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 138)
:“Where there is but a [[lawn]] in front of the house, the farmer should plant an '''avenue''' of trees.”

* W., M.A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)
:“For the borders of main '''avenues''', or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best.”

* <div id="Johnson"></div>[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 73–74) <ref>Johnson, George William. 1847. ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening''. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''AVENUE''', is a road bordered by trees on each side, and being, as observed by Whately, confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great it must be dull, and the object to which it is appropriated is after all seldom shown to advantage. Buildings in general do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular situation, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both in perspective; but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections, it may besides be brought up to the house without disturbing any of the views from it, but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]]. A mere line of perspective, be the extent what it may, will seldom compensate for the loss of that space which it divides, and of the parts which it conceals. These kind of walks were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present: where they are to be made, the common elm answers very well for the purpose in most grounds, except such as are very wet and shallow, and preferred to most other trees, because it bears cutting, heading, or lopping in any manner. The rough Dutch elm is approved by some because of its quick growth, and it is a tree that will not only bear removing very well, but that is green in the spring almost as soon as any plant whatever, and continues so equally long. It makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all other trees for lofty [[espalier]]s. The lime is very useful on account of its regular growth and fine shade, and the horse-chestnut is proper for such places as are not too much exposed to rough winds. The common chestnut does very well in a good soil, or on warm gravels, as it rises to a considerable height, when planted somewhat close; but when it stands singly it is rather inclined to spread than grow tall. The beech naturally grows well with us in its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for '''avenues''' than others, because it does not bear transplanting well. The abele [white poplar] may also be employed for this use, as it is adapted to almost any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom fails in transplanting, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. The oak is but seldom used for '''avenues''', because of its slow growth; it would, however, compensate by its permanence and beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, oriental and native buttonwood are all well adapted to the purpose.”

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 20, Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.]]
* <div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[A.J. Downing|Downing, A.J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 95, 154, 161, 182, 193, 257) <ref>Downing, A.J. [Andrew Jackson]. 1849. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture''. 4th ed. New York: G. P. Putnam. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“to level ground naturally uneven, or to make an '''avenue''', by planting rows of trees on each side of a broad [[walk]], requires only the simplest perception of the beauty of mathematical forms, so, to lay out a garden in the [[geometric style]], became little more than a formal routine, and it was only after the superior interest of a more natural manner was enforced by men of genius, that natural beauty of expression was recognised, and [[Landscape Gardening]] was raised to the rank of a fine art. . . . [Fig. 20]
:“And as the '''''Avenue''''', or the straight line, is the leading form in the geometric arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest [[park]]—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles square, is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[woods]]. . . .
:“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public [[square]]s and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine '''avenues''' of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . . .
:“In '''avenues''' it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the [[square]] of the State-house, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . . .
:“When handsome '''avenues''' or straight lines are wanted, the Horse-chestnut is again admirably suited, from its symmetry and regularity. . . .
:“It is unnecessary for us to recommend this tree [the maple] for '''avenues''', or for bordering the streets of cities, as its general prevalence in such places sufficiently indicates its acknowledged claims for beauty, shade, and shelter. . . .
:“Where there is a taste for '''avenues''', the Tulip tree ought by all means to be employed, as it makes a most magnificent overarching canopy of verdure, supported on trunks almost architectural in their symmetry.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'', n.d.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner", in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ," 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|[[Andrew Ellicott]] (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), "Plan of the City of Washington in the territory of Columbia," 1792.

Image:0410.jpg|[[Charles W. Harris]], "A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs," 1795.

Image:0181.jpg|[[Nicholas King]], Section of Thomas Jefferson's Design for "Pennsylvania Avenue," 1803.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.

Image:1157.jpg|[[Jacques-Gerard Milbert]] (artist), Formentin (printer of plates), ''State of New-York. Mc.Comb's Bridge Avenue'', c.1819.

Image:0030.jpg|Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute's plot for a botanical garden on the Mall, 1820.

Image:0039.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], "Plan of Grounds adjacent to the United States Capitol," 1822.

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Washington Canal," 1831.

Image:0598.jpg|[[Alexander Wadsworth]], ''Plan of Mount Auburn Cemetery'', 1831.

Image:0024.jpg|[[Henry Schenck Tanner]], "City of Washington," c.1836.

Image:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds)'', c.1838.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Mall," 1841.

Image:1085.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), "Bay-Side Avenue, Fern Hill," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 42.

Image:1077.jpg|[[James Smillie]], "Greenwood Cemetery," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

Image:1063.jpg|[[James Smillie]], “Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.

Image:1074.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), O.J. Hanks (engraver), “View of the Naval Monument (Central Avenue), Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 22.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A.J. Downing]], "Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington," 1851.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A.J. Downing]], N. Michler (copied by), "Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington." Manuscript copy of Andrew Jackson Downing's plan for the Mall of 1851, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0600.jpg|[[Edward Penington]] (artist), William Fletcher Boogher, "A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia..." [detail], 1882 [1698].

Image:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:1815.jpg|[[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, Georgia, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.

Image:0905.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794–95.

Image:0031.jpg|[[Andrew Ellicott]], "Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia," 1795.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c.1804.

Image:0873.jpg|[[John Rubens Smith]], ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809-1834.

Image:1233.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], View of the Pennsylvania Avenue Gateway to the Grounds of the President's House, 1818.

Image:0647.jpg|[[Charles Burton]], ''View of the United States Capitol along Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C.'', 1824.

Image:1186.jpg|[[J.C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a-f.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834), p. 9.

Image:1234.jpg|[[John Vanderlyn]], ''George Washington'', 1834.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], Pendleton Lithography, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in Thomas Green Fessenden and James E. Teschemacher, ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' vol. 1 (May 1, 1835), opp. p. 157.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835), p. 450.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), p. 85.

Image:0040.jpg|[[W. H. Bartlett]], "Washington from the President's House," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American scenery; or, Land, lake and river illustrations of transatlantic nature'', Vol II (1840), opp. p. 50.

Image:0548.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Capitol'', c.1840-1850.

Image:1304.jpg|[[John Warner Barber]], "Entrance to Mount Auburn Cemetery" in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 361.

Image:1047.jpg|[[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1088.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), "Indian Mound," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 19.

Image:1087.jpg|[[James Smillie]], "Bay-Grove Hill," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 26.

Image:1080.jpg|[[James Smillie]], "Lawn-Girt Hill," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 61.

Image:1089.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), W.W. Rice (engraver), "Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda," in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''The Rural Cemeteries of America'' (1855 [1847]), opp. p. 8.

Image:1076.jpg|[[James Smillie]], “Entrance to the Cemetery" [detail], in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), title page.

Image:1070.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “View of the Central Square, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 61.

Image:1135.jpg|John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia," ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4 (April 1848), opp. p. 280.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

Image:0428.jpg|[[Edward Weber]], ''View of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|[[Robert P. Smith]], "View of Washington," c.1850.

Image:0620.jpg|Unknown, Elihu Hobart House, 1850.

Image:0862.jpg|[[Edward Sachse]], ''View of Washington'', 1852.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, "Fairhill, The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.," 18th century.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

Image:0147.jpg|Anonymous, Door Panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:1386.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:1387.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

Image:0106.jpg|Anonymous, "A Plan of Westover" [detail], 1701, in William Bryd, ''Title Book, 1637-1743'' (1743).

Image:0880.jpg|[[James Stoddert]], A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis, copy of James Stoddert's map of 1718, 1718 [1743].

Image:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c.1760.

Image:0134.jpg|[[Christian Remick]], ''A Prospective View of part of the Commons'', c.1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c.1769.

Image:0246.jpg|[[Claude Joseph Sauthier]], A "plan of the town and port of Brunswick, in Brunswick county, North Carolina; surveyed and drawn in April, 1769, by CJ Sauthier," on a scale of 45 fathoms to an inch., 1769.

Image:0146.JPG|[[Winthrop Chandler]], ''Homestead of General Timothy Ruggles, Hardwick, Massachusetts'', c.1770-1775.

Image:0588.jpg|[[Joseph F.W. Des Barres]], "A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island," 1776.

Image:0243.jpg|[[Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken]], ''A View of Salem in N. Carolina-1787'', 1787.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c.1787-1793.

Image:0161.jpg|[[Jonathan Budington]], ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792, in ''Folk Art'' 22, no. 3 (Fall 1997), p. 48.

Image:0278.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain John Pratt (1753-1824)'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg|[[William Clarke]], ''Mrs. Levin Winder'' (Mary Stoughton Sloss), 1793.

Image:0908.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-1795.

Image:1296.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Sketch of the House of Mr. Francis Eps on the Appomattox," 1796.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, "A View of New Orleans From Plantation of Marigny," 1803.

Image:0507.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], "Another View of the Same," 1803.

Image:0203.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c.1805.

Image:0001.jpg|[[George Ropes]], ''[[Salem Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0232.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], "Golden Grove, The Seat of Mrs. Sommers--Stono," 1810.

Image:0876.jpg|Anonymous, View of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c.1812.

Image:0122.jpg|Anonymous, Chelmsford, Massachusetts, 1813.

Image:0094.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Mary Fairbanks'', c.1815.

Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c.1814-1820.

Image:0416.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]] (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), "View of Union College in the City of Schenectady," c.1820.

Image:0132.jpg|[[Rufus Porter]] and [[J.D. Poor]], Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-1830.

Image:1427.jpg|[[William Guy Wall]], ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "View of the White House," 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1431.jpg|[[Archibald L. Dick]] (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), "Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville)," in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.

Image:0109.jpg|[[John Smith Rubens]] (artist), [[J.B. Neagle]] (engraver), ''Washington in 1800'', 1834.

Image:1434.jpg|[[Samuel Davenport]], ''New York'', c.1835.

Image:1283.jpg|[[William A. Pratt]] (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), "Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States," c.1839.

Image:0960.jpg|[[John J. Thomas]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842), p. 22, fig. 8.

Image:1301.jpg|[[John Warner Barber]], "South-west view in Ipswich, (central part.)," in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 192.

Image:1437.jpg|[[C. Bachman]], ''New York'', c.1848.

Image:1282.jpg|[[Augustus Köllner]], "Capitol (west side)," c.1850.

Image:1439.jpg|[[John William Hill]], ''Charleston, SC'', c.1850.

Image:1441.jpg|[[David William Moody]], ''Springfield'', c.1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references/>

Obelisk

2014-03-20T14:35:57Z

Emily Pugh: /* Usage */

==Discussion==
[[File:0697.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 1, [[Lewis Miller]], "[[Bunker Hill Monument]], Boston" [detail], n.d.]]
The term obelisk was used in the American colonies and early Republic to refer to a slender shaft or pillar with four faces that diminished in width from the base to a pyramidal top. Obelisks were generally made of wood, granite, marble, or, as [[Thomas Jeferson|Jefferson]] prescribed for his tombstone, "coarse stone." According to [[Batty Langley]] in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), they could also be made of [[trellis]] work and covered with climbing plants to give the effect of a living obelisk. Some obelisks were placed upon pedestals that were cube or [[temple]] forms; others rose directly from the ground.

In the designed landscape, the obelisk served two functions: as a garden ornament and as a monument with emblematic significance. Obelisks were important in the designed landscape or [[pleasure garden]] because they punctuated the [[vista]] or provided a place from which to gain a [[view]]. In order to serve these purposes, treatise authors recommended placing obelisks on elevated sites, although this treatment was not always used. Obelisks, which varied in size, were placed either in the center of open spaces or at the terminus of circulation routes. In both cases, they served as focal points. They often appeared in openings where radial sight lines were clear, as indicated by [[Hannah Callender]] in her 1762 description of [[Judge William Peters|Judge William Peters's]] estate, [[Belmont Mansion]], near Philadelphia, where she wrote that the [[avenue]] "looks to the obelisk."

[[File:1835.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 2, [[Robert Mills]], "Sketch of the Washington Nat'l. Monumt.," 1845.]]
In nineteenth-century America, the obelisk was utilized on a monumental scale in public landscape design. Some examples were built as hollow shafts that could be ascended by means of an internal staircase leading to interior lookout platforms or external galleries, allowing the visitor a panoramic view of the surrounding landscape.<ref name="Zukowsky_1976">Zukowsky, John. 1976. “Monumental American Obelisks: Centennial Vistas.” ''Art Bulletin'' 58, no.4 (December): 574–581. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BFPET4DT/q/zukowsky view on Zotero]</ref> [[Solomon Willard]]'s [[Bunker Hill Monument]] in Boston was the earliest obelisk of this type, dating from 1825 [Fig. 1].<ref>Zukowsky argues that the American monumental obelisk was a combination of the solid obelisk and the hollow memorial column. As it developed through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the monumental obelisk was a formally unique and distinctly American monument type that had military connotations and served as an image of continental expansion and unity during the centennial era. See Zukowsky, "Monumental American Obelisks," 581. [[#Zukowsky_1976_cite|back up to text]]</ref> Monumental obelisks were also striking landmarks in the relatively low urban skylines of the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Robert Mills]], architect of the [[Washington Monument]] in Washington, D.C., designed several monumental obelisks that served both as observation towers and civic displays [Fig. 2].<ref>Mills designed four monumental obelisks during his career. Scott, Pamela. 1989. “Robert Mills and American Monuments.” In ''Robert Mills, Architect'', edited by John M. Bryan, 143-177. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NQCC9937/q/robert%20mills view on Zotero]</ref>

[[File:0552.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 3, [[Charles Fraser]], "Monument of Lt. Gov. Bull," [[Ashley Hill]], c.1800.]]
The obelisk's rich antique associations imbued it with symbolic significance. Its origins in Egypt, prominence in the Roman world, and, since the Renaissance, use in gardens and [[park]]s lent a vocabulary of the exotic and the historic to American landscape design. Several collected treatise citations recount the best-known examples of ancient obelisks, many of which have survived into the modern period. Excavations in Rome during the seventeenth century, for example, revealed dozens of Egyptian obelisks that were re-erected throughout the city. At the same time, modern obelisks ornamented French gardens such as Versailles. Many great gardens in Britain in the eighteenth century also featured obelisks: Castle Howard, Chiswick House, Holkham Hall, and Montacute House, to name a few.<ref>Jellicoe, Sir Geoffrey, Susan Jellicoe, Patrick Goode, and Michael Lancaster, ed. 1986. ''The Oxford Companion to Gardens''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 408. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8/q/jellicoe view on Zotero]</ref> With the French invasion of Egypt in 1798, the taste for Egyptian statuary and styles increased and obelisks appeared more frequently as props in gardens.<ref>For information on the Egyptian style in America, see Carrott, Richard G. 1978. ''The Egyptian Revival: Its Sources, Monuments, and Meaning, 1808-1858''. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC7PJUR7/q/egyptian view on Zotero]</ref> Thus the tradition of obelisks in European gardens and public spaces transmitted via literature, European designers, and American visitors abroad, was a significant influence on American garden practice. Both [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741–43) and [[Noah Webster]] (1828) described the use of hieroglyphic inscriptions on obelisks that expressed the historic tradition from which the form derived.

[[File:1170.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 4, [[E.J. Pinkerton]], “General View of Laurel Hill Cemetery," in John Notman, ''Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' (1844), frontispiece.]]
In America, the choice of the obelisk for political commemoration in public spaces was recorded in the revolutionary period at [[Williamsburg, Va.]], where the monument was intended to honor those who opposed the Stamp Act. The repeal of that act was celebrated by the erection of a temporary obelisk in the [[Boston Common]], as illustrated in a print by [[Paul Revere]] [Fig. 6]. After the War of Independence, [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]] specified obelisks as decorations in the new capital city that would memorialize the heroes of the Revolution. His plan of 1792 indicated these monuments embellishing the public [[square]]s of the new capital [Fig. 8]. The association with republican Rome, the site of many obelisks, was a frequent iconographic reference in early federal decoration and rhetoric. The obelisk was a popular public and political monument, as [[Robert Mills]] argued, not only because of its association with antiquity and republicanism, but also because its surfaces allowed inscriptions that could particularize the memorial function. He described, for example, how the ornamentation on his design for the [[Bunker Hill]] obelisk symbolized the states' formation of the federal union.

The Egyptian obelisk was appropriate for the expression of early national symbolism because of the equation of the newly formed United States with another "first civilization." Freemasonry also fostered the link with ancient Egypt. The obelisk exemplified "cubic architecture" preferred by the Burlington circle of Freemason architects, derived from Palladio and [[James Gibbs]] and practiced in America by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]. It was seen as a repudiation of baroque eclecticism, as well as colonial red-brick Anglo-Dutch architecture. For American Freemasons, building took on a political cast that extended into the garden.<ref>Kennedy, Roger. 1990. ''Orders from France''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 431. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XIX6UD2A/q/roger%20kennedy view on Zotero]</ref>

[[File:0093.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 5, [[Mary Eliza Cushman]], ''Memorial to Lt. Jacob Cushman'', c.1815-1820.]]
[[Robert Mills]] pointed out that its diminishing width made the obelisk lighter and more graceful than another popular monument form, the [[column]]. [[Solomon Willard]] preferred the obelisk to the [[column]], the latter being too "splendid." It was both the [[picturesque]] effect as well as the historical significance of the obelisk that motivated [[J.C. Loudon|J.C. Loudon's]] recommendation of it in the garden.

The wave of monument building and civic improvement that marked the early Federal period carried with it an increasing number of obelisks. [[Chevalier Charles François Adrien le Parlmier d'Annemours|Chevalier Charles François Adrien le Parlmier d'Annemours]] estate, [[Belmont]], in Baltimore, featured an obelisk built in honor of Christopher Columbus [Fig. 9]; and [[Ashley Hall]] in Charleston, S.C., displayed one in memory of Lt. Gov. William Bull [Fig. 3].

The visual and textual evidence surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] obelisk represents a clear correlation between usage, treatise citation, and image based on early American primary sources. Peale noted his reliance on [[G. Gregory|G. Gregory's]] definition in the ''Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1806–7, 1816) in building an obelisk in his garden at [[Belfield]]. Gregory's description gave the proportions and dimensions of the "truncated, quadrangular, and slender pyramid" that [[Peale]] sketched in his letters and inscribed on an obelisk [Fig. 11]. The emblematic significance of this obelisk was also suggested in [[Gregory]]'s treatise description of the obelisk built to memorialize Ptolemy Philadelphus, the ancient Egyptian who built the great obelisk lighthouse and library at Alexandria, and after whom [[Peale]] of Philadelphia may have been modeling himself.

