History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Vase/Urn

2017-09-12T15:55:43Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

==History==

[[File:1175.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "A fine terra-cotta vase," [[A. J. Downing]], "Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture," American Gardener's Magazine, vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.]]

[[File:1728.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[James Gibbs]], Nine of "Fifty four Draughts of Vases," in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.]]

The term vase typically referred to a freestanding, symmetrical vessel having a wider mouth than foot [Fig. 1], although some British pattern books included types with narrow mouths and elaborate lids [Fig. 2]. If fitted with a foot or pedestal set on either a small base or plinth, the vessel sometimes was referred to as an urn. Throughout history, ashes of the dead have been deposited in urns, giving them symbolic importance. Frequently urns were used for memorials and monuments, especially in [[cemeteries]]. In the context of the designed landscape, treatise writers often strongly recommended that the vase be placed on top of a pedestal or plinth so that it would be easily visible. [[A. J. Downing]] elaborated upon this point in an 1836 article about architecture and at greater length in his 1849 treatise, when he explained that without such a placement, the vase would appear as a temporary, accidental introduction to the landscape. A permanent base, in his opinion, gave the vase the “character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability” [Fig. 3].

[[File:1840.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage," in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.]]

[[File:0251.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.]]

Vases functioned primarily as ornamentation and were associated with a number of garden features. In his eighteenth-century treatise, [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]] suggested that vases could be used to decorate [[parterre]]s, placed amidst planting features (such as [[grove]]s) or in water features (such as [[basin]]s), situated at the termination of [[walk]]s and [[vista]]s, or housed within structures (such as [[portico]]s and [[arbor]]s).

[[File:0852.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, c. 1839.]]

[[File:0218.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Augustus Weidenbach]], ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.]]

Vases continued to be featured in ornamental landscapes well into the nineteenth century, despite many changes in garden design. A painting of Kalorama, for example, depicts a vase at the center of the [[view]] [Fig. 4]. The connection between vases and water features continued as well. [[A. J. Downing|Downing’s]] texts, for example, contain numerous references to vases as [[fountain]]s. The strategic placement of vases in [[pleasure ground]]s also endured. At the early nineteenth-century estate of [[Blithewood]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., vases of grey Maltese stone (which Downing praised for its ability to harmonize with vegetation) were used throughout the [[pleasure ground]]s and, in particular, at the corners of adjoining [[walk]]s. Vases were also used at the termination of walks, where they served as visual focal points as in a suburban garden design described in 1848 in the ''Horticulturist''.

Treatise authors from different periods agreed that the vase should never be placed far from the house. [[Thomas Whately]], in his 1770 treatise, insisted that the vase “attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden.” In 1849 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] reiterated Whately’s idea, explaining that since the vase was a “highly artificial and architectural” object, it must be situated in the [[pleasure ground]] in such a manner that it would always “appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character.” He cautioned further that vases be used judiciously. If placed “indiscriminately . . . where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature,” vases ran the danger of destroying the “unity of expression” that Downing and others sought.

The function and placement of the vase was closely connected to its style and form. As several treatise writers counseled, vases should be stylistically consistent with their settings and, when placed near the house, should reflect the architectural character of the structure, such as Gothic, Grecian, Roman, or Italianate styles. In nineteenth-century treatises, vases in the classical or [[ancient style]] emerged as the most popular. A favored model was the Warwick Vase, a carved and decorated white marble vase from Hadrian’s Villa. The vase was recovered from the Roman site in 1770 by the Englishman [[William Hamilton]] and was subsequently taken to England by his nephew, George, Earl of Warwick. At [[Montgomery Place]], designed by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in the 1840s, a Warwick-style vase was placed in the center of the flower garden [Fig. 5]. In 1849, Downing described the popular option of the [[Rustic_style|rustic-style]] vase, in which the vessel was made out of the “branches and sections of trees with the bark attached.”

Outdoor vases were usually large in scale, two to three feet in height. They could be composed of a variety of materials, such as cast-brass, lead gilt, marble, stone and stucco, according to [[Dézallier d’Argenville]]. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], writing nearly one hundred and fifty years later, gave an equally wide-ranging list, including stone, artificial stone, plaster, and Roman cement. He also cited inexpensive materials intended to imitate luxury materials, such as terra-cotta and English Staffordshire, which could be treated to emulate marble. Downing’s allusion to Staffordshire pottery suggests the near-dominant presence of refined British pottery in America. Nevertheless, he mentioned several American manufacturers that produced vases and noted especially such New York manufacturers as the Salamander Works, the Garnick Company, and Coffee’s Manufactory.

Vases were also used as plant containers, as indicated in Augustus Weidenbach’s c. 1858 painting of the garden at [[Belvedere]] in Baltimore [Fig. 6], or in [[C. M. Hovey]]’s 1839 description of a greenhouse or conservatory. Nevertheless, large-scale, ornamental vases were often regarded as works of art, and, therefore, as [[J. C. Loudon]] argued, cited by [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] in 1849, they should not be reduced to the level of “a mere garden flower-[[pot]].”