[[Jefferson]] and [[Peale]]'s garden obelisks served private but also commemorative purposes as both men planned to use the forms garden features that would eventually become their tombstones. In each case, these public figures mixed political and private associations in their choice of inscriptions. In addition to the political significance, the use of the Egyptian obelisk for funereal ornamentation was well established in America. The discussion surrounding the designs for [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in Cambridge, Mass., conveyed the popular interest in Egyptian-style monuments and architecture in early rural cemeteries. Defenders of the plans for the cemetery called it an "architecture of the dead" because nearly all surviving Egyptian architecture or monuments had a funerary purpose.<ref>Mount Auburn Cemetery was originally to be named the "American Père Lachaise." Although the name was not given, Mount Auburn Cemetery was often compared with Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Richard Etlin recounts the history of this French cemetery as an influential landscape continued in America. He discusses the Egyptian style of much of that cemetery's architecture and monuments. See Etlin, Richard A. 1984. ''The Architecture of Death: The Transformation of the Cemetery in Eighteenth-Century Paris''. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 358–368. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G6QIFAZT/q/etlin view on Zotero]</ref> The Egyptian practice of placing the tomb "in the midst of the beauty and luxuriance of nature"<ref>Linden-Ward, Blanche. 1989. ''Silent City on a Hill: Landscapes of Memory and Boston’s Mount Auburn Cemetery''. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 261–266. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K5AS42UI/q/linden-ward view on Zotero]</ref> was also cited as justification for this new garden type. [Figs. 4 and 5]. The obelisk had a long and continuous tradition in American landscape design that began in the colonies and lasted well into the nineteenth century. The feature was utilized in both public and private gardens ranging in scale from a few feet to the tallest edifices in American architecture until the advent of the skyscraper. Obelisks persisted over time despite changes in garden styles, finding a place within the Anglo-Dutch landscapes of Williamsburg, Va., in the mid-eighteenth century, as well as in the [[picturesque]] landscapes of rural cemeteries one hundred years later.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* [[Hannah Callender|Callender, Hannah]], 1762, describing [[Belmont Mansion]], estate of [[Judge William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Vaux 1888: 455)<ref>Vaux, George. 1888. “Extracts from the Diary of Hannah Callender.” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 12, no.1: 432–456. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/STWXKSK3/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“A broad [[walk]] of English Cherry trees leads down to the river. The doors of the house opening opposite admit a [[prospect]] of the length of the garden over a broad gravel [[walk]] to a large handsome [[summer house]] on a [[green]]. From the windows a [[vista]] is terminated by an '''obelisk'''. On the right you enter a [[labyrinth]] of [[hedge]] of low cedar and spruce. In the middle stands a [[statue]] of Apollo. In the garden are [[statue]]s of Diana, Fame and Mercury with [[urn]]s. We left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista]]s. In the midst is a Chinese [[temple]] for a [[summer house]]. One [[avenue]] gives a fine prospect of the City. . . . Another avenue looks to the '''obelisk'''.”

[[File:0482.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 6, [[Paul Revere]], "A View of the Obelisk erected under Liberty-Tree in Boston on the Rejoicings for the Repeal of the Stamp Act," 1766.]]
* Anonymous, 11 December 1766, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a decision to erect an '''obelisk''' in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)
:“Occassioned by a Resolution of the Honourable House of Burgesses in Virginia, to erect an '''Obelisk''' in Memory of those illustrious Patriots who distinguished themselves in Parliament, by their spirited Opposition to the Stamp-Act.”

[[File:1749.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 7, [[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3 (1853), p.52, fig.2.]]
* Anonymous, 19 May 1776, describing in the ''Boston Gazette'' [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. (quoted in Brigham 1954: 21)<ref name="Brigham_1954">Brigham, Clarence. 1954. ''Paul Revere’s Engravings''. Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[to] be exhibited on the [[Common]], an '''Obelisk'''—A Description of which is engraved by Mr. [[Paul Revere]]; and is now selling by Edes & Gill.” [Fig. 6]

* Anonymous, 22 May 1776, describing in the ''Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter'' [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. (quoted in Brigham 1954: 22)<ref name="Brigham_1954"/> [[#Brigham_1954_cite|back up to text]]
:“At Eleven o’clock the Signal being given by a Discharge of 21 Rockets, the horizontal Wheel on the Top of the Pyramid or '''Obelisk''' was play’d off, ending in the Discharge of sixteen Dozen of Serpents in the Air, which concluded the Shew.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 8, [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent [[Seat]] of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.]]
* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1789, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1996: 561–62)<ref>Bartram, William. 1996. ''Travels, and Other Writings''. New York: Library of America. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero]</ref>
:“PLAN OF THE ANCIENT CHUNKY-[[YARD]].
:“The subjoined plan . . . will illustrate the form and character of these [[yard]]s. [Fig. 7]
:“''A'', the great area, surrounded by [[terrace]]s or banks.
:“''B'', a circular [[eminence]], at one end of the [[yard]], commonly nine or ten feet higher than the ground round about. Upon this [[mound]] stands the great ''[[Rotunda]]'', ''[[Hot House]]'', or ''Winter Council House'', of the present Creeks. It was probably designed and used by the ancients who constructed it, for the same purpose.
:“''C'', a square [[terrace]] or [[eminence]], about the same height with the circular one just described, occupying a position at the other end of the [[yard]]. Upon this stands the [[''Public Square'']].
:“The banks inclosing the [[yard]] are indicated by the letters ''b'', ''b'', ''b'', ''b''; ''c'' indicate the “''Chunk-Pole'',” and ''d'', ''d'', the “''Slave-Posts''.”
:“Sometimes the square, instead of being open at the ends, as shown in the plan, is closed upon all sides by the banks. In the lately built, or new Creek towns, they do not raise a [[mound]] for the foundation of their [[Rotundas]] or Public [[Square]]s. The [[yard]], however, is retained, and the public buildings occupy nearly the same position in respect to it. They also retain the central '''obelisk''' and the slave-posts.”

[[File:1977_detail.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 9, [[Charles Varlé]] (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore [detail], 1801.]]
* [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], 4 January 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City,” describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 165)<ref>Caemmerer, H. Paul. 1950. ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington''. Washington, D.C.: National Republic. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The Center of each [[Square]] will admit of [[Statue]]s, Columns, '''Obelisks''', or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose Counsels, or military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation: to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those Sages, or heroes whom their Country has thought proper to celebrate.” [Fig. 8]

* Anonymous, 17 August 1792, describing in the ''Claypole’s Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia)'' [[Belmont]], country seat of [[Chevalier Charles François Adrien le Parlmier d’Annemours]], Baltimore, Md. (quoted in Thompson 1906: 246)<ref>Thompson, Henry F. 1906. “The Chevalier D’Annemours.” ''Maryland Historical Magazine'' 1: 241–246. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ATM2VZQX view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[Charles François Adrien Le Parlmier d’Annemours built] an '''obelisk''' to honour the memory of that immortal man—Christopher Columbus . . . in a [[grove]] in one of the gardens of the villa . . . on the 3rd of August, 1792, the anniversary of the sailing of Columbus from Spain.” [Fig. 9]

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[New Haven Burying Ground]], New Haven, Conn. (1821: 1:192)<ref>Dwight, Timothy. 1821-1822. ''Travels in New England and New York''. 4 vols. New Haven, Conn.: T. Dwight. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The monuments in this ground are almost universally of marble; in a few instances from Italy; in the rest, found in this and neighbouring States. A considerable number are '''obelisks'''; others are tables; and others, slabs, placed at the head and foot of the grave. The '''obelisks''' are placed, universally, on the middle line of the lots; and thus stand in a line, successively, through the parallelograms.”

* [[Thomas Moore|Moore, Thomas]], 1804, describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Reps 1965: 257)<ref>Reps, John W. 1965. ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States''. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG view on Zotero]</ref>
:::“This embryo capital, where fancy sees
:::“[[Squares]] in morasses, '''obelisks''' in trees;
:::“Which second-sighted seers, ev’n now, adorn
:::“With shrines unbuilt, and heroes yet unborn,
:::“Though naught but [[wood]]s and [[Jefferson]] they see,
:::“Where streets should run and sages ought to be.”

[[File:0010.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 10, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]], Nov. 12, 1813.]]
* Anonymous, 2 July 1804, describing [[Vauxhall Gardens]], New York, N.Y. (''New York Daily Advertiser'')
:“At 8 o’clock will commence the most complete illumination, consisting of upwards of four thousand Colored Lamps, and decorated . . . with Pyramids, '''Obelisks''', [[Arches]], &c.”

* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 12 November 1813, in a letter to his daughter, [[Angelica Peale Robinson]], describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:216)<ref name="Miller_1983-2000">Miller, Lillian B., and et al, ed. 1983–2000. ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820. Vol. 3. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I have made an '''Oblisk''' to terminate a [[Walk]] in the Garden, read in Dictionary of Arts for description of them. I made it of rough boards & white washed it with lime & allum—The allum It is said will convert the lime in time to Stone. I have put the following motto on it—on one side ‘Never return an Injury, It is a noble Triumph to overcome Evil by Good.’ another, ‘Labour while you are able it will give health to the Body—peaceful content to the mind.’ another, ‘He that will live in peace & Rest, must hear, and see, and say the best & in french ‘y voy, & te tas, si tu veux vivre en paix.’ and on another ‘Neglect no Duty.’ The distick which I have adopted is claimed by several Nations, I have put the french because it is more concise & equally expressive.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:0009_detail1.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 11, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at Belfield [detail], November 22, 1815.]]
* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 22 November 1815, in a letter to his daughter, [[Angelica Peale Robinson]], describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:370-371)<ref name="Miller_1983-2000"/> [[#Miller_1983-2000_cite|back up to text]]
:“The objects in sight are the road ascending to the Dwelling, Stone [[wall]] & Thorn [[hedge]] on it inclosing the Garden. The Garden [[Gate]] at the [[Fountain]], [[greenhouse|Green House]], [[summerhouse|Summer house]] a doom supported by 6 Pillars and bust of Washington crowning it – beyond that an '''Oblisk''' The Hay barracks; Barn with the wind mill on top of it to <pu> pump water for the Stock; Stables; Mantion-House Wash house and connecting [[piazza|Piaza]]; Carriage House; Spring House; [[bathhouse|Bath house]] and Cover of the [[icehouse|Ice-House]]. The whole comprehending a tolerable handsome [[View]] including Trees of various foliages…” [Fig. 11]

[[File:0047.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 12, [[Anna Peale Sellers]], ''[[Belfield]] Farm'', n.d., in Robert D. Schwarz, ''A Gallery Collects Peales'', Philadelphia Collection XXXV (1987), p.43, pl.34.]]
* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 1 October 1818, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:607)<ref name="Miller_1983-2000"/> [[#Miller_1983-2000_cite|back up to text]]
:“'I have chosen two views I wish to paint, one is at the beginning of the rise of the high hill leading to Germantown, it takes in my '''Oblisk''', Barn and Mansion House and both the [[summerhouse|Summer Houses]] -- The [[Gate]] & willow tree on the left, the hill back of the Garden, the road, the water in the road & mill race, and a piece of Mr. Wistar's [[wood]] for a finish on the right of the picture.” [Fig. 12]

* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], 14 January 1824, in a letter to his son, [[Charles Linnaeus Peale]], describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 32)<ref>Rudnytzky, Kateryna A. 1986. “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield.” Honors thesis, LaSalle University. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Dear Linnius I wish you to consider whether it is not better to avoid these expenses by burying your Child in the Garden on the south side of the '''Oblisk''', a place which if I hold the farm untill my decease, I shall desire to have my body deposited. This has been my determination ever since I painted those inscriptions.”

* [[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], 20 March 1825, in a letter to the Monument Commission, describing plans for the [[Bunker Hill Monument]], Boston, Mass. (quoted in Gallagher 1935: 204–6)<ref name="Gallagher_1935">Gallagher, H.M. Pierce. 1935. ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781-1855''. New York: Columbia University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I have the honor to submit for your consideration and approval, a design for the Monument you propose erecting on the spot, where the Brave General Warren and his worthy associates fell; to commemorate their valor, and the gratitude of their Country. . . .
:“In the design for the Monument which I now have the honor to lay before you, I would recommend the adoption of the '''''obelisk''''' form, in preference to the [[''Column'']]—the detail I have affixed to this species of [[pillar]], will be found to give it a peculiarly interesting character, embracing originality of effect with simplicity of design, economy in execution, great solidity and capacity for decoration, reaching to the highest degree of splendor consistant with good taste. . . .
:“The '''''obelisk''''' form is, for monuments, of greater antiquity than the Column as appears from history, being used as early as the days of Ramises King of Egypt in the time of the Trojan War—Kercher reckons up 14 '''obelisk''' that were celebrated above the rest, namely, that of Alexandria; that of the Barberins; those of Constantinople; of the Mons Esquilinus; of the Campus Flaminius; of Florence; of Heliopolis; of Ludorisco; of St. Makut, of the Medici of the vatican; of M. Coelius, and that of Pamphila. The highest on record mentioned, is that erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus in memory of Arsinoe.
:“The '''''obelisk''''' form is peculiarly adapted to commemorate ''great transactions'' from its lofty character, great strength, and furnishing a fine surface for inscriptions—There is a degree of lightness and beauty in it that affords a finer relief to the eye than can be obtained in the regular proportioned [[Column]].
:“Our monument includes a square of 24 feet at the base above the zocle or plinth, and is 15 feet square at the top—Its total elevation is 220 feet above the pavement—The shaft is divided into four great compartments for inscriptive, and other decorations, which come more immediately under the eye by means of oversailing platforms, enclosed by balastrades, supported as it were by winged globes (symbols of immortality peculiarly of a monumental Character).
:“A series of shields bandround the foot of the shaft, representing the 13 States, which form’d the Federal union, as principal, having their arms sculptured on their face—A star, on a plain tablet in connection with the former, represents each the other states which now constitute our Union—the whole surmounted by spears and wreathes.
:“A flight of stone steps, or a rising platform, surround the base, from whence the lower inscriptions are read—
:“This is inclosed by a rich bronzed palisade—The entrance into the monument is from this platform, when a flight of stone steps, winding round a pillar, ascends to the top, and communicates with the several platforms. Between the galleries, on each face of the pillar, a wreath, hung on a speer, encircles the letter W, which is otherwise decorated and constitute apertures for lighting the interior of the Monument—over the Last wreath, and near the apex of the '''obelisk''', a great star is placed, emblematic of the glory to which the name of Warren has risen—A tripod crowns the whole and forms the surmounting of the Monument—This tripod is the classic emblem of immortality.”

[[File:0080.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 13, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing an obelisk for his grave marker at [[Monticello]] [detail], n.d.]]
* Anonymous, 9 October 1825, describing in the ''St. Philip’s Parish Vestry Book'' meeting resolutions made in Charleston, S.C. (CWF)
:“The Committee on Monuments has proposed . . . Sixth Class. This embraces '''Obelisks''', Pyramids, [[urn|Urns]] & every Species of Columnar Pedestal.”

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]] (undated, pre-1826), description of his own tombstone planned for [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection: K162)
:“On the grave a plain die or cube of 3 feet without any moldings, surmounted by an '''obelisk''' of 6 f. height, each of a single stone: on the face of the '''Obelisk''' the following inscription, and not a word more: Here was buried / Thomas Jefferson, / author of the Declaration of Independence / of the Statute of Virginia for religious freedom / & Father of the [[University of Virginia]] because by these, as testimonials that I have lived, I [w]ish most to be remembered. to be of the coarse stone of which my [[column|columns]] are made, that no one might be tempted hereafter to destroy it for the value of the materials. my bust by Ciracchi, with the pedestal and truncated [[column]] on which it stands, might be given to the University if they would place it in the Dome room of the Rotunda. on the Die of the '''obelisk''' might be engraved Born Apr. 2. 1763.O.S. / Died___” [Fig. 13]

* [[Solomon Willard|Willard, Solomon]], 26 April 1826, describing the [[Bunker Hill Monument]], Boston, Mass. (quoted in Zukowsky 1976: 579)<ref name="Zukowsky_1976"/> [[#Zukowsky_1976_cite|back up to text]]
:“The '''obelisk''' I have always preferred for its severe cast and its nearer approach to the simplicity of nature than the others. The [[column]] might be more splendid. The character of the '''obelisk''', without a pedestal, seems to be strictly appropriate for the occasion and I think would rank first as a specimen of art and be highly creditable to the taste of the age.”

[[File:1082.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 14, [[James Smillie]] (artist), Rice & Buttre (engraver), "Ocean Hill," in [[Nehemiah Cleaveland]], ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p.73.]]
* [[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 68)<ref>Harris, Thaddeus William. 1832. ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832''. Cambridge, Mass.: E.W. Metcalf. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Among the hills, glades, and dales, which are now covered with evergreen and deciduous trees and [[shrubs]], may be selected sites for isolated graves, and tombs, and these, being surmounted with [[column|columns]], '''obelisks''', and other appropriate monuments of granite and marble, may be rendered interesting specimens of art; they will also vary and embelish the scenery embraced within the scope of the numerous sinuous [[avenue|avenues]], which may be felicitously opened in all directions and to a vast extent, from the diversified and [[picturesque]] features which the topography of the tract of land presents.”

[[File:1074.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 15, [[James Smillie]] (artist), O.J. Hanks (engraver), “View of the Naval Monument (Central Avenue), Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p.22.]]
* [[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], 1 July 1832, in a letter to Richard Walleck, describing Charlestown, Mass. (quoted in Gallagher 1935: 102)<ref name="Gallagher_1935"/> [[#Gallagher_1935_cite|back up to text]]
:“When the [[Bunker Hill Monument]] Committee advertised for designs for the Monument, I took a good deal of pains to study one which should do honor to the memory of those worthies it was intended to commemorate, and prove an ornament to the city it was to overlook. I went into some detail on the subject of monuments generally and in sending them two designs, recommended in strong terms the adoption of the '''Obelisk''' design, not only from its combining simplicity and economy with grandeur, but as there was already a [[column]] of massy proportions erected in Baltimore, we ought not, therefore, to repeat this figure, but construct one of equally imposing figure.”