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:1190.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Samuel McIntire, ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799. ]]
* McIntire, Samuel, 8 June 1795, describing a statement of account with Elias Hasket Derby (quoted in Kimball 1940: 74) <ref>Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref>
:{|
|“1793 ''Dec 4th'' || to Sundrie Drawings for <br /> [[Summer House]]s @ 24/ || £1: 4:
|-
|1794 ''Apl 25'' || to Carving 4 '''Vases''' for <br /> the [[Summer House]] at 18/s each || 3: 18:
|-
|July || to Building the Summer <br /> House at the Farm @ 100:0:0 <br />to Extra work on the Same, <br />Viz., finishing four Closets <br />@20/each 4: 0:0” [Fig. 7]"
|}

* Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, La. (1:243) <ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy hall of the dwelling, which opened from [[piazza]] to piazza through the house, to the front gallery, whose light columns were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome '''vases''' of marble and China-ware. The main avenue opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, ‘Where Flora’s brightest broidery shone,’ terminating at the villas of adjoining plantations.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
* Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, seat of General George P. Morris, near Cold-Spring, N.Y. ([1840] 1971: 233) <ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian '''vase''', and encircled by ornamental [[shrubbery]]; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left [[slope]] of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 8]

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 405) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'', 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “7. Large palms in pots, or Maltese '''vases''', or '''vases''' made of artificial stone, set on the turf. In the introduction of '''vases''', it should always be remembered that the '''vase''' should not be set down immediately on the turf, but upon a ''plinth''....
: “8. [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] basket, for flowers, as represented in the engraving just referred to. These are very easily made. Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] has given a figure of one, in his ''Treatise on Landscape Gardening'', where he states they may be made in the following manner:—An octagon box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel, (small split limbs, covered with the bark,) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52) <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large '''vase''' of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character.”

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece. ]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Blithewood]], seat of Robert Donaldson, Dutchess County, N.Y. (p. 425) <ref name="Downing 1849"> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “At [[Blithewood]], the seat of R. Donaldson, Esq., on the Hudson, a number of exquisite '''vases''' may be seen in the [[pleasure-ground]]s, which are cut in Maltese stone. These were imported by the proprietor, direct from Malta, at very moderate rates, and are not only ornamental, but very durable. Their color is a warm shade of grey which harmonizes agreeably with the surrounding vegetation.” [Fig. 9]

* Twain, Mark, 26 October 1853, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2) <ref>Jane Mork Gibson, "The Fairmount Waterworks", ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'', 84 (1988), 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We arrived at Fairmount. . . . Seeing a park at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about. Fat marble Cupids, in big marble '''vases''', squirted water upward incessantly.”
{{break}}
===Citations===

* [[[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 75–76) <ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “STATUES and '''Vases''' contribute very much to the Embellishment and Magnificence of a Garden, and extremely advance the natural Beauties of it. They are made of several Forms, and different Materials; the richest are those of Cast-Brass, Lead gilt, and Marble; the ordinary Sort are of common Stone, or Stucco. . . .
: “THE usual Places of Figures and '''Vases''' are along the Palisades, in the Front, and upon the Sides of a [[Parterre]]; in the Niches and Sinkings of Horn-beam, or of Lattice-work made for that Purpose. In [[Grove]]s, they are placed in the Center of a Star, or S. ''Andrew’s'' Cross; in the Spaces between the [[Walk]]s of a Goose-foot, in the Middle of Halls and Cabinets, among the Trees and [[Arch]]es of a Green-Gallery, and at the Head of a Row of Trees, or Palisades, that stand free and detached. They are also put at the lower End of [[Walk]]s and [[Vista]]s, to set them off the better; in [[Portico]]s, and [[Arbor]]s of [[Trellis]]-work; in [[Bason]]s, [[Cascade]]s, &c. In general, they do well every where; and you can scarce have too many of them in a Garden: But, as in the Business of Sculpture, it should be excellent, as well as in Painting and Poesy [''sic''] (which are its two Sisters).”

[[File:1727.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[James Gibbs]], "Three Designs for Vases," in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.]]
* [[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (pp. xxi, xxv) <ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Three Designs for Columns, proper for publick Places or private Gardens; ''viz''. a plain Dorick [[Column]] upon its Pedestal with a '''Vase''' a top, a fluted [[Column]] properly adorn’d, and a [[Rustic_style|Rustick]] frosted [[Column]], with a Figure a-top, as I have made them for several Gentlemen. The Proportions of them are mark’d upon an upright Line, divided into so many Diameters of the [[Column]] for the Height. . . .
: “Three Designs for '''Vases''', done for the Right Honourable the Earl of ''Oxford''. There are two '''Vases''' well executed in Portland Stone according to the middle Draught, which are set upon two large Peers on each side of the principal [[Walk]] in the Garden at ''Wimpole'' in ''Cambridgeshire''.... [Fig. 10]
: “Fifty four Draughts of '''Vases''', &c. in the Antique manner, made for several persons at different times. Many of them have been executed both in Marble and Metal.”

* [[Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 138) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''vases''', [[statue]]s, and termini, are usual appendages to a considerable edifice; as such they may attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''URN''' . . . A kind of vase of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''....
: “'''VASE''', ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]
: “1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a '''''vase''''' for sacrifice, an '''urn''', &c.
: “2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.
: “3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-pots, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.
: “4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 285–86)

: “It will not be inadvertent to the present hasty remarks to hint at the additional charm which may be produced in highly finished places, especially where the buildings are in the Grecian style, by introducing into the [[lawn]]s and gardens the classic '''''vase''''' in its different forms, and, if thought desirable, [[statue]]s also. They serve as it were as a connecting link between so highly artificial an object as a modern villa, and the verdant [[lawn]]s and gay gardens which surround it. Elevated upon pedestals, and placed at suitable points in the [[view]]—on the parapets of [[terrace]]s near the house—before a group of foliage upon the [[lawn]], and at proper intervals in the garden, they give a classic and elegant air to the whole, which adds greatly to its value. Beautiful in their forms, contrasting finely with the deep green of vegetation, and leading the eye gradually from their own sculptured beauty to the architectural symmetry of the building, of which they form as it were a continuous though detached part, amalgamating it with the grounds in which it is placed—their effect can only be appreciated beforehand by those who have studied the excellent effect produced by their introduction into the scene.
: “Another reason which may be offered for the introduction of '''vases''' into architectural and garden scenery is ‘the gratification which such objects afford to the man of intelligence and taste. There are, perhaps, few objects, next to the human figure, which afford as many interesting historical associations as the '''vase'''. It may truly be said to be the first and last production of the plastic art. The first utensil formed by man, in the dawn of civilization in every country, is a vessel or '''vase''' for holding water; and that on which the highest resources of art are bestowed, in ages of the greatest refinement, is a '''vase''' or vessel for holding wine. In the first case, it is hollowed out of a gourd, or rudely shaped of clay, and dried in the sun; and, in the latter case, it is manufactured of costly metals or precious stones; or, if of common materials, such as stone, earthenware or glass, it is rendered valuable by the taste and skill bestowed on its form and ornaments. The history of every country may be traced by its '''vases''' no less than by its coins; and the history of all countries is set before us in the '''vases''' of all countries.’ [Loudon, X. 494.]”