* [[Nehemiah Cleaveland|Cleaveland, Nehemiah]], 1847, describing [[Greenwood Cemetery]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (p.73)<ref>Cleaveland, Nehemiah. 1847. ''Green-wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland''. New York: R. Martin. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero]</ref>
:“We have in this view an '''obelisk''' of considerable height, and in some respects, peculiar. The shaft is surrounded by several narrow fillets slightly raised, and connected with other ornaments. Just above the base, on the front side, is a female bust in high relief. A tablet below records the name, virtues, and premature decease of a young wife and mother. The material is brown stone, and the work is finely executed.” [Fig. 14]

* [[Cornelia W. Walter|Walter, Cornelia W.]], 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (p.23)<ref>Walter, Cornelia W. 1847. ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie''. New York: Martin and Johnson. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The principle '''obelisk''' represented in the opposite engraving, is a lofty cenotaph of pure white marble, ornamented on the four sides with festoons of roses in relievo, and presenting altogether a monument of good proportion, strikingly chaste and simple.” [Fig. 15]

===Citations===

* [[James Gibbs|Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (description of pl.86)<ref>Gibbs, James. 1728. ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments''. London: Printed for W. Innys et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Three Draughts of '''Obelisques''', more ornamental than the former: They keep the same Proportion with them; only that upon the left hand has four times the thickness of the '''Obelisque''' at bottom to the height of its Pedestal, because of the Ornaments upon it the top part may be made in the manner here drawn, or with other Ornaments at discretion. The Antients [''sic''] never placed their '''Obelisques''' upon moulded Bases; but ''Dominico Fontana'' and others have placed them upon Bases, which, in my opinion, is a great addition to their beauty, however that may be done or not at pleasure.” [Fig. 16]
[[File:1724.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 16, [[James Gibbs]], "Three Draughts of Obelisques," in ''Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl.86.]]

* [[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (pp.195–200)<ref>Langley, Batty. [1728] 1982. ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero]</ref>
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .
:“XVIII. That the Intersections of [[walk|Walks]] be adorn’d with Statues, large open Plains, Groves, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering [[Shrubs]], of Forest Trees, Basons, Fountains, [[sundial|Sun-Dials]], and '''Obelisks'''. . . .
:“XXII. '''Obelisks''' of Trellip-Work [''sic''] cover’d with Passion-Flowers, Grapes, Honey-Suckles, '''obelisk''' and White Jessemine, are beautiful Ornaments in the Center of an open Plain, [[flower garden|Flower-Garden]], &c.”

* [[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Chambers, Ephraim. 1741-1743. ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'' 2 vols. London: D. Midwinter et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''OBELISK*''', OBELISCUS, a quadrangular pyramid, very slender, and high; raised as an ornament, in some public place, or to shew some stone of enormous size; and frequently charged with inscriptions, and hieroglyphics. See MONUMENT.
:“* Borel derives the word from the Greek . . . a spit, broach, spindler, or even a kind of long javelin.—Pliny says, the Egyptians cut their '''''obelisks''''' in form of fun-beams; and that in the Phoenician language, the word '''''obelisk''''' signifies ''ray''. . . .
:“The difference between '''''obelisks''''' and pyramids, according to some, consists in this, that the latter have large bases, and the former very small ones.
:“Though Cardan makes the difference to consist in this, that '''''obelisks''''' are to be all of a piece, or to consist of a single stone, and pyramids of several. See PYRAMID.
:“The proportions of the heighth and thickness are nearly the same in all '''''obelisks'''''; that is, their heighth is nine, or nine and a half, sometimes ten times their thickness; and their thickness or diameter a-top is never less than half, nor greater than three fourths of that at bottom.
:“This kind of monument appears very antient; and we are told was first made use of to transmit to posterity the principle precepts of philosophy, which were engraven in hieroglyphical characters hereon.—In after times they were used to immortalize the actions of heroes, and the memory of persons beloved.
:“The first '''''obelisk''''' we know of, was that raised by Ramses, king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan war. It was 40 cubits high, and, according to Herodotus, employed 20000 men in the building. Phius, another king of Egypt, raised one of 45 cubits; and Ptolemy Philadelphus another of 88 cubits, in memory of Arsinoe. ''Vid''. Porphyry.
:“Augustus erected an '''''obelisk''''' at Rome in the Campus Martius, which served to mark the hours on a horizontal dial drawn on the pavement. See DIAL.
:“F. Kircher reckons up 14 '''''obelisks''''' celebrated above the rest.”

* [[Halfpenny, William and John]], 1755, ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' ([1755] 1968: 7)<ref>Halfpenny, William, and John. [1755] 1968. ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste''. Bronx, N.Y. and London: Benjamin Blom. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9JKMEXVU view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The Elevation of an '''Obelisk''' 40 Feet high, proper to be situated at the Termination of a long [[Walk]], or in the Center of a large [[Square]], etc.” [Fig. 17]
[[File:1710.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 17, [[William and John Halfpenny]], "An Obelisk in the Chinese Taste," in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl.24.]]

* [[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Johnson, Samuel. 1755. ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers''. 2 vols. London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Obelisk'''. ''n.s.'' [''obeliscus'', Latin.]
:“1. A magnificent high piece of solid marble, or other fine stone, having usually four faces, and lessening upwards by degrees, till it ends in a point like a pyramid.”

* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (p.64)<ref>M’Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero]</ref>
:“In some spacious pleasure-grounds various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as [[temple|temples]], [[bower]]s, banquetting houses, [[alcove]]s, [[grottos]], rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, '''obelisks''', statues, and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk|walks]], &c.”

* [[G. Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Gregory, G. 1816. ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences''. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''OBELISK''', a truncated, quadrangular, and slender pyramid raised as an ornament, and frequently charged either with inscriptions or hieroglyphics.
:“'''Obelisks''' appear to be of very great antiquity, and to be first raised to transmit to posterity precepts of philosophy, which were cut in hieroglyphical characters: afterwards they were used to immortalize the great actions of heroes, and the memory of persons beloved. . . .
:“The proportions in the height and thickness are nearly the same in all '''obelisks'''; their height being nine or nine and a half, and sometimes ten times, their thickness; and their diameter at the top never less than half; and never greater than three-fourths of that at the bottom. . . .
:“[[WILDERNESS]]. . . .
:“As to the walks, those that have the appearance of meanders, where the eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all others, and these should now and then lead into an open circular piece of grass; in the centre of which may be placed either an '''obelisk''', [[statue]], or [[fountain]].”

* [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon, J.C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p.361)<ref>Loudon, J.C. (John Claudius). 1826. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero]</ref>
:“1842. ''Monumental objects'', as '''obelisks''', [[column|columns]], [[pyramid|pyramids]], may occasionally be introduced with grand effect, both in a picturesque and historical view, of which Blenheim, Stow, Castle Howard, &c., afford fine examples; but their introduction is easily carried to the extreme, and then it defeats itself, as at Stow.”

* [[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 187)<ref>Parmentier, André. 1828. “The Art of Landscape Gardening.” In ''The New American Gardener'', edited by Thomas Fessenden. Boston: J. B. Russell. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Obelisks''', [[column|columns]], &c. should be placed on elevated places.”

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''OB’ELISK''', ''n''. [L. ''obeliscus''; Gr. . . .]
:“1. A truncated, quadrangular and slender pyramid intended as an ornament, and often charged with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. Some ancient '''obelisks''' appear to have been erected in honor of distinguished persons or their achievements. Ptolemy Philadelphus raised one of 88 cubits high in honor of Arsinee. Augustus erected one in the Campus Martius at Rome, which served to mark the hours on a horizontal dial drawn on the pavement. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, ''History of Architecture'' ([1848] 1988: 399)<ref>Tuthill, Louisa C. [1848] 1988. ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill''. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Obelisk'''. A monolithic pillar of a rectangular form, diminishing from the base to the top.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0080.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing an obelisk for his grave marker at [[Monticello]] [detail], n.d.

Image:1717.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "A [[Pavilion]] design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl.70.

Image:1724.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Three Draughts of Obelisques,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl.86.

Image:1710.jpg|[[William and John Halfpenny]], “An Obelisk in the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl.24.

Image:0482.jpg|[[Paul Revere]], “A [[View]] of the Obelisk erected under Liberty-Tree in Boston on the Rejoicings for the Repeal of the Stamp Act,” 1766.

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent [[Seat]] of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.

Image:0010.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]], Nov. 12, 1813.

Image:0009.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]], Nov. 22, 1815.

Image:0830.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Details of the Washington Monument for Mr. Daugherty, Superintendent of the Work, Washington, D.C., 1848.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0047.jpg|[[Anna Peale Sellers]], ''[[Belfield]] Farm'', n.d., in Robert D. Schwarz, ''A Gallery Collects Peales'', Philadelphia Collection XXXV (1987), p.43, pl.34.

Image:0697.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “[[Bunker Hill Monument]], Boston” [detail], n.d.

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-[[Yard]],” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3 (1853), p.52, fig.2.

Image:1977.jpg|[[Charles Varlé]] (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore, 1801.

Image:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], "[[Ashley Hall]]," 1803.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), p.85.

Image:1034.jpg|Anonymous, "Monument of 'Dr. Bigelow,'" in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), p.113.

Image:1835.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Sketch of the Washington Nat’l. Monumt.,” 1845.

Image:1082.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), Rice & Buttre (engraver), "Ocean Hill," in [[Nehemiah Cleaveland]], ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p.73.

Image:1074.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), O.G. Hanks (engraver), "View of the Naval Monument (Central Avenue), [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p.22.

Image:0868.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], [[Bunker Hill Monument]], obelisk design, n.d.

Image:0025.jpg|[[Robert P. Smith]], "View of Washington," c.1850.

Image:0042.jpg|[[Benjamin Franklin Smith, Jr.]], "Washington, D.C. with projected improvements," c.1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0700.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "The [[Prospect Hill Cemetery]]" [detail], n.d.

Image:0117.jpg|[[Thomas Chambers]], ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', 19th century.

Image:0552.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], “Monument of Lt. Gov. Bull,” c.1800.

Image:0094.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Mary Fairbanks'', c.1815.

Image:0093.jpg|[[Mary Eliza Cushman]], ''Memorial to Lt. Jacob Cushman'', c.1815–1820.

Image:0901.jpg|[[George Bridport]], Alternative Designs for [[Washington Monument]], Washington Square, Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:0516.jpg|[[E.B. Walker]], ''The Monument of Rev. J. Harvard'', 1828-1850.

Image:1027.jpg|Anonymous, "View of Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no.6 (February 1836), p.234.

Image:0439.jpg|Anonymous, ''Family Burying Ground'', c.1840.

Image:1170.jpg|[[E.J. Pinkerton]], “General View of [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]]," in John Notman, ''Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' (1844), frontispiece.

Image:0110.jpg|[[Joseph Goldsborough Bruff]], "Elements of National Thrift and Empire," c.1847.

Image:1063.jpg|[[James Smillie]], "[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1974.jpg|[[James Smillie]], "Entrance to the Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1073.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), Alfred Jones (engraver), "View of the Chapel, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p.36.

Image:1976.jpg|[[James Smillie]] (artist), J.A. Rolph (engraver), "View of the Forest Pond, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p.94.

Image:0111.jpg|[[Seth Eastman]], [[Washington Monument|Washington's Monument]], Under Construction, 1851.

Image:0442.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Nicholas M.S. Catlin'', c.1852.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references/>

Ha-Ha/Sunk fence

2013-11-12T15:22:30Z

Emily Pugh:

([[Ah Ah]], [[Ah-ha]], [[Foss]], [[Fosse]], [[Ha ha]], [[Ha! Haw]])<br/>
See also: [[Deer park]]

==Discussion==
[[File:1112.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Anthony St. John Baker, ''Riversdale, near Bladensburg'', 1827.]]
From the early eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, treatises praised the ha-ha as a useful design solution for the construction of barriers without interrupting views.<ref>As Steven A. Mansbach relates in his brief survey of the history of the ha-ha in England, the term entered English garden literature with John James’s 1712 translation of ''Dézallier d’Argenville’s La théorie et la practique du jardinage'' (1709). Charles Bridgeman, Lord Cobham’s head gardener at Stowe, employed the ha-ha in the extensive enlargement of the gardens in the 1720s. See Steven A. Mansbach, “An Earthwork of Surprise: The 18th-Century Ha-Ha,” ''Art Journal'' 42 (Fall 1982): 217–21.</ref> Several writers recall the origin of the name as the expression of surprise at finding a sudden and unperceived check to one’s walk. A ha-ha, also known as a sunk fence, blind fence, ditch and fence, deer wall, or foss, was formed by a ditch (sometimes with a fence at its lowest point), a steep bank, or a wall built into the side of a hill. Whatever the method of construction, the ha-ha created a barrier that was not visible from one side or, if a ditch, all directions. [[Anthony St. John Baker]]’s 1827 sketch of [[Riversdale]], in Maryland, illustrates a ha-ha wall built into the ground that created a barrier while permitting unobstructed views from the house [Fig. 1].<ref>Like similar barriers at [[Mount Vernon]] and [[Monticello]], the [[Riversdale]] wall was ineffective at deterring deer, and Rosalie Calvert Stier complained that deer were eating tulips under her windows. She, unfortunately, failed to mention the wall so we do not know whether she referred to it as a ha-ha (Margaret Law Calcott, personal communication).</ref> The deer depicted in the foreground underscore the function of the feature: to keep a pasture or a park separate from the lawn and garden near a house (see [[Deer park]]).

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun'r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c.1784.]]
[[File:0412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, "Principal Story of a Military School," 1800.]]
[[File:1015.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois--Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.]]
Despite the broad date range of treatise recommendations, usage records suggest that in American practice most of these features were constructed in the late eighteenth century and that they were exceptional, although notable. The feature seems to have been limited to the estates of the landed elite and larger institutions. Ha-has at [[John Penn’s estate]] in Philadelphia; [[Rosewell]] in Virginia [Fig. 2]; [[Mount Vernon]]; [[Monticello]]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]’s plan for a military school [Fig. 3]; and the Woodlands, near Philadelphia, were all constructed in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Monticello’s landscape improvements extended into the first decade of the nineteenth, and an image of [[Park House]] in Albion, Ill., shows a ha-ha dating to around 1820 [Fig. 4]. These sites were among the most elaborate in America in their landscaping programs. [[George Flower]]’s haha at Park House [Fig. 4], which permitted a view of reclining cattle and grazing sheep, conformed to the notion that Flower’s “success allowed him to live a life approximating that of an English country gentleman.”<ref>Judith A. Barter and Lynn E. Springer, ''Currents of Expansion: Painting in the Midwest, 1820–1940'' (St. Louis, Mo.: St. Louis Art Museum, 1977), 40.</ref>

The ha-ha seems to have been used at the edge of lawns and gardens to separate the spaces immediately surrounding the dwelling from pasture land and grazing animals. Mount Vernon’s ha-ha, which George Washington referred to as both a “ha haw” and a deer wall, separated the west lawn from the deer park below, leaving a clear view from the house to the Potomac river and distant Maryland shore. At Monticello, [[Thomas Jefferson]] took advantage of the mountain’s high topographic relief by building his ha-ha into the hillside along the southern side of his newly leveled lawn using a retaining wall of stone. This ha-ha (elsewhere called a terrace wall), allowed views of the panorama beyond and screened much of the working area along Mulberry Row when viewed from the house and lawn. [[John Nancarrow]]’s plan of John Penn’s estate, now the site of the Philadelphia Zoo, also indicates placement of a ha-ha at the edge of the pleasure ground, in this case just along the southern border of his property [Fig. 2].

A visitor to Monticello in 1823, who lacked the vocabulary to describe what he saw, wrote, “As we approached the house we rode along a fence which was the only one of the kind I ever saw. Instead of being upright, it lay upon the ground across a ditch, the banks of the ditch raised the rails a foot or two above the ground on each side of the ditch so that no kind of grazing animals could easily cross it, because their feet would slip between the rails. It had just the appearance of a common post and rail straight fence, blown down across a ditch.”<ref>Silvio A. Bedini, ''Thomas Jefferson: Statesman of Science'' (New York: Macmillan, 1990), 410.</ref> Several explanations may be posited for the limited appearance of the haha in America as compared with its more prevalent use in Britain. One explanation may be that large-scale landscape gardens and parks associated with ha-has were less common in America (see [[English style]]). A ha-ha not only required the space to create the feature and a garden of proportions to match, but also involved an expenditure of labor and materials. Jefferson’s notes from 1804 express his concern with cost savings as he planned to reuse stone from other parts of the plantation to construct the masonry section of his ha-ha.<ref>William Kelso, ''Kingsmill Plantations, 1619–1800: Archaeology of Country Life in Colonial Virginia'' (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1984), 167.</ref> Perhaps the aesthetic of the uninterrupted view was not sufficiently compelling among the majority of landowners to warrant the expense and effort of the ha-ha.

The seeming tolerance and incorporation of fences into landscape designs of even the most “naturalistic” style may explain the infrequent mention of this feature (see [[Fence]]). The ha-ha was not effective as a barrier against deer, a major threat to garden vegetation in much of the country. While the sunken fences were a deterrent to grazing animals such as cattle and sheep, it took fences such as the ten-foot-high paling fence that Jefferson constructed around his kitchen garden to keep out deer.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 377.</ref> In addition, in the late eighteenth century, when the ha-ha was most often utilized, many plantations had separate farms or “quarters” where the more intensive agricultural and animal production took place far enough from the main house and its adjacent gardens to eliminate worry of stray animals (see [[Plantation]]). The pastoral image of farm animals lying just beyond the reach of the lawn or sheep grazing at the edge of the ha-ha still evoked an agrarian ideal as late as 1849 in [[A. J. Downing]]’s writings, but by that time the appeal of the ha-ha was largely aesthetic and symbolic, rather than practical.

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0048.jpg|[[John Nancarrow]], [["Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun'r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,"]] c.1784. The “Ah-ha” at “h” is designated by the linear feature located at the lower edge of the plan above the word “Land.”

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden at [[Rosewell Plantation]] (?) [detail], mid-18th century. Drawing; ink. “Ha Ha” is written at the top of the drawing. [[Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection of Thomas Jefferson Manuscripts, Boston, MA]].

Image:0095.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of Mr. Derby['s] Land," Elias Hasket Derby House, 1800. Drawing (?). [[Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA]].
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], [[''Plan of the buildings and grounds of Mount Vernon'']], 1787.
Image:0342.jpg|Anonymous, Mansion: East front, [[Mount Vernon]], c. 1792.
Image:0331.jpg|[[George Washington]], [[Plan of "Ha! Haws" at Mount Vernon]], 1798.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

Image:0412.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], [["Principal Story of a Military School,"]] 1800. Plan; ink on paper. “Haha” is indicated at the top linking the wings with the central building. [[Library of Congress]], Washington, D.C.
Image:1015.jpg|[[George Flower]], [[''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois--Home of George Flower'']], c. 1820. Watercolor on paper mounted on cardboard. The ha-ha is located along the front of the lawn. [[Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, IL]].
Image:1112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "[[Riversdale]], near Bladensburg," 1827. Print; lithograph. [[The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA]].

</gallery>

==Texts==

===Common Usage===
* [[Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:86;<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978">Jackson, Donald, and Dorothy Twohig, eds. 1978. ''The Diaries of George Washington''. 6 vols. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia.</ref> Johnson 1953: 100<ref name="Johnson_1953">Johnson, Gerald W. ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine''. New York: Random House, 1953.</ref>)
: "[8 February] Finding that I should be very late in preparing my [[Walks]] & [[Shrubberies]] if I waited till the ground should be uncovered by the dissolution of the Snow—I had it removed Where necessary & began to Wheel dirt into the '''Ha! Haws''' &ca.—tho’ it was it exceeding miry & bad working. . . . [Fig. 6]
: "[11 March] Planted . . . 13 Yellow Willow trees alternately along the Post and Rail fence from the Kitchen to the South '''ha-haw''' and from the Servants’ Hall to the Smith’s Shop.”

* [[Hamilton, William]], 30 September 1785, in a letter to his secretary, [[Benjamin Hays Smith]], describing the [[Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Madsen 1988: A3)<ref name="Madsen_1988">Madsen, Karen. 1988. “William Hamilton’s Woodlands.” Paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck. Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN/q/madsen?&_suid=1340895272014046677169243049543 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Step also the Diameter of the circle or ring that encloses the [[Ice House]] Hill & tell me the space from one to the other side of the walk & of the '''Ha.Ha.'''”

* [[Jefferson, Thomas]], [2-14 April] 1786, describing the ha-ha at Stowe in "Notes of a Tour of English Gardens," <ref name="Jefferson_1786">Jefferson, Thomas. 1786. “Notes of a Tour of English Gardens” p. 371 in ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Digital Edition'', ed. Barbara B. Oberg and J. Jefferson Looney. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, Rotunda, 2008. http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/TSJN-01-09-02-0328</ref>
:"The inclosure is entirely by '''''ha! ha!'''''"

* [[Hamilton, Alexander]], 1803, describing [[Hamilton Grange]], estate of Alexander Hamilton, New York, N.Y. (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:263)<ref name="Lockwood_1931">Lockwood, Alice B., ed. 1931–34. ''Gardens of Colony
and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840''. 2 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/q/lockwood?&_suid=134089534325908515126938052927 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“It has always appeared to me that the ground on which our orchard stands is much too moist. To cure this, a ditch round it would be useful, perhaps with a '''sunken fence''' as a guard.”

* [[Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 107)<ref name="Nichols-Griswold_1978">Nichols, Frederick Doveton, and Ralph E. Griswold. 1978. ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D/q/nichols?&_suid=13408954332440669707914641372 view on Zotero]</ref>
: “General ideas for the improvement of Monticello “all the houses on the Mulberry walk to be taken away, except the stone house . . . and a '''ha! ha!''' instead of the paling along it for an inclosure. This will of course be made when the garden is levelled, and stone for the wall will be got out of the garden itself, in digging, aided by that got out of the level in front of the S.W. offices, the old stone fence below the stable, and the lower wall of the garden, which is thicker than necessary.”

* [[Kirkbride, Thomas S.]], April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 349)
: “Between the north lodge and the [[deer-park]], separated from the latter by a '''sunk''' palisade '''fence''', is a neat flower garden.”

===Citations===
* [[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 77) <ref name="Argenville_1712">[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J. (Antoine Joseph)]. [1712] 1969. ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; wherein is fully handled all that relates to fine gardens, . . . containing divers plans, and general dispositions of gardens''; . . . English-language edition prepared by John James from the 1709 French original and printed in London by Geo. James. Reprint, Farnborough, England: Gregg. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/q/Argenville?&_suid=133892361410707494359358347307 view on Zotero]</ref>
: “At present we frequently make Thorough-Views, call’d '''''Ah, Ah''''', which are Openings in the Walls, without Grills, to the very Level of the Walks, with a large and deep Ditch at the Foot of them, lined on both Sides to sustain the Earth, and prevent the getting over, which surprises the Eye upon coming near it, and makes one cry, '''''Ah! Ah!''''' from whence it take its Name.”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.)
:“The boundaries of these gardens [flower gardens], whatever they are fenced with, should be carefully concealed with plantations of flowering shrubs, intermixed with laurels and other evergreens to cover the [[fences]], which have a disagreeable appearance, when they are left naked and exposed. Nor should all the boundaries be seen from any one point of view; and if the country around affords a variety of pleasing prospects, it will be right to bound the pleasure-garden with an '''ha-ha''' ditch and wall, to lay these views open to sight.”

* [[Walpole, Horace]], 1770, “On Modern Gardening” (1876: 3:80–81)<ref name="Walpole_1770">Walpole, Horace. 1876. “On Modern Gardening.” Pp. 63–93 in ''Anecdotes of Painting in England; with some Account of the Principal Artists'', vol. 3, edited by Ralph N. Wornum. London: Chatto and Windus. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/7BEGCURQ/q/walpole?&_suid=134089756944109572040852949808 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“I have observed in the garden at Gubbins, in Hertforshire, many detached thoughts, that strongly indicate the dawn of modern taste. As his reformation gained footing, he ventured farther, and in the royal garden at Richmond dared to introduce cultivated fields, and even morsels of a forest appearance, by the sides of those endless and tiresome walks, that stretched out of one into another without intermission. But this was not till other innovators had broke loose too from rigid symmetry. But the capital stroke, the leading step to all that has followed, was [I believe the first thought was Bridgman’s] the destruction of walls for boundaries, and the invention of fossés—an attempt then deemed so astonishing that the common people called them '''Ha! Ha’s'''! to express their surprise at finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk.
:“One of the first gardens planted in this simple, though still formal style, was my father’s at Houghton. It was laid out by Mr. Eyre, an imitator of Bridgman. It contains three-and-twenty acres, then reckoned a considerable portion.
:“I call a '''sunk fence''' the leading step, for these reasons: No sooner was this simple enchantment made, than leveling, moving and rolling, followed. The contiguous ground of the park, without the sunk fence, was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without. The '''sunk fence''' ascertained the specific garden; but that it might not draw too obvious a line of distinction between the neat and the rude, the contiguous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of general design: and when nature was taken into the plan, under improvements, every step that was made pointed out new beauties and inspired new ideas. At that moment appeared Kent, painter enough to taste the charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system from the twilight of imperfect essays. He leaped the [[fence]], and saw that all nature was a garden. He felt the delicious contrast of hill and valley changing imperceptibly into each other, tasted the beauty of the gentle swell or concave scoop, and remarked how loose groves crowned an easy eminence with happy ornament; and while they called in the distant view between their graceful stems, removed and extended the perspective by delusive comparison.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:549)
:“[According to Bridgeman] ‘But the capital stroke, the leading step to all that has followed, was the destruction of walls for boundaries, and the invention of fosses—an attempt then deemed so astonishing, that the common people called them '''Ha! Ha’s'''! to express their surprise at finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk.’
:“‘A '''sunk fence''' may be called the ''leading step'', for these reasons. No sooner was this simple enchantment made, than levelling, mowing, and rolling, followed. The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without. The '''sunk fence''' ascertained the specific garden; but that it might not draw too obvious a line of distinction between the neat and the rude, the contiguous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of general design; and when nature was taken into the plan, under improvements, every step that was made pointed out new beauties, and inspired new ideas.’”

* [[Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 13, 81)<ref name="Repton_1803">Repton, Humphry. 1803. ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening''. London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton?&_suid=1340898021597034351638853412503 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away hedges to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked lawn, before plantations are made to give it the appearance of a park; and where ground is subdivided by '''sunk fences''', imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expence of actual confinement. . . .
:“3. A third method [of concealing a boundary fence] is, sinking the fence below the surface of the ground, by which means the view is not impeded, and the continuity of lawn is well preserved. . . . We must therefore so dispose a fosse, or '''ha! ha!''' that we may look across it and not along it. For this reason a '''sunk fence''' must be straight and not curving, and it should be short, else the ''imaginary'' freedom is dearly bought by the ''actual'' confinement, since nothing is so difficult to pass as a deep '''sunk fence'''.”

* [[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (p. 65)<ref name="MMahon_1806">M’Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a complete account of all the work necessary to be done . . . for every month of the year. . . .'' Philadelphia: B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m%27mahon?&_suid=134089827294903803429023051216 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“A Foss or '''ha-ha''', is often formed at the termination of a spacious lawn, grand walk, avenue, or other principal part or parts of the pleasure ground, both to extend the prospect into the adjacent fields and country, and give these particular parts of the ground an air of larger extent than they really have; as at a distance nothing of this kind of fence is seen, so that the adjacent fields, plantations, &c. appear to be connected with, or but a continuation of the pleasure ground.
:“A Foss or '''ha-ha''', is a '''sunk fence''', ditch-like, five or six feet deep, and ten, twenty, or more wide; and is made in different ways according to the nature of the ground. One sort is formed with a nearly upright side next the pleasure ground, five, six, or seven feet deep, faced with a wall of brick, or stone, or strong post and planking, &c. . . . the other side is made sloping outward gradually from the bottom of said wall, till it terminates as near a level as possible.
:“Another kind of foss is formed with both sides sloping, and in perpendicular depth from four to five or six feet, having a fence near that height arranged along the bottom, formed of strong paling, or any kind of palisado-work; the sides may be sloped gradually from the bottom to ten or twenty feet width, or more at top, but sloped more to the field side than to the other.”

* [[Nicol, Walter]], 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (pp. 4–5)<ref name="Nicol_1823"> Nicol, Walter. 1823. ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres''. Edinburgh, Scotland: Archibald Constable. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5/q/walter?&_suid=1340898466627026555353791321157 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Next to the error of rearing high fences, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of [[shrubbry]], or other plantation; leaving the house standing in a small open paddock, unadorned by a plant of any kind; the belt being often separated from it by a deep and broad ditch, or '''ha-ha'''.
:“This style is no doubt in imitation of that of the [[park]]; and the reason, probably, why we have not clumps and groups of trees here as in a park, is, that the belt is sufficiently near to the house, either for shelter, or to be admired for its variety. In a spot of a few acres, however, this style cannot be admitted with any degree of propriety. In the first place, you cannot look from a window without looking into a ditch which must convey an idea of restraint and confinement, very unpleasant. Next, the small formal lawn, if it may be so called, seems a perfect ''dish'', with as formal an edging; and, from no point can a view of distant objects be had, without being interrupted by this edging; which is perplexing to the eye, in a great measure, although the situation of the house may be such as to admit of looking over it.
:“The '''sunk fence''' can only be admissible in the front ground of a Villa, when placed in such a manner as to cross the view from the windows, and it may be useful in dividing the lawn in that way, if it be of any considerable extent; but a light moveable railing, consisting of fleaks or hurdles, will be found to answer the purpose better, as with these the ground can be divided in any shape or proportion, at pleasure.”

* [[Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (p. 279)<ref name="GWJohnson_1847">Johnson, George William. 1847. ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening''. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/george%20william?&_suid=13409074322740595615358773142 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''HA-HA''', is a '''sunk fence''', being placed at the bottom of a deep and spreading ditch, either to avoid any interruption to an expanse of surface, or to let in a desired prospect. As all deceptions are unsatisfactory to good taste, and as when viewed lengthwise these fences are formal and displeasing, they ought never to be adopted except in extreme cases.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 346)<ref name="Downing_1849"> Downing, A. J.. 1849. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a view to the improvement of country residences. Comprising historical notices and general principles of the art, directions for laying out grounds and arranging plantations, the description and cultivation of hardy trees, decorative accompaniments to the house and grounds, the formation of pieces of artificial water, flower gardens, etc.: with remarks on rural architecture''. 4th edition, New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/q/downing?&_suid=1340907591224043370960261936264 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The '''sunken fence''', fosse, or '''''ha-ha''''', is an English invention, used in separating that portion of the lawn near the house, from the part grazed by deer or cattle, and is only a ditch sufficiently wide and deep to render communication difficult on opposite sides. When the ground slopes from the house, such a '''sunk fence''' is invisible to a person near the latter, and answers the purpose of a barrier without being in the least obtrusive.”

==Notes==

<references/>

Mount Vernon

2013-11-12T15:17:23Z

Emily Pugh:

'''Mount Vernon''', located in Fairfax County, Virginia near Alexandria, was the plantation home of the first President of the United States, George Washington.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Little Hunting Creek Plantation

'''Site Dates:''' 1752 - 1848

'''Site Owner(s):''' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington George Washington]

'''Site Designer(s):''' George Washington

'''Location:'''<br/>
Alexandria, VA<br/>
[https://maps.google.com/maps?q=mount+vernon&ll=38.708336,-77.086623&spn=0.009728,0.014977&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&fb=1&gl=us&hq=mount+vernon&cid=0,0,6280114765250044428&t=m&z=16&iwloc=A View on Google maps]

'''Associated Sites:'''

'''Associated Terms:'''
[[Ancient Style]], [[Arcade]], [[Avenue]], [[Botanic garden]], [[Bowling green]], [[Clump]], [[Deer park]], [[Drive]], [[Eminence]], [[Flower garden]], [[Fountain]], [[French style]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Grove]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Kitchen garden]], [[Labyrinth]], [[Lawn]], [[Mound/Mount]], [[Nursery]], [[Orchard]], [[Piazza/Veranda/Porch/Portico]], [[Picturesque]], [[Plantation]], [[Plot/Plat]], [[Pot]], [[Quarter]], [[Shrubbery]], [[Square]], [[Sundial]], [[View/Vista]], [[Wall]], [[Wilderness]], [[Wood/Woods]]

==Images==
<gallery widths="140px" heights="140px" perrow="4">
Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], ''Plan of the buildings and grounds of Mount Vernon'', 1787.

Image:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "View of Mount Vernon looking to the North," July 17, 1796.

Image:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "View to the North from the Lawn at Mount Vernon," 1796.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West," 1796.

Image:0292.jpg|[[William Matthew Prior]], ''Washington's Tomb at Mount Vernon'' [detail], c.1855.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Genl. G. Washington" in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), n.p.

Image:0328.jpg|Unknown, "Front View of the Mansion at Mount Vernon," in Franklin Knight ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington...'' (1847), opp. p.14.

Image:0329.jpg|Unknown (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), "North West View of the Mansion of George Washington Mount Vernon," in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington...'' (1847), opp. p.124.

Image:0330.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], attr., ''Tomb du grande Washington au Mount Vernon'' [detail], n.d.

Image:0331.jpg|[[George Washington]], Plan of "Ha! Haws" at Mount Vernon, 1798.

Image:0332.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Mount Vernon," c.1831.

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), "Birds Eye View of Mt. Vernon, The Home of Washington," c.1859.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), "Mount Vernon, the home of Washington," c.1861.

Image:0337.jpg|[[Edward Savage]], ''The West Front of Mount Vernon'', c.1787-1792.

Image:0342.jpg|[[Edward Savage]], ''The East Front of Mount Vernon'', c.1787-1792.

Image:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c.1790.

Image:0339.jpg|Anonymous, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon [detail], 1805.

Image:0340.jpg|Anonymous, “Declaration for Assurance No. 2049” Insurance Policy Drawings of Mount Vernon [detail], 1803.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Mount Vernon” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c.1850), p.108.
</gallery>

==Citations==
*Brissot de Warville, J. P., 1792, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:61)<ref name="Lockwood_1934">Lockwood, Alice B., ed. 1931–34. ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840''. 2 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's for the Garden Club of America. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/q/lockwood View on Zotero]</ref>
:"I hastened to arrive at Mount Vernon. . . . after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. . . . This house overlooks the Potomack, enjoys an extensive prospect, has a vast and elegant [[portico]] on the front next to the river, and a convenient distribution of the apartments within."

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1792: 427–28)<ref name="BrissotdeWarville_1792"> Brissot de Warville, J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre). 1792. ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788''. New York: T. and J. Swords. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/q/brissot View of Zotero]</ref>
:"I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . . On this rout traverse a considerable wood, and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grassplats; on one side of the [[avenue]] are the stables, on the other a green-house, and houses for a number of negro mechanics."

*Enys, Lt. John, 12 February 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Cometti, ed., 1976: 246)<ref name="Cometti_1976">Cometti, Elizabeth, ed. 1976. ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys''. Syracuse, N.Y.: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE/q/Cometti View on Zotero]</ref>
:"From hence is one of the most delightfull Prospects I ever beheld. It had the Command of a View each way of some Miles up and down the River Potowmack whch [''sic''] is here about two Miles broad On which during the Summer there are constantly ships moving. The Hills arrownd it are coverd with plantations some of which have Elegant houses standing on them all of which being situated on [[Eminences]] form very beautifull Objects for each other."

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1927: 174)<ref name="Gerry_1927">Gerry, Elbridge, Jr. 1927. ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr''. New York: Brentano's. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF/q/gerry View on Zotero]</ref>
:"Back of the mansion is a [[summer house]], which commands an elegant view of the Potomac." [Fig. 9]

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 19 July 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 1:163)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"> Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. 1977. ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798''. Edited by Edward C. Carter II. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K/q/latrobe view on Zotero]</ref>
:"The general plan of the building is as at Mr. Man Pages at Mansfield near Fredericsburg, of the old School. . . . The center is an old house to which a good dining room has been added at the North end, and a study &c. &c., at the South. The House is connected with the Kitchen offices by [[arcades]]."

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 19 July 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 1:165)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level lawn bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine walk, shaded by weeping Willows. . . . On one side of this lawn is a plain Kitchen garden, on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in squares, and boxed with great precission. Along the North Wall of this Garden is a plain Greenhouse. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time again since I left Germany, I saw here a parterre, chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 19 July 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 1:165)<ref name="Latrobe_1977"></ref>
:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level lawn bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine walk, shaded by weeping Willows. . . . On one side of this lawn is a plain Kitchen garden, on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in squares, and boxed with great precission. Along the North Wall of this Garden is a plain Greenhouse. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time again since I left Germany, I saw here a parterre, chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:96, 97)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978">Jackson, Donald, and Dorothy Twohig, eds. 1978. ''The Diaries of George Washington''. 6 vols. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TDKNKCXK/q/Twohig View on Zotero]</ref>
:"[28 February] Planted all the Mulberry trees, Maple trees, & Black gums in my Serpentine [[walks]] and the Poplars on the right [[walk]]—the Sap of which and the Mulberry appeared to be moving. Also planted 4 trees from H. Hole the name unknown but of a brittle wood which has the smell of Mulberry. . . .
:"[2 March] . . . Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine [[walks]]—the remainder of the fringe trees in the Shrubberies—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each clump—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each clump—all the swamp red berry bushes & one clump of locust trees."

* [[Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:86: Johnson 1953: 100<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref><ref name="Johnson_1953">Johnson, Gerald W. ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine''. New York: Random House, 1953.</ref>)
:"[8 February] Finding that I should be very late in preparing my [[Walks]] & [[Shrubberies]] if I waited till the ground should be uncovered by the dissolution of the Snow—I had it removed Where necessary & began to Wheel dirt into the '''Ha! Haws''' &ca.—tho' it was it exceeding miry & bad working. . . . [Fig. 6]
: "[11 March] Planted . . . 13 Yellow Willow trees alternately along the Post and Rail fence from the Kitchen to the South '''ha-haw''' and from the Servants' Hall to the Smith's Shop."