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], January 1839, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 29) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes on Gardens and Nurseries", ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'', 5 (1839), 59–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EQ6ZIWR4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The beauty of '''vases''' in garden scenery has been already urged by our correspondent, Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], (Vol. II, p. 281,) and we had intended to add something to his remarks, ourselves, by the way of impressing the subject more upon the attention of our readers. . . .
: “Surely we need not say any thing further to show how much they would add to the beauty of the garden, or the elegance of the [[conservatory]]. In either place, they are objects too inviting not to be found in every garden. These '''vases''' are easily filled with handsome plants, well suited to the situation, and the following might compose, in part, the group for the [[green-house]].”

* Rusticus [pseud.], August 1846, “Design for a Rustic Gate” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 72) <ref>Rusticus [pseud]., "Design for a Rustic Gate", ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'', 1 (1846), 72–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DPX658P3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Indeed, [[Rustic_style|rustic work]] of all kinds is extremely pleasing in any situation where there is any thing like a wild or natural character; or even where there is a simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic character]]. In the immediate proximity of a highly finished villa, it strikes me that [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], such as [[arbor]]s, [[fence]]s, flower baskets and the like, are rather out of place. The sculptured '''vase''' of marble, or terra cotta, would appear to be the most in keeping with an elegant place of the first class; that is to say, for all situations very near the house. In wooded [[walk]]s, or secluded spots, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work looks well always.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], July 1848, “Ornamental Vases and Chimney Tops” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 40)

: “There are few objects that may, with so much good effect, be introduced into the scenery of [[pleasure ground]]s, surrounding a tasteful villa, as the '''''vase''''', in its many varied forms. The terra cotta '''vases''' of the Garnkirk company exhibit pleasing forms, and a soft mellow shade of colour, which harmonizes admirably with the hue of foliage and turf. From among the variety manufactured by them, we have selected a few, of which we here present engravings. . . .
: “To set down a '''vase''' upon the earth, or the [[lawn]], without any pedestal, is to give it a temporary character, and to rob it of that dignity and importance which it gains, both to the eye and the reason, by being placed on a firm and secure pedestal. . . .
: “Looking at the '''vase''' in an artistical point of view, it is considered as performing the office of uniting the architecture and the grounds of a complete country residence. It is the architectural idea, carried a little beyond the house, and shows that the same feeling of taste and embellishment reigns in both departments of the residence. It will be easily understood from this, that the most suitable place for '''vases''' is in highly kept portions of the [[pleasure ground]], near the house, where the '''vases''' may be seen in connexion with it; or, at least, where the architecture of the building harmonizes with the highly artificial forms of the '''vase'''. The simplest cottage may have its '''vase'''; but, where the building is small, the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''', made of bits of wood, and filled with flowering plants, is in better keeping than those made of any more highly artificial materials.”