*Washington, George, 1786, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:267, 293)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"[25 January] And set about the Banks round the Lawn, in front of the gate between the two [[Mounds]] of Earth. . . . [Fig. 4]
:"[13 March] The ground being in order for it, I set the people to raising and forming the [[mounds]] of Earth by the gate in order to plant weeping willow thereon."

*Washington, George, 25 December 1782, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (quoted in Johnson 1953: 87–88)
:"I wish that the afore-mentioned shrubs and ornamental and curious trees may be planted at both ends that I may determine hereafter from circumstances and appearances which shall be the [[grove]] and which the wilderness. It is easy to extirpate Trees from any spot but time only can bring them to maturity."

*Washington, George, 1785 and 1786, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:99, 107, 304)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"[7 March 1785] Planted all my Cedars, all my Papaw, and two Honey locust Trees in my Shrubberies and two of the latter in my [[groves]]—one at each (side) of the House and a large Holly tree on the Point going to the Sein landing. . . .
:"Finished Plowing the Ground adjoining the Pine [[Grove]], designed for Clover & Orchard grass Seed. . . .
:"[24 March 1785] Finding the Trees round the Walks in my wildernesses rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
:"Laid off the Walks in my [[Groves]], at each end of the House. . . .
:"[6 April 1786] Transplanted 46 of the large Magnolio of So. Carolina from the box brought by G. A. Washington last year—viz.—6 at the head of each of the Serpentine Walks next the Circle—26 in the Shrubbery or [[grove]] at the South end of the House & 8 in that at the No. end. The ground was so wet, more could not at this time be planted there."

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:94, 97, 99)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"[22 February] I also removed from the Woods and old fields, several young Trees of Sassafras, Dogwood, & red bud, to the [[Shrubbery]] on the No. Side the grass plat. . . .
:"Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine walks—the remainder of the fringe trees in the [[Shrubberies]]—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each clump—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each clump—all the swamp red berry bushes & one clump of locust trees. . . .
:"[3 March] Planted the remainder of the Locusts—Sassafras—small berried thorn & yellow Willow in the [[Shrubberies]], as also the red buds— a honey locust and service tree by the South Garden House. Likewise took up the clump of Lilacs that stood at the Corner of the South Grass plat & transplanted them to the clusters in the [[Shrubberies]] & standards at the south Garden gate. The Althea trees were also planted. . . .
:"Employed myself the greatest part of the day in pruning and shaping the young plantation of Trees & Shrubs. . . .
:"[7 March] Planted all my Cedars, all my Papaw, and two Honey locust Trees in my [[Shrubberies]] and two of the latter in my groves—one at each (side) of the House and a large Holly tree on the Point going to the Sein landing."

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:199, 215)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"[30 September] Began again to Smooth the Face of the Lawn, or [[Bolling Green]] on the West front of my House—what I had done before the Rains, proving abortive. . . .
:"[28 October] Finished levelling and Sowing the lawn in front of the Ho[use] intended for a [[Bolling Green]]—as far as the Garden Houses."

*Washington, George, 12 February 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:89)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places. . . .
:"3 Brown Beuries in the west square in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the border (middle thereof) next the [[Fall]] or slope—the other two on the border above the walk next the old Stone Wall."

*Washington, George, 1785 and 1786, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:161, 308, 350)<ref name="Jackson-Twohig_1978"></ref>
:"[8 and 13 July] Sowed one half the Chinese Seed given me by Mr. Porter and Doctr. Craik, in three rows in the Section next the Quarter (in my [[Botanical garden]]) beginning in that part next the garden Wall, and at the end next the Middle Walk. . . .
:"[11 April 1786] In the Section in my [[botanical garden]], next the House nearest the circle, I planted 4 Rows of the laurel berries in the grd. where, last year I had planted the Physic nuts &ca.—now dead & next to these in the same section are [ ] rows of the pride of China. The Rows of both these kinds are 16 inches asunder & the Seeds 6 inches apart in the Rows. . . .
:"[19 June] A Monsr. Andri Michaux—a Botanest sent by the Court of France to America (after having been only 6 Weeks returned from India) came in a little before dinner with letters of Introduction & recommendation from the Duke de Lauzen, & Marqs. de la Fayette to me. He dined and returned afterwards to Alexandria on his way to New York, from whence he had come; and where he was about to establish a [[Botanical garden]]."

*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (p. 53)<ref name="Weld_1799">Weld, Isaac. 1799. ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797''. Vol. 2. London: John Stockdale. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7/q/weld View on Zotero]</ref>
:"In front, the breadth of the whole building, is a [[lawn]] with a gravel walk round it, planted with trees, and separated by hedges on either side from the farm yard and garden. As for the garden, it wears exactly the appearance of a nursery, and with every thing about the place indicates that more attention is paid to profit than to pleasure. The ground in the rear of the house is also laid out in a [[lawn]], and the declivity of the Mount, towards the water, in a deer park." [Fig. 15]

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, quoting an early visitor's description of Mount Vernon, plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. ([1840] 1971: 263)<ref name="Willis_1840">Willis, Nathaniel Parker. [1840] 1971. ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature''. Reprint, Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/T5CMW67U/q/willis?&_suid=133892594394005294656192564449 view on Zotero]</ref>
:At the extremity of these extensive [[alleys]] and [[pleasure-grounds]], ornamented with fruit-trees and shrubbery, and clothed in perennial verdure, stands two hothouses, and as many [[green-houses]], situated in the sunniest part of the garden, and shielded from the northern winds by a long range of wooden buildings for the accommodation of servants.

==References==
Library of Congress Authority: http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85087766

The Cultural Landscape Foundation: http://tclf.org/landscapes/mount-vernon

Official website: http://www.mountvernon.org/

National Historic Landmarks Program: http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=636&ResourceType=Building

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Vernon

==Notes==
<references/>

Alley

2013-11-12T15:10:32Z

Emily Pugh:

([[Allée]], [[Allies]], [[Ally]])<br/>

Alley is used in the American setting to describe various forms of walks bordered by plantings on either side, and often appears alongside avenue and walk in treatises and descriptions (see [[Avenue]] and [[Walk]]).

==Discussion==
Alley is used in the American setting to describe various forms of walks bordered by plantings on either side, and often appears alongside avenue and walk in treatises and descriptions (see [[Avenue]] and [[Walk]]).<ref> In American landscape writing the term "alley" was used most often in its anglicized rather than its French spelling (allée).</ref> [[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York," c.1828.]] General dictionaries, such as those by [[Thomas Sheridan]] and [[Noah Webster]], even define walks and alleys to be synonymous. Despite their similar meanings, however, the term "walk" was more broadly defined in specialist literature; walks occur in a variety of settings outside the garden (for example, rope walks). Alley, despite its frequent use denoting a narrow passage in a town, has a more particular association with the designed landscape than either avenue or walk, having been derived from the French verb ''aller'' (to go), which was often associated in British and American gardening treatises with French formal gardens. The repeated use of the phrase "walks and alleys" in American garden writing suggests that there was a distinction between the two terms, although that nuance of meaning is neither clear nor consistent. In the late seventeenth century, French treatise author [[Jean de La Quintinie]] often used the terms "alley" and "walk" interchangeably, and distinguished alleys as more narrow than avenues. Other treatise writers find the main criteria of an alley to be a walkway formed between two rows of plantings, defined by either low borders, such as in [[Lewis Beebe]]'s description of flowers lining the alleys at [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia, or by tall, mature shade trees forming an enclosing canopy. This latter definition was exemplified at [[New Haven Burying Ground]] (as described by [[Timothy Dwight]] in 1796), [[André Parmentier]]'s horticultural and botanical garden (Fig. 1), with its alleys of nectarine, peach, pear, apple, plum, and cherry trees, and [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s plantation, [[Monticello]] (Fig. 2). [[File:0072.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Thomas Jefferson, Plan of an orchard at Monticello, 1778.]] In contrast to the treatises, usage examples suggest that alley referred to walkways of all sizes planted on either side, from the pedestrian paths of [[Gray's Garden]] in Philadelphia and Jefferson's six-foot-wide "allies" between grass plots at Monticello to the alley wide enough for two carriages to pass at the New Haven Burying Ground. The "Tenpin Alley" in the pleasure grounds of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] (Fig. 3) is an example of the use of the term to describe a site for bowling that looks completely different from the more common garden element, the bowling green (see [[Bowling green]]).

Alleys also varied in their configuration. Like walks, they included straight, curved, and zig-zagged designs. An avenue was often planted on either side and was generally straight. An alley, on the other hand, was associated both with the geometric regularity of the ancient style and, as in Parmentier's usage, with descriptions of winding or serpentine walks in a "modern," more naturalistic garden (compare with [[Ancient style]]). It is in this latter context that the [[Rev. Manasseh Cutler]]'s description of the [[State House Yard, Philadelphia]], cites [[Hogarth]]'s "Line of Beauty," an allusion to mid-eighteenth-century aesthetic theory (see [[Landscape gardening]] and [[Picturesque]]).

In any configuration, alleys functioned much like their counterparts, avenues and walks, in directing views in the landscape and in controlling circulation patterns. Like avenues, straight alleys were used to create an impressive approach to the main house's front entrance and to direct a viewer's gaze toward a focal point or vista. As <span id="gregory_1816_cite"></span>[[G. Gregory]] (1816) advised ([[#Gregory_1816|view citation]]), the illusion of depth could be further enhanced by making the alley wider at the entrance than at the termination. Like serpentine walks, a curvilinear alley led garden visitors gradually through the landscape, with each turn revealing a new view or perspective, as conveyed by <span id="cutler_1787_cite"></span>Cutler's 1787 description ([[#Cutler_1787|view citation]]) of [[Gray's Tavern]] in Philadelphia.

Treatises describe alleys as usually laid with grass or gravel. The surfaces of American alleys are most commonly described and depicted as gravel, or rolled dirt, although an 1867 description of the garden of [[Charles Norris]] in Philadelphia mentions "graveled and grass walks and alleys." In many parts of America, the climate was less suited to growing turf than in England, and the surface material was likely selected for its durability, drainage, ease of maintenance, availab[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Thomas S. Sinclair, "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia]]," in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).]]ility, and cost, as well as aesthetic concerns. Archaeological examples suggest packed dirt (as at [[Arthur Allen]]'s Virginia home, [[Bacon's Castle]]), shell, and gravel were used, although none of the walkways at these sites has been associated with the term "alley." Based on extensive excavations at [[Williamsburg]], Va., the quintessential image of the colonial revival garden, the brick walk, does not appear to have been used there (see [[Walk]]).

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0072.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, [[Plan of an orchard at Monticello]], 1778.

Image:0092.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, "[[Plan of Spring Roundabout at Monticello]]," c.1804.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, "[[Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York," c.1828.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, "[[Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia]]," in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4 (April 1848).
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0670.jpg|Clarke Hill and Dock Creek, early 18th c.

Image:0431.jpg|''[[Carter's Grove]]'', mid-19th century.<span id="palmer_imgs"></span>

Image:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "Ground Plot of [[Brier Cottage]]," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol 1, pl. 2.

Image:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, "A plot of village property 724 feet by 488," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, p. 65 and pl. 48.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
Image:0259.jpg|The Gansevoort Limner (possibly Pieter Vanderlyn), ''[[Young Lady with a Fan]]'', 1737.

Image:0003-detail.jpg|William Dering, ''Portrait of [[George Booth]]'' [detail], 1748-1750.

Image:0658.jpg|[[St. Paul's Church]], New York, 1800-1810.

Image:0001_detail.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Salem Common]] on Training Day'' [detail], 1808.

</gallery>

==Texts==

===Common Usage===
* Anonymous, 22 May 1749, describing Charleston, S.C. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina_Gazette ''South Carolina Gazette''])
:"a garden, genteelly laid out in walks and '''alleys''', with flower-knots, &c. laid round with bricks."

* [[Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], 13 July 1787, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1987: 1:263)<ref name="Cutler_1987">Cutler, Manasseh. Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler. Edited by William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler. 2 vols. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5/q/manasseh?&_suid=133424419732507204984351115723 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"The numerous walks are well graveled and rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-'''alleys''', and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the Mall that are alike. Hogarth's 'Line of Beauty' is here completely verified."

* <div id="Cutler_1787"></div>Cutler, Rev. Manasseh, 14 July 1787, describing [[Gray's Tavern]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1987: 1:275)<ref name="Cutler_1987" /> [[#cutler_1787_cite|back up to text]]
:"We then rambled over the Gardens, which are large—seemed to be in a number of detached areas, all different in size and form. The '''alleys''' were none of them straight, nor were there any two alike. At every end, side, and corner, there were ''summer-houses'', arbors covered with vines or flowers, or shady bowers encircled with trees and flowering shrubs, each of which was formed in a different taste."

* [[Brissot de Warville, J. P.]], 1788, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1792: 316)<ref name="Brissot_1792">Brissot de Warville, J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre). ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788''. New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/q/brissot?&_suid=133424525647405662143133116491 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Behind the State-house is a public garden; it is the only one that exists in Philadelphia. It is not large; but it is agreeable, and one may breathe in it. It is composed of a number of verdant squares, intersected by '''alleys'''."

* Dwight, Timothy, 1796, describing [[New Haven Burying Ground]], New Haven, Conn. (1821: 1:191–92)<ref name="Dwight_1821">Dwight, Timothy. 1821–22. ''Travels in New England and New York''. 4 vols. New Haven, Conn.: T. Dwight. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG/q/dwight?&_suid=133892247582305498215324305745 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"The field was then divided into parallelograms, handsomely railed, and separated by '''alleys''' of sufficient breadth to permit carriages to pass each other. The whole field . . . was distributed into family burying places. . . . Each family burying-ground is thirty-two feet in length, and eighteen in breadth: and against each an opening is made to admit a funeral procession. At the divisions between the lots trees are set out in the '''alleys''': and the name of each proprietor is marked on the railing."

* Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, Pa. ([[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]], Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801, vol. 3)<ref>Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801, vol. 3. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/V2B6NEAQ View on Zotero]</ref>
:"Mr. Pratts garden for beauty and elegance exceeds all that I ever saw—The main '''alley''', 13 feet wide, and 20 rods long is upon each side graced with flowers of every kind and colours—and 18 wide. An '''alley''' of 13 feet wide runs the length of the garden thro' the centre—Two others of 10 feet wide equally distant run parallel with the main '''alley'''. These are intersected at right angles by 4 other alleys of 8 feet wide—Another '''alley''' of 5 feet wide goes around the whole garden, leaving a border around it of 3 feet wide . . . next to the pales. . . . The border of the main '''alley''' is ornamented with flowers of every description."

[[File:0092.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Jefferson, "Plan of Spring Roundabout at Monticello," c.1804.]]
* Jefferson, Thomas, c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. ("Plan of Spring Roundabout at Monticello," Huntington Library)
:"The '''allies''' are 6. f. wide that thro' the lucerne makes that plot so much more than two acres." (Fig. 4)

* Graydon, Alexander, 1811, describing the garden of [[Israel Pemberton]], Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 34–35)<ref name="Graydon_1811">Graydon, Alexander. 1811. ''Memoirs of a Life Chiefly Passed in Pennsylvania within the Last Sixty Years''. Harrisburg, Pa.: John Wyeth. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/SIZFRZVI/q/graydon?&_suid=1338923244222024252068334125076 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"laid out in the old fashioned style of uniformity, with walks and '''allies''' nodding to their brothers, and decorated with a number of evergreens, carefully clipped into pyramidal and conical forms."

* [[Silliman, Benjamin]], 1824, describing Albany, N.Y. (p. 59)<ref name="Silliman_1824">Silliman, Benjamin. 1824. ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819''. New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5/q/silliman?&_suid=133892587184004620986946328218 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"It is perfectly compact—closely built, and as far as it extends, has the appearance of a great city. It has numerous streets, lanes, and '''alleys''', and in all of them, there is the same closeness of building, and the same city-like appearance."

* [[Willis, Nathaniel Parker]], 1840, quoting an early visitor's description of [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. ([1840] 1971: 263)<ref name="Willis_1840">Willis, Nathaniel Parker. [1840] 1971. ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature''. Reprint, Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/T5CMW67U/q/willis?&_suid=133892594394005294656192564449 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"At the extremity of these extensive '''alleys''' and pleasure-grounds, ornamented with fruit-trees and shrubbery, and clothed in perennial verdure, stands two hot-houses, and as many green-houses, situated in the sunniest part of the garden, and shielded from the northern winds by a long range of wooden buildings for the accommodation of servants."

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], September 1851, "Notes on Gardens and Nurseries," describing Rose Hill, residence of George Leland, Waltham, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 411)<br/>
:"A main walk extends around the garden, with '''alleys''' leading from one side to the other."

* [[Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the garden of Charles Norris, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref name="Logan_1867">Logan, Deborah Norris. 1867. ''The Norris House''. Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/KGVT4B54/q/logan?&_suid=133892601619509303233520397728 view on Zotero]</ref><br/>
:"It was laid out in square parterres and beds, regularly intersected by graveled and grass walks and '''alleys'''."

===Citations===
* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' ([1629] 1975: 5)<ref name="Parkinson_1629">Parkinson, John. [1629] 1975. ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris''. Originally published London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629. Reprint, Norwood, N.J.: W. J. Johnson. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ/q/parkinson?&_suid=133892355117805765281938805817 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"for the fairer and larger your allies and walkes be, the more grace your Garden shall have, the lesse harme the herbes and flowers shall receive, by passing by them that grow next unto the allies sides, and the better shall your Weeders cleanseboth the beds and allies."

* La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard'ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.)<ref name="LaQuintinie">La Quintinie, Jean de. [1693] 1982. The ''Compleat Gard'ner, or Directions for cultivating and right ordering of fruit-gardens and kitchen gardens''. Translated by John Evelyn, 1693. Reprint, New York: Garland. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH/q/Quintinie?&_suid=133892358334104041554112528224 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''''Allies''''', are such as we call Walks in any Garden. See Walks, and their Use and Proportion, see in the Body of the Book.
:"'''''Allies''''', are said to be ''Bien Tirrées'', ''Bien Repassées'', or ''Bien Retirrées'', that is, ''well plain'd'', when they are laid smooth and firm and tight again, with the beater or rouling Stone after they have been scraped or turned up with an Instrument to destroy the Weeds.
:"''Diagonal '''Allies'''''. See ''Diagonal''. [''Diagonal '''Allies''''', or Lines, are Allies or Lines drawn cross one another through the Center of each, and cross any square in a ''Garden'' from corner to corner, thereby to give them the fuller view of the square.]
:"''Parallel '''Allies'''''. See ''Parallel''. [''Parallel'' '''Allies''', are '''Allies''' of an equal breadth through their whole length, and running along in lines equally distant all along from the lines that compose the sides of the '''Allies''' which answer them] . . .
:"''Avenues'', are certain '''Allies''' or Walks in Gardens larger than ordinary, but more properly leading to the front of Houses."