[[File:1819.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, "A Gothic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 423–27, 471, 473) <ref name="Downing 1849"></ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with '''urns''' or '''vases''', and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure-ground]]s in various different points ''near the house''. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured '''vase''', is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. To place a beautiful '''vase''' in a distant part of the grounds, where there is no direct allusion to art, and where it is accompanied only by natural objects, as the overhanging trees and the sloping turf, is in a measure doing violence to our reason or taste, by bringing two objects so strongly contrasted, in direct union. But when we see a statue or a '''vase''' placed in any part of the grounds where a near [[view]] is obtained of the house (and its accompanying statues or '''vases'''), the whole is accounted for, and we feel the distant '''vase''' to be only part of, or rather a repetition of the same idea,—in other words, that it forms part of a whole, harmonious and consistent.
: “'''Vases''' of real stone, as marble or granite, are decorations of too costly a kind ever to come into general use among us. '''Vases''', however, of equally beautiful forms, are manufactured of artificial stone, of fine pottery, or of cast iron, which have the same effect, and are of nearly equal durability, as garden decorations.
: “A '''vase''' should never, in the open air, be set down upon the ground or grass, without being placed upon a firm base of some description, either a ''plinth'' or a ''pedestal''. Without a base of this kind it has a temporary look, as if it had been left there by mere accident, and without any intention of permanence. Placing it upon a pedestal, or square plinth (block of stone), gives it a character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability. Besides this, the pedestal in reality serves to preserve the vase in a perpendicular position, as well as to expose it fairly to the eye, which could not be the case were it put down, without any preparation, on the bare turf or gravel.
: “Figure 69 is . . . Gothic. . . . These with many other elegant '''vases''' and '''urns''' are manufactured in an artificial stone, as durable as marble, by Austin of London, and together with a great variety of other beautiful sculpturesque decorations, may be imported at very reasonable prices. . . . [Fig. 11]
: “These '''vases''', when colored to imitate marble or other stone, are extremely durable and very ornamental. As yet, we are unable to refer our readers to any manufactory here, where these articles are made in a manner fully equal to the English; but we are satisfied, it is only necessary that the taste for such articles should increase, and the consequent demand, to induce our artisans to produce them of equal beauty and of greater cheapness. . . .
: “Large '''vases''' are sometimes filled with earth and planted with choice flowering plants, and the effect of the blossoms and green leaves growing out of these handsome receptacles, is at least unique and striking [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] objects to it in the case of an elegant sculptured '''vase''', ‘because it is reducing a work of art to the level of a mere garden flower-[[pot]], and dividing the attention between the beauty of the form of the '''vase''' and of its sculptured ornaments, and that of the plant which it contains.’ This criticism is a just one in its general application, especially when '''vases''' are considered as architectural decorations. Occasional deviations, however, may be permitted, for the sake of producing variety, especially in the case of vases used as decorations in the [[flower-garden]].
[[File:0389.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, "A pleasing rustic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.]]
: “A very pretty and fanciful substitute for the sculptured '''vase''', and which may take its place in the [[picturesque]] landscape, may be found in '''vases''' or baskets of ''rustic work'', constructed of the branches and sections of trees with the bark attached. Figure 74 is a representation of a pleasing [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''' which we have constructed without difficulty. A tripod of branches of trees forms the pedestal. An octagonal box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel (small split limbs covered with the bark) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior. Ornaments of this kind, which may be made by the amateur with the assistance of a common carpenter, are very suitable for the decoration of the grounds and [[flower-garden]]s of cottages or [[picturesque]] villas. An endless variety of forms will occur to an ingenious artist in [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], which he may call in to the embellishment of rural scenes, without taxing his purse heavily. . . . [Fig. 12]
[[File:0403.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Tazza Fountain," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.]]
: “Weeping, or ''Tazza [[Fountain]]s'', as they are called, are simple and highly pleasing objects, which require only a very moderate supply of water compared with that demanded by a constant and powerful [[jet]]. The conduit pipe rises through and fills the '''vase''', which is so formed as to overflow round its entire margin. Figure 93 represents a beautiful Grecian '''vase''' for tazza [[fountain]]s. The ordinary [[jet]] and the tazza [[fountain]] may be combined in one, when the supply of water is sufficient, by carrying the conduit pipe to the level of the top of the '''vase''', from which the water rises perpendicularly, then falls back into the '''vase''' and overflows as before. . . . [Fig. 13]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain square edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.
: “In addition to this, there is great danger that a mere lover of fine '''vases''' may run into the error of assembling these objects indiscriminately in different parts of his grounds, where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature. He may overload the grounds with an unmeaning distribution of sculpturesque or artificial forms, instead of working up those parts where art predominates in such a manner, by means of appropriate decorations, as to heighten by contrast the beauty of the whole adjacent landscape.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1727.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Three Designs for Vases," in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.
File:1728.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Nine of "Fifty four Draughts of Vases," in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.
File:1190.jpg|[[Samuel McIntire]], ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.
File:1293.jpg|Asher Benjamin, "Designs for Urns," in ''The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter'' (1830), pl. 26.
File:1758.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Rustic arch and vase," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 581, fig. 231.
File:1827.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Hermit's Seat, and Classical Vase," Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 664, fig. 172.
File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, "Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries," in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "16. Green-house"
File:0941.jpg|Anonymous, "A pair of ''tozza'' [''sic''] vases, for a fountain," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848): p. 42, fig. 13.
File:0948.jpg|Anonymous, Ornamental Vases, ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 3, no. 1 (July 1848), p. 40, figs. 7-11.

File:1819.jpg|Anonymous, "A Gothic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.

File:0388.jpg|Anonymouse, Vase, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 425, fig. 72.

File:0389.jpg|Anonymous, "A pleasing rustic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.

File:0403.jpg|Anonymous, "Tazza Fountain," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1175.jpg|Anonymous, "A fine terra-cotta vase," [[A. J. Downing]], "Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture," American Gardener's Magazine, vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.
File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.
File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.
File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.
File:0583.jpg|Lewis Miller, "For a Lady's Album ...," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 125.
File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.
File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0259.jpg|The Gansevoort Limner (possibly Pieter Vanderlyn), ''Young Lady with a Fan'', 1737.
File:0191.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Margaret Tilghman Carroll'', c. 1770.
File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.
File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', c. 1796.
File:0001.jpg|[[George Ropes]], ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.
File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.
File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East View of Greenvill[e], S.C.'', possibly 1825.
File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.
File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.
File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.
File:1840.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage," in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.
File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.
File:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, c. 1839.
File:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.
File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.
File:0891.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Joseph H. Jennings’ House, 1841-44.
File:0704.jpg|Lewis Miller, "Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, September 15" [detail], September 15, 1856
File:0218.jpg|[[Augustus Weidenbach]], ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

File:0583.jpg

2017-09-12T15:55:24Z

Chelsdyl:

Lewis Miller, "For a Lady's Album ...," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 125, watercolor and ink on paper. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. William H. Kain in memory of George Hay Kain. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Va.

File:2061.jpg

2017-09-12T13:39:36Z

Chelsdyl:

<br>
John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824, watercolor. The University of Notre Dame Libraries, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections and the Edward Lee Greene Herbarium (NDG) of the University of Notre Dame, Department of Biological Sciences.

File:2061.jpg

2017-09-12T13:33:35Z

Chelsdyl:

File:0038.jpg

2017-09-11T19:14:07Z

Chelsdyl:

Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825, watercolor, 9 1/2 x 14 1/2 in. (24.1 x 36.8 cm). Museum of the City of New York.

File:0038.jpg

2017-09-11T19:12:58Z

Chelsdyl: Chelsdyl uploaded a new version of File:0038.jpg

Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825, watercolor, 9 1/2 x 14 1/2 in. (24.1 x 36.8 cm). Museum of the City of New York, 52.100.16.

Picturesque

2017-09-07T12:45:27Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*Gilpin, William, 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8)<ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object, in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain. . . .

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering [[shrub]]s: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*Price, Uvedale, 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34)<ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565)<ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.),<ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and [[shrub]]s, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000),<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrub]]s that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25),<ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and [[shrub]]s constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. . . . In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, [[shrub]]s, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and [[shrub]], as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and [[shrub]]s is of little consequence; because no tree or [[shrub]], in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and [[shrub]]s, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and [[shrub]]s. In some places trees should prevail, in others [[shrub]]s; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and [[shrub]], ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64)<ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . . aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may . . . give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of [[shrub]]s may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . . In this case, the [[shrub]]s alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing [[shrub]]s in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of [[shrub]]s may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|George Inness, ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-07T12:44:53Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*Gilpin, William, 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8)<ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object, in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain. . . .

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering [[shrub]]s: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*Price, Uvedale, 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34)<ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565)<ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.),<ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and [[shrub]]s, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000),<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrub]]s that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25),<ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and [[shrub]]s constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. . . . In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, [[shrub]]s, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and [[shrub]], as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and [[shrub]]s is of little consequence; because no tree or [[shrub]], in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and [[shrub]]s, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and [[shrub]]s. In some places trees should prevail, in others [[shrub]]s; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and [[shrub]], ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64)<ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . . aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may . . . give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of [[shrub]]s may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . . In this case, the [[shrub]]s alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing [[shrub]]s in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of [[shrub]]s may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-05T21:01:09Z

Chelsdyl: /* Citations */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*Gilpin, William, 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8)<ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object, in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain. . . .

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering [[shrub]]s: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*Price, Uvedale, 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34)<ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565)<ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.),<ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and [[shrub]]s, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000),<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrub]]s that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25),<ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and [[shrub]]s constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. . . . In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, [[shrub]]s, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and [[shrub]], as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and [[shrub]]s is of little consequence; because no tree or [[shrub]], in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and [[shrub]]s, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and [[shrub]]s. In some places trees should prevail, in others [[shrub]]s; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and [[shrub]], ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64)<ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . . aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may . . . give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of [[shrub]]s may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . . In this case, the [[shrub]]s alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing [[shrub]]s in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of [[shrub]]s may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344),<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-05T15:54:16Z

Chelsdyl: /* Citations */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*Gilpin, William, 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8)<ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object, in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain. . . .

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering [[shrub]]s: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*Price, Uvedale, 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34)<ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565)<ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.),<ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and [[shrub]]s, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000),<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrub]]s that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25),<ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and shrubs constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. ...In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, shrubs, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and shrub, as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and shrubs is of little consequence; because no tree or shrub, in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and shrubs, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and shrubs. In some places trees should prevail, in others shrubs; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and shrub, ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64) <ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a rustic [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . .aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . .give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing shrubs in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of shrubs may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271) <ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-05T14:08:16Z

Chelsdyl: /* Usage */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*[[William Gilpin|Gilpin, William]], 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8) <ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object,in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain....

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering shrubs: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*[[Uvedale Price|Price, Uvedale]], 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34) <ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565) <ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.), <ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and shrubs, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000), <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185) <ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187) <ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to Mr. [[André Parmentier|A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and shrubs that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16) <ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25), <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and shrubs constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. ...In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, shrubs, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and shrub, as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and shrubs is of little consequence; because no tree or shrub, in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and shrubs, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and shrubs. In some places trees should prevail, in others shrubs; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and shrub, ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64) <ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a rustic [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . .aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . .give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing shrubs in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of shrubs may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271) <ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-05T14:05:17Z

Chelsdyl: /* Usage */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93),<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56),<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, Conn. (p. 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Park and Waterworks|Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108),<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [<span id="Fig_3_cite"></span>[Fig. 3]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Capitol Square|Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>

===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*[[William Gilpin|Gilpin, William]], 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8) <ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object,in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain....

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering shrubs: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*[[Uvedale Price|Price, Uvedale]], 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34) <ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565) <ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.), <ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and shrubs, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000), <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185) <ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187) <ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to Mr. [[André Parmentier|A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and shrubs that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16) <ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25), <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and shrubs constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. ...In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, shrubs, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and shrub, as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and shrubs is of little consequence; because no tree or shrub, in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and shrubs, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and shrubs. In some places trees should prevail, in others shrubs; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and shrub, ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64) <ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a rustic [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . .aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . .give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing shrubs in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of shrubs may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271) <ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-01T15:15:22Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93), <ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of shrubs, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*[[Charles Brockden Brown|Brown, Charles Brockden]], 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55) <ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56), <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49) <ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*[[Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin]], 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of [[Daniel Wadsworth]], Avon, Conn. (p. 15) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316) <ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*[[Capt. Basil Hall|Hall, Capt. Basil]], 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and botanical garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85) <ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65) <ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, shrubs, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*[[Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt Ritchie|Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt]], 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186) <ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several rustic [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>[[Nathanial Parker Willis|Willis, Nathaniel Parker]], 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313) <ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing [[Presque Isle]], residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12) <ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49) <ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*[[John Warner Barber|Barber, John Warner]] and [[Henry Howe]], 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113) <ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157) <ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking rustic [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108), <ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [<span id="Fig_3_cite"></span>[[#Fig_3|See Fig. 3]]]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162) <ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127) <ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>
===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*[[William Gilpin|Gilpin, William]], 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8) <ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object,in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain....