* [Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 40–41)<ref name="Argenville_1712">[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J. (Antoine Joseph)]. [1712] 1969. ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; wherein is fully handled all that relates to fine gardens, . . . containing divers plans, and general dispositions of gardens''; . . . English-language edition prepared by John James from the 1709 French original and printed in London by Geo. James. Reprint, Farnborough, England: Gregg. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/q/Argenville?&_suid=133892361410707494359358347307 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"OPEN Walks may be distinguished into two Kinds; namely, the '''Alley''' of Parterres, Bowlinggreens, Kitchen-gardens, &c. which are formed only by the Yews and Dwarfs of the Borders; and the Walks, which tho' planted with high Palisades and tall Trees, are however kept open at Top, either by clipping the Palisades to a certain Height, or by trimming the Trees on both Sides, so that you may breathe the pure Air. . . .
:"SINGLE Walks are those that consist but of two Rows of Trees or Palisades, to distinguish them from double Walks that have four, which form three '''Alleys''' close together, a large one in the Middle, and two on the Sides that accompany it, and are called Counter-walks."

* Bradley, Richard, 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (2, 3:141)<ref name="Bradley_1719-20">Bradley, Richard. 1719–20. ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, both Philosophical and Practical: Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With other discoveries never before made in publick, for the improvement of forest-trees, flower-gardens or parterres; with a new invention where by more designs of garden platts may be made in an hour, than can be found in all the books now extant. Likewise several rare secrets for the improvement of fruit-trees, kitchen-gardens, and green-house plants''. 3rd ed. 2 vols. London: W. Mears. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4/q/bradley?&_suid=1338923767802022032786625555423 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"But plant ''Asparagus'' . . . measure out your Ground, allowing four Foot for the Breadth of each ''Bed'', and two Foot for every '''Alley''' between the ''Beds''."

* Chambers, Ephraim, 1741–43, Cyclopaedia (n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Chambers, Ephraim. 1741–43. ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences''. . . . 2 vols. London: D. Midwinter et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/PTXK378N/q/chambers?&_suid=1338923846176002577700146434192 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"[vol. 1] '''ALLEY''', * in gardening, a strait parallel walk, bordered or bounded on each hand with trees, shrubs, or the like. See GARDEN, WALK, EDGING, &tc.
:"* The word '''''alley''''' is derived from the French word ''aller'', to go; the ordinary use of an '''''alley''''' being for a walk, passage, or horowfare from one place to another.
:"'''''Alleys''''' are usually laid either with grass or gravel. See GRASS, and GRAVEL-Walk.
:"An '''''Alley''''' is distinguished from a path, in this; that in an '''''alley''''' there must always be room enough for two persons at least to walk abreast; so that it must be never less than five feet in breadth; and there are some who hold that it ought never to have more than fifteen.
:"''Counter-'''''ALLEYS''', are the little '''alleys''' by the sides of the great ones.
:"''Front-'''''ALLEY''', is that which runs strait in the face of a building.
:"''Transverse'' '''ALLEY''', that which cuts the former at right angles.
:"''Diagonal'' '''ALLEY''', that which cuts a square, thicket, parterre, &c. from angle to angle.
:"''Sloping'' '''ALLEY''', is that which either by reason of the slowness of the point of sight, or of the ground, is neither parallel to the front, nor to the transverse '''''alleys'''''.
:"'''ALLEYS''' ''in Ziczac'', is that which has too great a descent, and which, on that account, is liable to be damaged by floods; to prevent the ill effects whereof, it has platbands of turf run across it from space to space, which help to keep up the gravel. This last name is likewise given to an '''''alley''''' in a labyrinth, or wilderness, formed by several returns of angles, in order to render it the more solitary and obscure, and to hide its exit.
:"'''ALLEY''' ''in Perspective'', is that which is larger at the entrance than at the exit; to give it a great appearance of length.
:"'''ALLEY''' ''of Compartiment'', is that which separates the squares of a parterre. . . .
:"[vol. 2] QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a plantation of trees, disposed originally in a square; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular grove, wood, or wilderness, and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel '''alleys'''. . . .
:"WALKS, in gardening, See the article '''ALLEYS'''."

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.)<ref name="Johnson_1755">Johnson, Samuel, 1755. ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers''. 2 vols. London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3/q/johnson?&_suid=133892392199904165320425279956 View on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALLEY'''. ''n.s.'' [allée, Fr.]
:"1. A walk in a garden. . . .
:"2. A passage in towns narrower than a street."

* Hale, Thomas, 1758–59, ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry'' (1:276)<ref name="Hale_1758-59">Hale, Thomas. 1756, 1758–59. ''A Compleat Body of Husbandry containing rules for performing, in the most profitable manner, the whole business of the farmer and country gentleman''. London: T. Osborne, J. Shipton, et al. 1756; 2nd ed., 4 vols., London: T. Osborne, 1758–59. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/8JJNJDVN/q/hale?&_suid=13389240497540629509151800383 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"There is great advantage in planting the young trees in rows distant from one another, the husbandman may make use of the ground between for any other growth, till the trees are of some height; and this tilling between, far from hurting the young trees, will assist their growth: and the coppice will grow afterwards with a beautiful regularity, being all laid out into natural walks and '''alleys;'''."

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.)<ref name="SEAMC_1769">Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce. 1769. ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry''. 2nd ed. London: R. Baldwin et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/54RDSC63/q/complete%20farmer?&_suid=1338924228462049153748637530703 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALLEY''', in gardening, implies a strait walk, bounded on both sides with trees or shrubs, and commonly covered with gravel or grass.
:"An '''ally''' is distinguished from a path, by being broad enough for two persons to walk a-breast, whereas a path is supposed to admit of only one at a time; but if an alley be wider then ten or twelve feet, it may, with more propriety, be called a walk.
:"''Covered'' '''ALLEY''', is that where the trees on each side meet at the top, so as to form a shade."

* Abercrombie, John, 1789, ''The Hot-House Gardener'' (p. 24)<ref name="Abercrombie_1789">Abercrombie, John. 1789. ''The Hot-House Gardener''. London: J. Stockdale. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/P5R5NSTS/q/abercrombie?&_suid=133892431075205930361197365334 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"In the middle bottom space within is formed the pit in which to have the bark-bed, five or six to seven or eight feet wide, in proportion to the width of the house . . . having a narrow walk or '''alley''' continued all round between the wall of the pits and that of the flues, and the bottom both of the pit and walk paved with brick or paving tiles."

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Sheridan_1789">Sheridan, Thomas A. 1789. ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews''. . . . 5th ed. Philadelphia: William Young. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/q/sheridan?&_suid=133892444811605331340761632082 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALLEY''', al'-ly. s. A walk in a garden; a passage in towns narrower than a street."

* <div id="Gregory_1816"></div>Gregory, G., 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1:n.p.)<ref name="Gregory_1816">Gregory, G. 1816. ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences''. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E/q/gregory?&_suid=133892461957109667073442630617 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#gregory_1816_cite|back up to text]]
:"'''ALLEY''', in perspective, that which, in order to have a greater appearance of length, is made wider at the entrance than at the termination."

* Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (p. 185)<ref name="Parmentier_1828">Parmentier, André. 1828. "The Art of Landscape
Gardening." In ''The New American Gardener'', edited by Thomas Fessenden. Boston: J. B. Russell. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/3C29XRTH/q/parmentier?&_suid=1338924719832007232758468342626 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a symmetric garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to walk in a plantation irregular and picturesque, rather than in those straight and monotonous '''alleys''', bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?
:"Where is the person, gifted with any taste, who would not choose those '''alleys''' that wind without constraint, in preference to those dull straight lines which can be measured by one glance of the eye, and the monotony of which is unvaried? Instead of this, the modern style presents to you a constant change of scene, perfectly in accordance with the desires of a man who loves, as he continues his walk, to have new objects laid open to his view."

* Webster, Noah, 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/N7BSU467/q/webster?&_suid=1338924824894046740482696413477 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''AL'LEY''', ''n. al'ly'' [Fr. ''allée'', a passage, from ''aller'' to go; Ir. ''alladh''. Literally, a passing or going.]
:"1. A walk in a garden; a narrow passage.
:"2. A narrow passage or way in a city, as distinct from a public street.
:"3. A place in London where stocks are bought and sold. ''Ash''."

* Teschemacher, James E., 1 November 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 410)
:"But instead of planting these trees in formal close orchard lines, we should dot them about apparently irregularly, but in reality with some plan, at sufficient distances to permit, when full grown, intervals of parterres of flowers; and under each tree we should spread a circular carpet of verdant grass, kept well mown, on which the ripe and bursting peach might fall uninjured, and the disfiguring tread of the gatherer be unseen. The connexion of these circular grass plots by means of trellises of the vine, or variously formed beds of herbaceous and annual flowers, with here and there a screen of three or four thick shrubs, to conceal and protect from early blasts, a bijou or jewel of a recess set apart for small masses of choice flowers, which may suddenly and unexpectedly burst on the wanderer through the '''alleys'''—these and a variety of other schemes will afford exercise to the man of taste, and create interest in the visitor."

* [[Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (p. 13)<ref name="Buist_1841">Buist, Robert. 1841. ''The American Flower Garden Directory''. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Carey and Hart. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/TI7IE55B/q/buist?&_suid=1338925022538016459818766848555 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"All the large divisions [of a flower garden] should be intersected by small '''alleys''', or paths, about one and a half or two feet wide."

* Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (p. 26)<ref name="Johnson_1847">Johnson, George William. 1847. ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening''. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/johnson?&_suid=1338925076867022191749144210504 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALLEYS''' are of two kinds. 1. The narrow walks which divide the compartments of the kitchen garden; and 2. Narrow walks in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and overshadowed by the shrubs and trees."

[[File:0771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of Brier Cottage," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.]]

[[File:0776.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Frances Palmer, "A plot of village property 724 feet by 488," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, p. 65 and pl. 48.]]

* Downing, A. J., 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 89–90)<ref name="Downing_1849">Downing, A.J. 1849.'' A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a view to the improvement of country residences. Comprising historical notices and general principles of the art, directions for laying out grounds and arranging plantations, the description and cultivation of hardy trees, decorative accompaniments to the house and grounds, the formation of pieces of artificial water, flower gardens, etc.: with remarks on rural architecture''. 4th edition, New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/5M4S2D64/q/downing?&_suid=133892523557604145762147915245 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"Where a taste for imitating an old and quaint style of residence exists, the symmetrical and knotted garden would be a proper accompaniment; and pleached '''alleys''', and sheared trees, would be admired, like old armor or furniture, as curious specimens of antique taste and custom. . . .
:"In these gardens, nature was tamed and subdued. . . . The stately etiquette and courtly precision of the manners of our English ancestors, extended into their gardens, and were reflected back by the very trees which lined their avenues, and the shrubs which surrounded their houses . . . the gay ladies and gallants of Charles II's court . . . fluttering in glittering processions, or flirting in green '''alleys''' and bowers of topiary work."

* <span id="palmer_text"></span>Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 9, 65)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">Ranlett, William H. [1849–51] 1976. ''The Architect''. 2 vols. Reprint, New York: Da Capo. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/q/ranlett?&_suid=133892535302308968137918791123 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"[Design I] PLATE 2. —A protracted groundplot, showing the several distances and dimensions, in sections of one square yard each. This plot, by its admeasurement of the ground, will guide to a ready location of the dwelling and out buildings, and a tasty arrangement of the trees, shrubbery, walks and '''alleys''' of the garden. . . . (Fig. 5)
:"PLATE 48. —A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street. . . . The lots are suitably intersected with walks and '''alleys''', and shaded and ornamented by fruit and forest trees and shrubs; with the vegetable gardens near the stables." (Fig. 6)

==Notes==

<references/>

Special:Badtitle/NS828:Italic title

2013-11-06T21:16:37Z

Emily Pugh:

-- This module implements {{italic title}}.

local p = {}

function p.main(frame)
-- Process the arguments.
local args
if frame == mw.getCurrentFrame() then
args = frame:getParent().args
for k, v in pairs(frame.args) do
args = frame.args
break
end
else
args = frame
end

local title = mw.title.getCurrentTitle() -- Get the current page object.
-- Find the parts before and after the disambiguation parentheses, if any.
local prefix, parentheses = mw.ustring.match(title.text, '^(.+) (%([^%(%)]+%))$')
-- If parentheses were found, italicise only the part before them. Otherwise
-- italicise the whole title.
local result
if prefix and parentheses and args.all ~= 'yes' then
result = "''" .. prefix .. "'' " .. parentheses
else
result = "''" .. title.text .. "''"
end
-- Add the namespace if it exists.
if title.nsText and title.nsText ~= "" then
result = title.nsText .. ':' .. result
end

-- Call displaytitle with the text we generated.
return mw.getCurrentFrame():callParserFunction( 'DISPLAYTITLE', result )
end
return p

File:0428.jpg

2013-09-18T21:10:55Z

Emily Pugh: Casimir Bohn (artist), E. Weber (lithographer), "View of Washington City and Georgetown" [detail, looking west from the Capitol], 1849. Print; lithograph. New York Public Library.

Casimir Bohn (artist), E. Weber (lithographer), "View of Washington City and Georgetown" [detail, looking west from the Capitol], 1849. Print; lithograph. New York Public Library.

File:0370.jpg

2013-09-18T21:08:28Z

Emily Pugh: Anonymous, ''The Geometric style, from an old print'', 1849. Wood engraving. National Gallery of Art, Washington DC.

Anonymous, ''The Geometric style, from an old print'', 1849. Wood engraving. National Gallery of Art, Washington DC.

Alcove

2013-09-17T16:19:54Z

Emily Pugh:

As early as 1787, Americans recognized the alcove as a distinct garden feature that could follow one of two types: an ornamental building in a garden or a recessed niche cut into live plant material. As a garden building, an alcove could be a freestanding or semidetached structure, typically possessing three sides and housing a seat. Alcoves provided shelter from the sun in summer but were particularly welcome in the northern winter, since they were often enclosed against the winds and open to the sun.

As sheltered sun-catchers, alcoves were logical appendages to [[bathhouses]] as indicated in [[Samuel Vaughan]]’s 1787 plan of Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) [Fig. 3]. Like other garden buildings, such as [[summerhouses]] and [[pavilions]], alcoves provided shade and gave visual and physical structure to the garden by serving “as terminations to grand walks,” as Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall (active 1801) and Bernard M’Mahon (1806) both explained. Alcoves, situated at the end of long [[walks]] or [[avenues]], created visual focal points and secluded destinations for people using the garden [Figs. 2 and 6].

When conceived as a recessed niche, an alcove was typically set into or cut out of densely planted vegetation, such as privet. Alexander Walsh’s 1841 account of diminutive alcoves exemplifies this second type [Fig. 5]. In Walsh’s plan, the alcoves act as portals between the ornamental [[pleasure ground]] and compartments devoted to flowers and culinary vegetables (see also M’Mahon 1806). These portals were elevated, much like those described in the ''Horticultural Register'' of 1837, and thus provided both enclosure and privacy as well as a vantage point from which to view the landscape.

-- ''Anne Helmreich''

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

File:1269.jpg|Fig. 1, Solomon Downe, Detailed Plan of a Botanic Garden, n.d.

File:1688.jpg|Fig. 2, William and John Halfpenny, ''A Chinese Alcove Seat Fronting Four Ways'', 1755.

File:0461.jpg|Fig. 3, Samuel Vaughan, ''Plan of Bath, Warm or Berkeley Springs'', 1787.

File:1702.jpg|Fig. 4, J. C. Loudon, "Alcoves," 1826.

File:0935.jpg|Fig. 5, Alexander Walsh, ''Plan of a Garden'', March 31, 1841.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
File:1007.jpg|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," one of four ''Designs for Rustic Buildings'', February 1848.

</gallery>

==Texts==

===Common Usage===
* Constantia [pseud.], 24 June 1790, describing Gray's Garden, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref name="Constantia_1790">Constantia. 1790. "Description of Gray's Gardens, Pennsylvania." ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (June): 413–17. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4/q/constantia view on Zotero]</ref>
:"At every turn shaded seats are artfully contrived, and the ground abounds with [[arbours]], '''alcoves''', and summer houses, which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal temple claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity, upon the summit of a green mound infixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen pillars handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this Temple is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the view therefrom is truly interesting."

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)
:"These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was '''alcoves''' and [[summer houses]] at the termination of each [[walk]], seats under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the flower garden in front of the house."

*Walsh, Alexander, 1 February 1841, "Remarks on Ornamental Gardening" (''New England Farmer'' 19: 309)
:"diminutive rustic '''alcoves''', from thrifty growing plants of upright privet, ''Ligustrum strictum'', formed by placing a platform of light boards 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and 3 ft. long, and 1 ft. 6 in. wide, on the twigs of the privet; those in the centre of the platform to be trimmed off close to it under side, and those on the back and sides to be led up round the platform, entwined and arched; the door to be constructed from the twigs in front, and an opening left 2 ft. 6 in. high, which is the height of the dome."

===Citations===
*M'Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (p. 64)<ref name="MMahon_1806">M'Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener's Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a complete account of all the work necessary to be done . . . for every month of the year. . . ''. Philadelphia: B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"In some spacious pleasure-grounds various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as temples, bowers, banquetting houses, '''alcoves''', grottos, rural seats, [[cottages]], [[fountains]], [[obelisks]], [[statues]], and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand walks, &c.
:"Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced . . . other parts present '''alcoves''', bowers, [[grottos]], rural-seats, &c. at the termination of different walks."

*Loudon, J. C., 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 356)<ref name="Loudon_1826">Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius). 1826, 1834, 1850. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/q/loudon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"1810. '''Alcoves''' . . . are used as winter resting places, as being fully exposed to the sun." [Fig. 5]

*Anonymous, 1 April 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)
:"Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. Seats and arbors should be placed at points affording interesting views, '''alcoves''' and rotundas on eminences, and hermitages in secluded places."

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (p. 26)<ref name="Anonymous_1837">Johnson, George William. 1847. A Dictionary of Modern Gardening. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/johnson view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALCOVE''', is a seat in a recess, formed of stone, brick, or other dead material, and so constructed as to shelter the party seated from the north and other colder quarters, whilst it is open in front to the south."