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering shrubs: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*[[Uvedale Price|Price, Uvedale]], 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34) <ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565) <ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.), <ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and shrubs, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000), <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185) <ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187) <ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to Mr. [[André Parmentier|A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and shrubs that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16) <ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25), <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and shrubs constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. ...In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, shrubs, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and shrub, as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and shrubs is of little consequence; because no tree or shrub, in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and shrubs, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and shrubs. In some places trees should prevail, in others shrubs; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and shrub, ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64) <ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a rustic [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . .aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . .give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing shrubs in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of shrubs may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271) <ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Picturesque

2017-09-01T15:15:02Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the nineteenth century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term "picturesque" had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as [[Thomas Whately]] and [[A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>This second sense is clear in [[J. C. Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if "it would form a tolerable picture" when painted ([[#Loudon|view citation]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers' descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that "the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely" (1849) ([[#Downing|view citation]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>In addition, in many cases the term "picturesque" served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists [[Thomas Whatley|Whately]] and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler|Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by "coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen," underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view citation]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a "continual change of scenery." In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon "''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''."<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th edn. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
<span id="Gregory_cite"></span>In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with "[[park]]" ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the "Beautiful" expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the "Picturesque" had striking, irregular and "pointed" forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [<span id="Fig_17_cite"></span>[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[George Gregory|Gregory's]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
<span id="Register_cite"></span>Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a "facsimile imitation of natural scenery" ([[#Register|view citation]]). In his treatise, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
<span id="Downing_1850_cite"></span>American scenery, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, "the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape," and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view citation]]). The ingredients of [[A. J. Downing|Downing's]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5 Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving's
[[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton's [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton's [[plantation]], [[Crowfield]], both near Charleston, S.C. In 1802, Cutler determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had "quite a picturesque appearance" because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. [[Lewis Miller|Lewis Miller's]] 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated Cutler's description of Washington's home as picturesque. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>In the sketch [[Lewis Miller|Miller]] did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the "little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s" that add "a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery" ([[#Miller|view citation]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]'s [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] in Brooklyn, N.Y., was praised by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] as one of the "most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden" [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, [[Parmentier's horticultural and botanical garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled "Landscape and Picturesque Gardens" of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating "Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry."

<span id="Willis_cite"></span>Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the "eternal succession of lovely natural objects," was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view citation]]).

-- ''Therese O’Malley''

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93), <ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'' (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

:"These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of shrubs, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene."

*[[Charles Brockden Brown|Brown, Charles Brockden]], 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 54–55) <ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . . .

:"The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle."

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1987: 2:56), <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to history]]

:"It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen."

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
* Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, D.C. (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49) <ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, D.C.: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]]." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Rappahannock land. For sale. . . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia."

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*[[Benjamin Silliman|Silliman, Benjamin]], 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of [[Daniel Wadsworth]], Avon, Conn. (p. 15) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama." [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316) <ref>Anonymous, "On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to."

*[[Capt. Basil Hall|Hall, Capt. Basil]], 1828, describing a "bungalow" in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude."
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier's]] horticultural and botanical garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85) <ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier's]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect." [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount."

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.]]
*[[H.A.S Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65) <ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, Mass.: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, shrubs, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society." [Fig. 9]

*[[Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt Ritchie|Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt]], 1839, describing [[Bonaparte's Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, N.J. (quoted in Weber 1854: 186) <ref>Constance Weber, "A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," in ''Godey’s Lady's Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The only portion of the building left is the [[observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several rustic [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about."

*<div id="Willis"></div>[[Nathanial Parker Willis|Willis, Nathaniel Parker]], 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1840] 1971: 3–4, 313) <ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Willis_cite|back up to history]]

:"The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.

:"The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:"'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes's expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . . .

:"Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement." [Fig. 10]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here." [Fig. 11]

*[[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.," describing [[Presque Isle]], residence of William Demming, Fishkill, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . . .

:"Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England."

*[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Rev. Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, Mass. ([Adams] 1842: 11–12) <ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use."

*W., February 1842, describing [[Lowell Cemetery]], Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49) <ref>W., "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The site of the [[Lowell Cemetery]] is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature."

*[[John Warner Barber|Barber, John Warner]] and [[Henry Howe]], 1844, describing Mount Holly, N.J. (1844: 113) <ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, N.J.: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn's [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''."

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157) <ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"He takes another path, passes by an airy looking rustic [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.

:"This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Lewis Miller|Miller, Lewis]], June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (c. 1850: 108), <ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, Va.: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Miller|back up to history]]

:"[[Mount Vernon]] . . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery." [<span id="Fig_3_cite"></span>[[#Fig_3|See Fig. 3]]]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162) <ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Square]] itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s." [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston," describing [[Oakley Place]], seat of [[William Pratt]], Boston, Mass. (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127) <ref>Horticola [pseud.], "Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[[Oakley Place|OAKLEY PLACE]], ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING'S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together."

<br/>
===Citations===
*[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 146–47) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:"XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:"In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one."

*[[William Gilpin|Gilpin, William]], 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (pp. 3–8) <ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''....

:"In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . . .

:"But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object,in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain....

:"Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering shrubs: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''."

*[[Uvedale Price|Price, Uvedale]], 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (pp. 17, 34) <ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:"THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''."

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:565) <ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . . .

:"Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602."

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.), <ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), vol. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:"The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:"'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:"That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . . .

:"'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:"To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and shrubs, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant."

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 1000), <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture."

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185) <ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 1st edn. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?"

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, "Rural Scenery" (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187) <ref>Anonymous, "Rural Scenery," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . . .

:"For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to Mr. [[André Parmentier|A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and shrubs that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France."

*[[H.A.S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H.A.S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16) <ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J.T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening."

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25), <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_cite|back up to history]]

:"Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and shrubs constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. ...In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance."

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (pp. 164–66) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, shrubs, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . . .

:"In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:"In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and shrub, as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and shrubs is of little consequence; because no tree or shrub, in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and shrubs, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and shrubs. In some places trees should prevail, in others shrubs; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and shrub, ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64) <ref>Anonymous, "Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:"These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:"Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a rustic [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, 'in search of the picturesque.'"

*[[Walter Elder|Elder, Walter]], 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (p. 26) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"If [the rich gentleman's [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole."

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . . .

:"More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . . .

:"THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . .aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.]]
:"In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . .give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . . [Fig. 16]

:"The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . . .

:"Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . . .

:"In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . . .

:"This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . . .

:"we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:"There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:"In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . . .

:"Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing shrubs in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . . .

:"As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:"When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of shrubs may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]]."

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, "Critique on the October Horticulturist" (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271) <ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], "Critique on the October Horticulturist," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849), 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"River's Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command."

*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 112–13, 344), <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to history]]

:"In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:"To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . . .

:"It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery." [Fig. 17]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Mount Vernon" [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 108. "ornamented with little copses—clumps and single trees.—add a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole scenery"

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, "Grouping to produce the Picturesque," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "At ''e'', is a picturesque orchard"

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée'')," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, "Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening", in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 273, fig. 16.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte-Video," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|[[Daniel Wadsworth]], "Monte Video, Approach to the House," in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. p. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental Ice Houses Above Ground, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. p. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), "View of the Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, "A Cottage in the Swiss Style," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (Dec. 1848): pl. opp. p. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, "Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, "Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, "Mrs. Camac's Residence," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between pp. 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic prospect-arbor," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 460, fig. 87.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, "Bowling Green Fountain," in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird's Eye View of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, "Small Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, "Regular Bracketed Cottage," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|[[William Groombridge]], ''View of Lemon Hill,'' c. 1800.

Image:1807.jpg|[[George Inness]], ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T15:09:45Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[portico|PORTICO]].
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159),<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39),<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21)<ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58),<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades.

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794 95.

Image:0272.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T15:09:03Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[portico|PORTICO]].
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159),<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39),<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21)<ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58),<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades.

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T15:08:53Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[portico|PORTICO]].
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159),<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39),<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21)<ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58),<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades.

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T15:05:54Z

Chelsdyl: /* Inscribed */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[portico|PORTICO]].
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159),<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39),<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21)<ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58),<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades.

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|[[Joshua Rowley Watson]], ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T14:55:08Z

Chelsdyl: /* Citations */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[portico|PORTICO]].
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159),<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824)<ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39),<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21)<ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58),<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and [[Thomas Langley]], "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|[[Joshua Rowley Watson]], ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T14:17:02Z

Chelsdyl: /* Usage */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*Iredell, James, 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*Attmore, William, 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227)<ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river. . . . <p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat. . . . [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents. . . . At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors. . . . enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477),<ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.)<ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of Judge Washington." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing York Island, Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100)<ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 13, 1809, Moore's Old Ordinary, Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called Moore's old Ordinary. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, Sidney, near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Beaufort, S.C. (2:207)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 13, 1816, describing Eaglesfield, country house of Robert Egglesof Griffith, Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290)<ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*Watson, Joshua Rowley, June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy [[walk]] in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*Watson, John Fanning, 1822-23, describing Cape May, N.J. (1857: 2:541)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—[[walk]] the '''piazza''', and converse.

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147),<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*Say, Thomas, October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony]], Indiana (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156),<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243),<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green [[vase]]s, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering [[shrub]]s, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the University, at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57),<ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said [[arch]]es is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone . . . with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody [[walk]]s, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150)<ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and [[shrub]]s, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*Evans, Charles, 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10)<ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117)<ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, '''piazzas''' are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and George Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23)<ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Jones, Rev. C. C., June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31) <ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"PORTICO.
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*[[William Prince|Prince, William]], 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46) <ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159), <ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824) <ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39), <ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21) <ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58), <ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53) <ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and [[Thomas Langley]], "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|[[Joshua Rowley Watson]], ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Piazza

2017-09-01T13:42:34Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

(Piazer, Piazzia)

==History==
<div id="Fig_1"></div>[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17. [[#Fig_1_cite|Back to text]]]]

Piazza is one of several words (including [[porch]], [[portico]], and [[veranda]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by [[William Russell Birch]] (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the piazza, a place from which one could see "innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose" [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[A. J. Downing]]'s book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed piazza, or [[veranda]], as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few other less common words that were more or less synonymous. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term "umbrage" to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref> William Pierson, Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-304, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] used the term "[[pavilion]]" synonymously with "[[veranda]]"<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968 [orig. pub. 1850), 357, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>; and <span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the piazza was also known as the gallery ([[#Latrobe|view text]]). Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions. In his plan for a country house, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] also used the term "[[porch]]" to identify the central area of the [[veranda]] leading to the entryway. The nineteenth-century architect [[William H. Ranlett]] <span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span>sometimes distinguished between piazza and [[veranda]], using "piazza" for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and "[[veranda]]" for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

[[File:1732.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley, "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in [[Batty Langley]], ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.]]

In 1828, <span id="Trollope_cite"></span>[[Frances Milton Trollope]], the acerbic critic of American art and architecture, described the piazza as a "luxury almost universal in the country houses of America" ([[#Trollope|view text]]). Indeed it was a feature found throughout the colonies and dates from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. From Massachusetts to the lower Mississippi Valley, examples are found on both private and public buildings. The feature was adapted to various styles with appropriate detailing and ornamentation. The piazza was a projecting [[porch]] or connecting passage that was identifiable in neoclassical [[plantation]] houses in the South, as well as in the Gothic revival suburban cottages of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. There were countless variations ranging from the simple wooden post-and-lintel type, to stone-[[arch]]ed piazzas depicted by [[Batty Langley]] [Fig. 3]<span id="Franklin_1839_cite"></span> and mentioned in 1839 at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] in Philadelphia ([[#Franklin_1839|view text]]).
[[File:0549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]

[[File:0597.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.]]
In texts and images related to American gardens of the period under study, although several imported treatises traced "piazza" back to covered walkways that surrounded the [[square]], the term has not been associated with the Italian term for a medieval or renaissance [[square]]. It was generally described as two related but somewhat distinctive appendages to buildings. First, the piazza was attached [[porch]]-like to a façade so that three sides of the piazza projected out from the building [Fig. 4], or the sides were recessed into the structure, as on the main façade of the U.S. Naval Asylum in Philadelphia [Fig. 5]. At other times it appeared on more than one façade [Fig. 6]. <span id="Sibley_cite"></span>In New Orleans one house was described as having piazzas on all four sides ([[#Sibley|view text]]). Both one- and two-story piazzas were also built. Second, "piazza" also referred to a covered walkway embedded between two buildings and acting as a connecting link. A single- or even double-height piazza, <span id="Richmond_cite"></span>such as that described in 1799 on a property in Richmond, Va. ([[#Richmond|view text]]), provided either an entrance or transition space from interior architecture to exterior space. In the case of the University of Virginia, piazzas linked the entire range of houses around the [[lawn]], and they served as transitional spaces leading to the [[lawn]] [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]].