*Webster, Noah, 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 32)<ref name="Webster_1828">Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/N7BSU467/q/webster?&_suid=1338924824894046740482696413477 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''AL'COVE''', '''AL-COVE''', n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to arch, to construct with an arch, and its derivatives, an arch, a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .
:"3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.
:"4. A recess in a grove."

==Notes==

<references/>

Alcove

2013-09-17T16:18:13Z

Emily Pugh: /* Images */

As early as 1787, Americans recognized the alcove as a distinct garden feature that could follow one of two types: an ornamental building in a garden or a recessed niche cut into live plant material. As a garden building, an alcove could be a freestanding or semidetached structure, typically possessing three sides and housing a seat. Alcoves provided shelter from the sun in summer but were particularly welcome in the northern winter, since they were often enclosed against the winds and open to the sun.

As sheltered sun-catchers, alcoves were logical appendages to [[bathhouses]] as indicated in [[Samuel Vaughan]]’s 1787 plan of Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) [Fig. 1]. Like other garden buildings, such as [[summerhouses]] and [[pavilions]], alcoves provided shade and gave visual and physical structure to the garden by serving “as terminations to grand walks,” as Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall (active 1801) and Bernard M’Mahon (1806) both explained. Alcoves, situated at the end of long [[walks]] or [[avenues]], created visual focal points and secluded destinations for people using the garden [Figs. 2 and 3].

When conceived as a recessed niche, an alcove was typically set into or cut out of densely planted vegetation, such as privet. Alexander Walsh’s 1841 account of diminutive alcoves exemplifies this second type [Fig. 4]. In Walsh’s plan, the alcoves act as portals between the ornamental [[pleasure ground]] and compartments devoted to flowers and culinary vegetables (see also M’Mahon 1806). These portals were elevated, much like those described in the ''Horticultural Register'' of 1837, and thus provided both enclosure and privacy as well as a vantage point from which to view the landscape.

-- ''Anne Helmreich''

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

File:1269.jpg|Fig. 1, Solomon Downe, Detailed Plan of a Botanic Garden, n.d.

File:1688.jpg|Fig. 2, William and John Halfpenny, ''A Chinese Alcove Seat Fronting Four Ways'', 1755.

File:0461.jpg|Fig. 3, Samuel Vaughan, ''Plan of Bath, Warm or Berkeley Springs'', 1787.

File:1702.jpg|Fig. 4, J. C. Loudon, "Alcoves," 1826.

File:0935.jpg|Fig. 5, Alexander Walsh, ''Plan of a Garden'', March 31, 1841.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
File:1007.jpg|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," one of four ''Designs for Rustic Buildings'', February 1848.

</gallery>

==Texts==

===Common Usage===
* Constantia [pseud.], 24 June 1790, describing Gray's Garden, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref name="Constantia_1790">Constantia. 1790. "Description of Gray's Gardens, Pennsylvania." ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (June): 413–17. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4/q/constantia view on Zotero]</ref>
:"At every turn shaded seats are artfully contrived, and the ground abounds with [[arbours]], '''alcoves''', and summer houses, which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal temple claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity, upon the summit of a green mound infixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen pillars handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this Temple is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the view therefrom is truly interesting."

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)
:"These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was '''alcoves''' and [[summer houses]] at the termination of each [[walk]], seats under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the flower garden in front of the house."

*Walsh, Alexander, 1 February 1841, "Remarks on Ornamental Gardening" (''New England Farmer'' 19: 309)
:"diminutive rustic '''alcoves''', from thrifty growing plants of upright privet, ''Ligustrum strictum'', formed by placing a platform of light boards 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and 3 ft. long, and 1 ft. 6 in. wide, on the twigs of the privet; those in the centre of the platform to be trimmed off close to it under side, and those on the back and sides to be led up round the platform, entwined and arched; the door to be constructed from the twigs in front, and an opening left 2 ft. 6 in. high, which is the height of the dome."

===Citations===
*M'Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (p. 64)<ref name="MMahon_1806">M'Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener's Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a complete account of all the work necessary to be done . . . for every month of the year. . . ''. Philadelphia: B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"In some spacious pleasure-grounds various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as temples, bowers, banquetting houses, '''alcoves''', grottos, rural seats, [[cottages]], [[fountains]], [[obelisks]], [[statues]], and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand walks, &c.
:"Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced . . . other parts present '''alcoves''', bowers, [[grottos]], rural-seats, &c. at the termination of different walks."

*Loudon, J. C., 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 356)<ref name="Loudon_1826">Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius). 1826, 1834, 1850. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/q/loudon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"1810. '''Alcoves''' . . . are used as winter resting places, as being fully exposed to the sun." [Fig. 5]

*Anonymous, 1 April 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)
:"Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. Seats and arbors should be placed at points affording interesting views, '''alcoves''' and rotundas on eminences, and hermitages in secluded places."

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (p. 26)<ref name="Anonymous_1837">Johnson, George William. 1847. A Dictionary of Modern Gardening. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/johnson view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALCOVE''', is a seat in a recess, formed of stone, brick, or other dead material, and so constructed as to shelter the party seated from the north and other colder quarters, whilst it is open in front to the south."

*Webster, Noah, 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 32)<ref name="Webster_1828">Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/N7BSU467/q/webster?&_suid=1338924824894046740482696413477 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''AL'COVE''', '''AL-COVE''', n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to arch, to construct with an arch, and its derivatives, an arch, a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .
:"3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.
:"4. A recess in a grove."

==Notes==

<references/>

Alcove

2013-09-17T16:13:35Z

Emily Pugh: /* Images */

As early as 1787, Americans recognized the alcove as a distinct garden feature that could follow one of two types: an ornamental building in a garden or a recessed niche cut into live plant material. As a garden building, an alcove could be a freestanding or semidetached structure, typically possessing three sides and housing a seat. Alcoves provided shelter from the sun in summer but were particularly welcome in the northern winter, since they were often enclosed against the winds and open to the sun.

As sheltered sun-catchers, alcoves were logical appendages to [[bathhouses]] as indicated in [[Samuel Vaughan]]’s 1787 plan of Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) [Fig. 1]. Like other garden buildings, such as [[summerhouses]] and [[pavilions]], alcoves provided shade and gave visual and physical structure to the garden by serving “as terminations to grand walks,” as Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall (active 1801) and Bernard M’Mahon (1806) both explained. Alcoves, situated at the end of long [[walks]] or [[avenues]], created visual focal points and secluded destinations for people using the garden [Figs. 2 and 3].

When conceived as a recessed niche, an alcove was typically set into or cut out of densely planted vegetation, such as privet. Alexander Walsh’s 1841 account of diminutive alcoves exemplifies this second type [Fig. 4]. In Walsh’s plan, the alcoves act as portals between the ornamental [[pleasure ground]] and compartments devoted to flowers and culinary vegetables (see also M’Mahon 1806). These portals were elevated, much like those described in the ''Horticultural Register'' of 1837, and thus provided both enclosure and privacy as well as a vantage point from which to view the landscape.

-- ''Anne Helmreich''

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="4">

File:1269.jpg|Solomon Downe, Detailed Plan of a Botanic Garden, n.d.

File:1688.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, ''A Chinese Alcove Seat Fronting Four Ways'', 1755.

File:0461.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, ''Plan of Bath, Warm or Berkeley Springs'', 1787.

File:1702.jpg|J. C. Loudon, "Alcoves," 1826.

File:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, ''Plan of a Garden'', March 31, 1841.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="140px" heights="170px" perrow="4">
File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," one of four ''Designs for Rustic Buildings'', February 1848.

</gallery>

==Texts==

===Common Usage===
* Constantia [pseud.], 24 June 1790, describing Gray's Garden, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref name="Constantia_1790">Constantia. 1790. "Description of Gray's Gardens, Pennsylvania." ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (June): 413–17. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4/q/constantia view on Zotero]</ref>
:"At every turn shaded seats are artfully contrived, and the ground abounds with [[arbours]], '''alcoves''', and summer houses, which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal temple claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity, upon the summit of a green mound infixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen pillars handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this Temple is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the view therefrom is truly interesting."

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)
:"These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was '''alcoves''' and [[summer houses]] at the termination of each [[walk]], seats under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the flower garden in front of the house."

*Walsh, Alexander, 1 February 1841, "Remarks on Ornamental Gardening" (''New England Farmer'' 19: 309)
:"diminutive rustic '''alcoves''', from thrifty growing plants of upright privet, ''Ligustrum strictum'', formed by placing a platform of light boards 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and 3 ft. long, and 1 ft. 6 in. wide, on the twigs of the privet; those in the centre of the platform to be trimmed off close to it under side, and those on the back and sides to be led up round the platform, entwined and arched; the door to be constructed from the twigs in front, and an opening left 2 ft. 6 in. high, which is the height of the dome."

===Citations===
*M'Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (p. 64)<ref name="MMahon_1806">M'Mahon, Bernard. 1806. ''The American Gardener's Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a complete account of all the work necessary to be done . . . for every month of the year. . . ''. Philadelphia: B. Graves for the author. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"In some spacious pleasure-grounds various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as temples, bowers, banquetting houses, '''alcoves''', grottos, rural seats, [[cottages]], [[fountains]], [[obelisks]], [[statues]], and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand walks, &c.
:"Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced . . . other parts present '''alcoves''', bowers, [[grottos]], rural-seats, &c. at the termination of different walks."

*Loudon, J. C., 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 356)<ref name="Loudon_1826">Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius). 1826, 1834, 1850. ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening''. 4th ed. London: Longman et al. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/q/loudon view on Zotero]</ref>
:"1810. '''Alcoves''' . . . are used as winter resting places, as being fully exposed to the sun." [Fig. 5]

*Anonymous, 1 April 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)
:"Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. Seats and arbors should be placed at points affording interesting views, '''alcoves''' and rotundas on eminences, and hermitages in secluded places."

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (p. 26)<ref name="Anonymous_1837">Johnson, George William. 1847. A Dictionary of Modern Gardening. Edited by David Landreth. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/johnson view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''ALCOVE''', is a seat in a recess, formed of stone, brick, or other dead material, and so constructed as to shelter the party seated from the north and other colder quarters, whilst it is open in front to the south."

*Webster, Noah, 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 32)<ref name="Webster_1828">Webster, Noah. 1828. ''An American Dictionary of the English Language''. 2 vols. New York: S. Converse. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/N7BSU467/q/webster?&_suid=1338924824894046740482696413477 view on Zotero]</ref>
:"'''AL'COVE''', '''AL-COVE''', n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to arch, to construct with an arch, and its derivatives, an arch, a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .
:"3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.
:"4. A recess in a grove."

==Notes==

<references/>

File:0873.jpg

2013-09-17T15:05:55Z

Emily Pugh:

John Rubens Smith (artist), J. B. Neagle (engraver), View of Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House from the Capitol, 1834. Drawing; engraving. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington DC.

File:1135.jpg

2013-09-16T16:22:04Z

Emily Pugh: John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848. Virginia Historical Society, Richmond, VA.

John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848. Virginia Historical Society, Richmond, VA.

File:1089.jpg

2013-09-16T16:20:08Z

Emily Pugh: James Smillie, Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda, 1847. Print; engraving.

James Smillie, Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda, 1847. Print; engraving.

File:1080.jpg

2013-09-16T16:18:57Z

Emily Pugh: James Smillie, Lawn-Girt Hill, 1847. Print; engraving.

James Smillie, Lawn-Girt Hill, 1847. Print; engraving.

File:1087.jpg

2013-09-16T16:16:57Z

Emily Pugh: James Smillie, Bay-Grove Hill, 1847. Print; engraving.

James Smillie, Bay-Grove Hill, 1847. Print; engraving.

File:1088.jpg

2013-09-16T16:10:21Z

Emily Pugh: James Smillie, "Indian Mound: Monument to Dohumme," 1847. Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

James Smillie, "Indian Mound: Monument to Dohumme," 1847. Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

File:1047.jpg

2013-09-16T16:00:05Z

Emily Pugh: Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. Harvard University, Houghton Library, Cambridge, MA.

Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. Harvard University, Houghton Library, Cambridge, MA.

File:0548.jpg

2013-09-16T15:58:08Z

Emily Pugh: Thomas Doughty, View of the Capitol, c. 1840-50. Painting; oil on canvas mounted on board. Baltimore Museum of Art.

Thomas Doughty, View of the Capitol, c. 1840-50. Painting; oil on canvas mounted on board. Baltimore Museum of Art.

File:0873.jpg

2013-09-16T15:56:04Z

Emily Pugh: John Rubens Smith, J. B. Neagle (engraver), View of Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House from the Capitol, 1834. Drawing; engraving. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington DC.

John Rubens Smith, J. B. Neagle (engraver), View of Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House from the Capitol, 1834. Drawing; engraving. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington DC.

File:0040.jpg

2013-09-13T20:36:52Z

Emily Pugh: W. H. Bartlett, Washington from the President's House, 1840. Print; engraving.

W. H. Bartlett, Washington from the President's House, 1840. Print; engraving.

File:1032.jpg

2013-09-13T20:34:42Z

Emily Pugh: Unknown, Consecration Dell, 1839. Print; engraving. Wilson Library, University of Minnesota/Twin Cites, Minneapolis, MN.

Unknown, Consecration Dell, 1839. Print; engraving. Wilson Library, University of Minnesota/Twin Cites, Minneapolis, MN.

File:1026.jpg

2013-09-13T20:33:32Z

Emily Pugh: Anonymous, ''Mount Auburn'' [or as cited in Sloane: ''Plan of Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts''], 1834. Plan; engraving. Baker Special Collection, Dartmouth College Library, Hanover, NH.

Anonymous, ''Mount Auburn'' [or as cited in Sloane: ''Plan of Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts''], 1834. Plan; engraving. Baker Special Collection, Dartmouth College Library, Hanover, NH.

File:1234.jpg

2013-09-13T20:30:32Z

Emily Pugh: John Vanderlyn, George Washington, 1834. Painting; oil on canvas, 92 x 62 inches. Collection of the U.S. House of Representatives.

John Vanderlyn, George Washington, 1834. Painting; oil on canvas, 92 x 62 inches. Collection of the U.S. House of Representatives.

File:1186.jpg

2013-09-13T20:28:51Z

Emily Pugh: Unknown, Of the Classification of Plantations, or Assemblages of Trees in Avenues, 1826. Print; engraving. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

Unknown, Of the Classification of Plantations, or Assemblages of Trees in Avenues, 1826. Print; engraving. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

File:0647.jpg

2013-09-13T20:27:01Z

Emily Pugh: Charles Burton, View of the United States Capitol along Pennsylvania Avenue, 1824. Painting; watercolor, 15.5 x 24.5 inches. Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, NY (Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1942, 42.128).

Charles Burton, View of the United States Capitol along Pennsylvania Avenue, 1824. Painting; watercolor, 15.5 x 24.5 inches. Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, NY (Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1942, 42.128).

File:1133.jpg

2013-09-13T20:22:28Z

Emily Pugh: Anonymous, Moore and Jones (engravers), ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804. Print; engraving. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

Anonymous, Moore and Jones (engravers), ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804. Print; engraving. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

File:0905.jpg

2013-09-13T20:20:54Z

Emily Pugh: Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794-95. Huntington Library, Art Collections and Botanical Gardens, San Marino, CA.

Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794-95. Huntington Library, Art Collections and Botanical Gardens, San Marino, CA.

File:1134.jpg

2013-09-13T20:18:55Z

Emily Pugh: Pierre-Charles L'Enfant, "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States," August 1791. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

Pierre-Charles L'Enfant, "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States," August 1791. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

File:0600.jpg

2013-09-13T20:16:46Z

Emily Pugh: William Fletcher Boogher, "A Description of two Lotts . . . the Property William Pen.; the other to his Daughter Laetitia Penn . . ." [detail], 1698. Plan, ink drawing. Library of Congress, Maps Division, Washington DC

William Fletcher Boogher, "A Description of two Lotts . . . the Property William Pen.; the other to his Daughter Laetitia Penn . . ." [detail], 1698. Plan, ink drawing. Library of Congress, Maps Division, Washington DC

File:0938.jpg

2013-09-13T20:14:02Z

Emily Pugh: James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," n.d. Print; lithograph. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," n.d. Print; lithograph. Library of Congress, Washington DC.

Template:CoordDec/doc

2013-09-10T20:43:26Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

A version of the {{t1|coord}} template where the latitude and longitude are specified by signed decimal numbers. It has been designed to work well with the [[WP:VE/TD|Visual Editor/TemplateData]] system.
== Usage ==

'''Usage'''
<code><nowiki>{{coordDec| ''decimal latitude'' | ''decimal longitude'' | display=inline,title}}</nowiki></code>

'''Example'''
<code><nowiki>{{coordDec| -41.289 | 174.777 | display=inline}}</nowiki></code> gives {{coordDec| -41.289 | 174.777|display=inline}}

No alternate set of parameter are available for this template. See {{tl|coordDMS}} for angles specified in degrees minutes and seconds, and {{tl|coordDM}} for when just degrees and minutes are specified.

These [[Geographic coordinate system|coordinates]] are in [[Degree (angle)|degrees]] and [[Minute of arc|minutes]].

* [[Geodetic system|Map datum]] must be WGS84 (except for off-earth bodies).
* Avoid [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates#Precision|excessive precision]] (0.0001° is <11 m, 1″ is <31 m).
* Latitude (N/S) must appear before longitude (E/W).

Optional parameters the are all named parameters in the form <code>name=value</code>
*'''display'''
*: {{Para|display|inline}} (the default) to display in the body of the article only,
*: {{Para|display|title}} to display at the top of the article only, or
*: {{Para|display|inline,title}} to display in both places.
*'''name'''
*: {{Para|name|X}} to label the place on maps (default is [[mw:Help:Magic words#Page names|PAGENAME]])
*'''Notes'''
*: {{Para|notes}} text displayed immediately following the coordinates,
*'''format''' How the coordinates are displayed
*:{{Para|format|dec}} decimal format
*:{{Para|format|dms}} degrees minutes and seconds format

Optional geodata coordinates parameters, the old geohack format with colon and underscore is not supported
* '''dim''': approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.
* '''scale''': Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.
* '''globe''': earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto
* '''name''': name of this point, up to 255 bytes (UTF-8).
* '''region''': [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.
* '''type''': type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.

Thus: '''<code><nowiki>{{CoordDec | -41.289 | 174.777 | dim=30 | region=US-WI | type=event | display=inline,title | name=accident site}}</nowiki></code>'''

Use {{Para|display|title}} (or {{Para|display|inline,title}}) once per article, for the subject of the article, where appropriate.

Per [[WP:ORDER]], the template is placed in articles after any [[Wikipedia:Navigation templates|navigation templates]], but before any [[Wikipedia:Persondata|Persondata]] or [[Help:Category#Default sort key|Defaultsort]] templates, or [[Wikipedia:Categorization|Categories]].
* For full details, refer to {{tl|Coord/doc}}.
* Additional guidance is available: [[Wikipedia:Obtaining geographic coordinates|obtaining coordinates]], [[Geographic coordinate conversion|converting coordinates]]

===Template Data===
<templatedata>{
"description": "Encodes the latitude and longitude coordinates of a location specified in degrees and minutes, provides a link to map of the location.",
"params": {
"1": {
"label": "Latitude",
"description": "The latitude in decimal format with negative for south eg -79.38. Avoid excessive precision, 0.01° is approximately 1k m and 0.0001° is approximately 10 m",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"2": {
"label": "Longitude",
"description": "The longitude in decimal format, negative for west eg -79.38. Avoid excessive precision, 0.01° is approximately 1k m and 0.0001° is approximately 10 m",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},

"display": {
"label": "Display",
"description": "Where it is displayed. Can be one of: 'inline' in the body of the article (default), 'title' at the top of the article or 'inline,title' both",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"name": {
"label": "Name",
"description": "a label to place on maps (default is PAGENAME)",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"notes": {
"label": "Notes",
"description": "text displayed immediately following the coordinates",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"format": {
"label": "Format",
"description": "How the coordinates are displayed, either 'dec' or 'dms'",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"dim": {
"label": "Dim",
"description": "approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"scale": {
"label": "Scale",
"description": "Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"globe": {
"label": "Globe",
"description": "earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"region": {
"label": "Region",
"description": "[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"type": {
"label": "Type",
"description": "type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
}
}}</templatedata>

== See also ==
*{{t1|coord}} the base template has more details on some of the parameters
*{{t1|coordDMS}} an alternative version where degrees, minutes and seconds are specified
*{{t1|coordDM}} an alternative version where just degrees and minutes are specified

<includeonly>

[[Category:Coordinates templates]]
</includeonly>

Template:CoordDMS/doc

2013-09-10T20:43:25Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

{{Documentation subpage}}


A version of the {{t1|coord}} template where degrees, minutes and seconds are specified.

== Usage ==

To add {{CoordDMS|57|18|22|N|4|27|32|W}} to the top of an article, use {{Tl|CoordDMS}}, thus:
:'''<code><nowiki>{{CoordDMS|57|18|22|N|4|27|32|W|display=title}}</nowiki></code>'''

No alternate set of parameter are available for this template. See {{tl|coordDec}} for angles specified as signed decimal degrees, and {{tl|coordDM}} for when just degrees and minutes are specified.

These [[Geographic coordinate system|coordinates]] are in [[Degree (angle)|degrees]], [[Minute of arc|minutes]], and seconds of arc.

* Degrees, minutes and seconds must be separated by [[Vertical bar|a pipe ("|")]].
* [[Geodetic system|Map datum]] must be WGS84 (except for off-earth bodies).
* Avoid [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates#Precision|excessive precision]] (0.0001° is <11 m, 1″ is <31 m).
* Latitude (N/S) must appear before longitude (E/W).

Optional parameters the are all named parameters in the form <code>name=value</code>
*'''display'''
*: {{Para|display|inline}} (the default) to display in the body of the article only,
*: {{Para|display|title}} to display at the top of the article only, or
*: {{Para|display|inline,title}} to display in both places.
*'''name'''
*: {{Para|name|X}} to label the place on maps (default is [[mw:Help:Magic words#Page names|PAGENAME]])
*'''Notes'''
*: {{Para|notes}} text displayed immediately following the coordinates,
*'''format''' How the coordinates are displayed
*:{{Para|format|dec}} decimal format
*:{{Para|format|dms}} degrees minutes and seconds format

Optional geodata coordinates parameters, the old geohack format with colon and underscore is not supported
* '''dim''': approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.
* '''scale''': Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.
* '''globe''': earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto
* '''name''': name of this point, up to 255 bytes (UTF-8).
* '''region''': [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.
* '''type''': type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.

Thus: '''<code><nowiki>{{CoordDM|57|18|22|N|4|27|42|W| dim=30 | region=US-WI | type=event | display=inline,title | name=accident site}}</nowiki></code>'''

Use {{Para|display|title}} (or {{Para|display|inline,title}}) once per article, for the subject of the article, where appropriate.

* Per [[WP:ORDER]], the template is placed in articles after any [[Wikipedia:Navigation templates|navigation templates]], but before any [[Wikipedia:Persondata|Persondata]] or [[Help:Category#Default sort key|Defaultsort]] templates, or [[Wikipedia:Categorization|Categories]].
* For full details, refer to {{tl|Coord/doc}}.
* Additional guidance is available: [[Wikipedia:Obtaining geographic coordinates|obtaining coordinates]], [[Geographic coordinate conversion|converting coordinates]]

===Template Data===
<templatedata>{
"description": "Encodes the latitude and longitude coordinates of a location as degrees, minutes and seconds. Displays the coordinates and provides a link to map of the location.",
"params": {
"1": {
"label": "Latitude degrees",
"description": "The degrees part of the latitude, a positive whole number.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"2": {
"label": "Latitude minutes",
"description": "The minutes part of the latitude. Do not be overly precise, 1' is approximately 1.5km.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"3": {
"label": "Latitude seconds",
"description": "The minutes part of the latitude. Do not be overly precise, 1\" is approximately 30m.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"4": {
"label": "Latitude direction",
"description": "Direction part of latitude: N or S.",
"type": "string",
"required": true
},
"5": {
"label": "Longitude degrees",
"description": "The degrees part of the longitude, a positive whole number.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"6": {
"label": "Longitude minutes",
"description": "The minutes part of the longitude. Do not be overly precise 1' is approximately 1.5km.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"7": {
"label": "Longitude seconds",
"description": "The minutes part of the longitude. Do not be overly precise 1\" is approximately 30m.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"8": {
"label": "Longitude direction",
"description": "Direction part of longitude: E or W.",
"type": "string",
"required": true
},

"display": {
"label": "Display",
"description": "Where it is displayed. Can be one of: 'inline' in the body of the article (default), 'title' at the top of the article or 'inline,title' both",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"name": {
"label": "Name",
"description": "a label to place on maps (default is PAGENAME)",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"notes": {
"label": "Notes",
"description": "text displayed immediately following the coordinates",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"format": {
"label": "Format",
"description": "How the coordinates are displayed, either 'dec' or 'dms'",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"dim": {
"label": "Dim",
"description": "approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"scale": {
"label": "Scale",
"description": "Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"globe": {
"label": "Globe",
"description": "earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"region": {
"label": "Region",
"description": "[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"type": {
"label": "Type",
"description": "type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
}

}}</templatedata>

== See also ==
*{{t1|coord}} the base template has more details on some of the parameters
*{{t1|coordDec}} an alternative version where signed decimal degrees are specified
*{{t1|coordDM}} an alternative version just degrees and minutes are specified
<includeonly>

[[Category:Coordinates templates]]
</includeonly>

Special:Badtitle/NS828:Join

2013-09-10T20:43:25Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

--[[
Join

Joins all non null arguments together, the first argument is the separator

{{ #invoke:join | join | sep | one | two | three }}
/*
*/
if args[1] == nil then
local pFrame = frame:getParent();
args = pFrame.args;
for k,v in pairs( frame.args ) do
args[k] = v;
end
end

]]

local join = {}

function join.join(frame)
local res='';
local args = {};
for k,v in pairs( frame.args ) do
if v ~= nil and v ~= '' then
table.insert(args,v)
--res = res .. '[' .. k .. ']=' ..v
end
end
local sep = args[1];
res = table.concat( args, sep, 2, j );
return res
end

function join.join2(frame)
local res='';
local args = {};
for k,v in pairs( frame.args ) do
if v ~= nil and v ~= '' then
table.insert(args,v)
--res = res .. '[' .. k .. ']=' ..v
end
end

local sep = args[1];
local sep2 = args[2];
if #args < 3 then
res = ''
elseif #args == 3 then
res = args[3]
elseif #args == 4 then
res = args[3] .. sep2 .. args[4]
else
res = table.concat( args, sep, 3, #args-1 );
res = res .. sep2 .. args[#args];
end
return res
end

function join.concat(frame)
local res='';
for k,v in pairs( frame.args ) do
res = res .. v
end
return res
end

function join.iconcat(frame)
local res='';
for k,v in ipairs( frame.args ) do
res = res .. v
end
return res
end

return join

Template:CoordDM/doc

2013-09-10T20:43:24Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

{{Documentation subpage}}


A version of the {{t1|coord}} template where just degrees and minutes and are specified.

== Usage ==

To add {{CoordDM|57|18|N|4|27|W}} to the top of an article, use {{Tl|CoordDM}}, thus:
:'''<code><nowiki>{{CoordDM|57|18|N|4|27|W|display=title}}</nowiki></code>'''

No alternate set of parameter are available for this template. See {{tl|coordDec}} for angles specified as signed decimal degrees, and {{tl|coordDMS}} for when degrees, minutes and seconds are all specified.

These [[Geographic coordinate system|coordinates]] are in [[Degree (angle)|degrees]] and [[Minute of arc|minutes]].

* [[Geodetic system|Map datum]] must be WGS84 (except for off-earth bodies).
* Avoid [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates#Precision|excessive precision]] (0.0001° is <11 m, 1″ is <31 m).
* Latitude (N/S) must appear before longitude (E/W).

Optional parameters the are all named parameters in the form <code>name=value</code>
*'''display'''
*: {{Para|display|inline}} (the default) to display in the body of the article only,
*: {{Para|display|title}} to display at the top of the article only, or
*: {{Para|display|inline,title}} to display in both places.
*'''name'''
*: {{Para|name|X}} to label the place on maps (default is [[mw:Help:Magic words#Page names|PAGENAME]])
*'''Notes'''
*: {{Para|notes}} text displayed immediately following the coordinates,
*'''format''' How the coordinates are displayed
*:{{Para|format|dec}} decimal format
*:{{Para|format|dms}} degrees minutes and seconds format

Optional geodata coordinates parameters, the old geohack format with colon and underscore is not supported
* '''dim''': approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.
* '''scale''': Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.
* '''globe''': earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto
* '''name''': name of this point, up to 255 bytes (UTF-8).
* '''region''': [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.
* '''type''': type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.

Thus: '''<code><nowiki>{{CoordDM|57|18|N|4|27|W| dim=30 | region=US-WI | type=event | display=inline,title | name=accident site}}</nowiki></code>'''

Use {{Para|display|title}} (or {{Para|display|inline,title}}) once per article, for the subject of the article, where appropriate.

Per [[WP:ORDER]], the template is placed in articles after any [[Wikipedia:Navigation templates|navigation templates]], but before any [[Wikipedia:Persondata|Persondata]] or [[Help:Category#Default sort key|Defaultsort]] templates, or [[Wikipedia:Categorization|Categories]].
* For full details, refer to {{tl|Coord/doc}}.
* Additional guidance is available: [[Wikipedia:Obtaining geographic coordinates|obtaining coordinates]], [[Geographic coordinate conversion|converting coordinates]]

===Template Data===
<templatedata>{
"description": "Encodes the latitude and longitude coordinates of a location specified in degrees and minutes, provides a link to map of the location.",
"params": {
"1": {
"label": "Latitude degrees",
"description": "The degrees part of the latitude, a positive whole number.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"2": {
"label": "Latitude minutes",
"description": "The minutes part of the latitude. Do not be overly precise, 1' is approximately 1.5km.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"3": {
"label": "Latitude direction",
"description": "Direction part of latitude: N or S.",
"type": "string",
"required": true
},
"4": {
"label": "Longitude degrees",
"description": "The degrees part of the longitude, a positive whole number.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"5": {
"label": "Longitude minutes",
"description": "The minutes part of the longitude. Do not be overly precise 1' is approximately 1.5km.",
"type": "number",
"required": true
},
"6": {
"label": "Longitude direction",
"description": "Direction part of longitude: E or W. Not used if decimal degrees are specified.",
"type": "string",
"required": true
},

"display": {
"label": "Display",
"description": "Where it is displayed. Can be one of: 'inline' in the body of the article (default), 'title' at the top of the article or 'inline,title' both",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"name": {
"label": "Name",
"description": "a label to place on maps (default is PAGENAME)",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"notes": {
"label": "Notes",
"description": "text displayed immediately following the coordinates",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"format": {
"label": "Format",
"description": "How the coordinates are displayed, either 'dec' or 'dms'",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"dim": {
"label": "Dim",
"description": "approximate size of the object, used to scale the map to fit.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"scale": {
"label": "Scale",
"description": "Scale of map display for this object, e.g. scale of 300 is 1:300. Gets converted into ''dim'' internally using formula ''dim = scale / 10''. If both scale and dim are set, dim has precedence.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"globe": {
"label": "Globe",
"description": "earth by default, can be one of earth, mercury, venus, moon, mars, phobos, deimos, ganymede, callisto, io, europa, mimas, enceladus, tethys, dione, rhea, titan, hyperion, iapetus, phoebe, miranda, ariel, umbriel, titania, oberon, triton and pluto",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"region": {
"label": "Region",
"description": "[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country code (e.g. ''US'' or ''RU'') or an [[ISO 3166-2]] region code (e.g. ''US-FL'' or ''RU-MOS''). This parameter is always capitalised internally.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
},
"type": {
"label": "Type",
"description": "type of object with these coordinates, can be one of the following: country, satellite, state, adm1st, adm2nd, adm3rd, city, isle, mountain, river, waterbody, event, forest, glacier, airport, railwaystation, edu, pass, camera, landmark.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
}
}}</templatedata>

== See also ==
*{{t1|coord}} the base template has more details on some of the parameters
*{{t1|coordDec}} an alternative version where signed decimal degrees are specified
*{{t1|coordDMS}} an alternative version where degrees, minutes and seconds are specified

<includeonly>

[[Category:Coordinates templates]]
</includeonly>

Template:Convert/track/abbr/def

2013-09-10T20:43:24Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Resize/TemplateData

2013-09-10T20:43:24Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

==TemplateData==
{{TemplateDataHeader}}
<templatedata>{
"description": "Template to aid switching the font-size used for a text string. Two forms {{resize|<size>|<text>}} and {{resize|<text>}} are possible.",
"params": {
"1": {
"label": "Size/Text",
"description": "Specifies a css font size e.g. '80%', '1.2em', 'x-large', 'larger'. In the one parameter version the first parameter is the text and the font size is '90%'.",
"type": "string",
"required": true
},
"2": {
"label": "Text when size is given",
"description": "The text to display in the two parameter version.",
"type": "string",
"required": false
}
}
}
</templatedata>

Template:CoordDec

2013-09-10T20:43:24Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

{{main other||<includeonly>{{#invoke:coordinates|coord|{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|{{#invoke:join|join|_|{{#if:{{{dim|}}}|dim:{{{dim}}}}}|{{#if:{{{globe|}}}|globe:{{{globe}}}}}|{{#if:{{{scale|}}}|scale:{{{scale}}}}}|{{#if:{{{region|}}}|region:{{{region}}}}}|{{#if:{{{source|}}}|source:{{{source}}}}}|{{#if:{{{type|}}}|type:{{{type}}}}}}}| format={{{format|}}}| display={{{display|}}} | name={{{name|}}} }}{{#coordinates:{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|dim={{{dim|}}}|globe={{{globe|}}}|scale={{{scale|}}}|region={{{region|}}}|type={{{type}}}
|{{#switch:{{{display|}}}
|inline,title
|inline, title
|it
|t
|title,inline
|title={{#switch:{{SUBPAGENAME}}
|doc
|testcases=
|#default={{talk other||primary}}
}}
|#default=
}}
|name={{{name|}}}
}}</includeonly>}}<noinclude>
{{Documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:CoordDMS

2013-09-10T20:43:23Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

{{main other||<includeonly>{{#invoke:coordinates|coord|{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|{{{3|}}}|{{{4|}}}|{{{5|}}}|{{{6|}}}|{{{7|}}}|{{{8|}}}|{{#invoke:join|join|_|{{#if:{{{dim|}}}|dim:{{{dim}}}}}|{{#if:{{{globe|}}}|globe:{{{globe}}}}}|{{#if:{{{scale|}}}|scale:{{{scale}}}}}|{{#if:{{{region|}}}|region:{{{region}}}}}|{{#if:{{{source|}}}|source:{{{source}}}}}|{{#if:{{{type|}}}|type:{{{type}}}}}}}| format={{{format|}}}| display={{{display|}}} | name={{{name|}}} }}{{#coordinates:{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|{{{3|}}}|{{{4|}}}|{{{5|}}}|{{{6|}}}|{{{7|}}}|{{{8|}}}|dim={{{dim|}}}|globe={{{globe|}}}|scale={{{scale|}}}|region={{{region|}}}|type={{{type|}}}
|{{#switch:{{{display|}}}
|inline,title
|inline, title
|it
|t
|title,inline
|title={{#switch:{{SUBPAGENAME}}
|doc
|testcases=
|#default={{talk other||primary}}
}}
|#default=
}}
|name={{{name|}}}
}}</includeonly>}}<noinclude>
{{Documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:CoordDM

2013-09-10T20:43:23Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

{{main other||<includeonly>{{#invoke:coordinates|coord|{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|{{{3|}}}|{{{4|}}}|{{{5|}}}|{{{6|}}}|{{#invoke:join|join|_|{{#if:{{{dim|}}}|dim:{{{dim}}}}}|{{#if:{{{globe|}}}|globe:{{{globe}}}}}|{{#if:{{{scale|}}}|scale:{{{scale}}}}}|{{#if:{{{region|}}}|region:{{{region}}}}}|{{#if:{{{source|}}}|source:{{{source}}}}}|{{#if:{{{type|}}}|type:{{{type}}}}}}}| format={{{format|}}}| display={{{display|}}} | name={{{name|}}} }}{{#coordinates:{{{1|}}}|{{{2|}}}|{{{3|}}}|{{{4|}}}|{{{5|}}}|{{{6|}}}|dim={{{dim|}}}|globe={{{globe|}}}|scale={{{scale|}}}|region={{{region|}}}|type={{{type}}}
|{{#switch:{{{display|}}}
|inline,title
|inline, title
|it
|t
|title,inline
|title={{#switch:{{SUBPAGENAME}}
|doc
|testcases=
|#default={{talk other||primary}}
}}
|#default=
}}
|name={{{name|}}}
}}</includeonly>}}<noinclude>
{{Documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/disp/unit

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/disp/output only

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/disp/output number only

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/disp/or

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/adj/off

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/abbr/values

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>

Template:Convert/track/abbr/on

2013-09-10T20:43:22Z

Emily Pugh: 1 revision

<noinclude>This is a [[Template:Convert/track|tracking subtemplate]].

[[Category:Subtemplates of Template Convert]]</noinclude>