[[File:0233.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.]]
The piazza's basic structure consisted of a roof supported by [[pillar]]s or [[column]]s. A piazza might be walled on each side with Venetian blinds or, as <span id="Martineau_cite"></span>[[Harriet Martineau]] described one in 1835, "draperied with vines" ([[#Martineau|view text]]). Flooring was stone, flag, wooden planks, or gravel. The roof was generally either flat or peaked. <span id="Teschemacher_cite"></span> [[James E. Teschemacher]] (1835), however, described and illustrated a piazza with a concave roof formed of painted floor cloth fastened on wooden rafters, which were supported by wooden [[arch]]es ([[#Teschemacher|view text]]). Several images depict the piazza at ground level opening directly out into the landscape. Some examples, however, <span id="Holt_cite"></span> describe broad and spacious flights of stairs leading from the piazza and "descending into the garden" ([[#Holt|view text]]). At [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] [[Monticello]] (Charlottesville) and [[Poplar Forest]] (Bedford County, Va.), the piazzas had no immediate access to the ground but instead were raised, balcony-like structures overlooking the garden. Even if not a physical link, the visual connection to the exterior remained critical to the function of this feature.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
The nineteenth-century architect<span id="Ranlett1_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett]], who used them often in his residential design, praised piazzas for their "very expressive" purpose ([[#Ranlett1|view text]]). They functioned as sitting areas that were furnished with couches, chairs, and sometimes tables where one could take a meal. They were used to provide a place for walking or sitting and enjoying the breeze, shade and coolness; they also served to keep the sun from warming the interior of the house. Since the feature was designed to provide [[view]]s in addition to protection from the sun, orientation of the piazza had to be planned with regard to the sun and surrounding environment. <span id="Hyde_Park_cite"></span>At [[Hyde Park]], a visitor in 1830 mentioned that one piazza was open to the Hudson River and the other looked over a beautiful [[lawn]], suggesting that the [[view]] dictated where the piazzas might be located ([[#Hyde_Park|view text]]).

<span id="Ranlett2_cite"></span> [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett]] was emphatic when he decreed that a "dwelling should always have one or more of them [piazzas]." He regarded the absence of a piazza on a new house an indication of ignorance, niggardliness, and narrow-minded views ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). <span id="Downing1_cite"></span> [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a piazza or [[veranda]] in any but the most utilitarian structure as "unphilosophical and false in taste!" He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States ([[#Downing1|view text]]) [Fig. 7].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*Anonymous, June 21 1706, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"Ordered That ye said Henry Cary do cause the pavements in ye '''Piazza''' to be taken up, and new Laid, and yt [sic] the well be filled up and the pavement of ye [[walk]] Leading thereby finished."

*[[Hugh Jones|Jones, Hugh]], 1722, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (1956: 66-67) <ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. by Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the north end runs back a large wing, which is a handsome hall . . . there is a spacious '''piazza''' on the west side, from one wing to the other. It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it."

*Anonymous, 1756, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' the construction materials needed for the Capitol, Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 298) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Wanted about 280 feet of purbeck and 80 feet of balne shrosberry stone for completing the '''piazzas''' of the capitol in Williamsburg."

*Anonymous, October 13, 1757, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:"on a Creek fronting Charles-Town, with a neat pleasant-situated House thereon, having '''Piazzas''' South, West and North, and being about 6 Miles from Charles-Town."

*[[James Iredell|Iredell, James]], 1773, describing [[Edenton]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"Spoke to Mr. Jones in his '''Piazza''', walked with him in his Garden, but was not asked in to his house."

*[[William Attmore|Attmore, William]], 1787, describing [[New Bern]], N.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 269) <ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>

:"there are to many of the houses Balconies or '''Piazzas''' in front and sometimes back of the house, this Method of Building is found convenient on account of the great Summer Heats here."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 5, 1787, describing a house in Rye, New York (1888: 1: 227) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"> Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"Three miles from Byram River we made our first stage—Mrs. Haviland's, in Rye, where we breakfasted. This house has more the air of a gentleman's country-[[seat]] than a tavern. It is a large, well-built house, with a [[piazza]] extending the whole length of the front, well finished and elegantly furnished; handsome barns, stables, and other out-houses; a spacious garden, laid out in a beautiful form."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing Bristol and Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 251-52) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"The tavern where we dined [in Bristol] is a very large pile of buildings, with numerous apartments. It stands on the bank of the Delaware, and has a most delightful [[piazza]] on the side next the river, which extends the whole length of the house, and is entirely over the water, affording a most beautiful [[prospect]] up and down this majestic river.....<p></p>
:"From this place to Philadelphia the land is exceedingly rich and fertile, producing a great quantity of excellent fruit, Indian corn, and the finest wheat.... [The farmers'] gardens are well formed and abound with flowers, as well as fruit trees and esculents..... At almost every house the farmers and their wives were sitting in their cool entries, or under the [[piazza]]s and shady trees about their doors....enjoying the ease and pleasures of domestic life, with few cares, less labor, and abounding in plenty."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 1: 274) <ref name="Cutler_1888_1"></ref>

:"From this grass [[plat]] we went into a '''piazza''' one story high, next the street, very pleasant, as it is in full [[view]] of the river."

*<div id="Richmond"></div>Anonymous, December 24, 1799, describing in the ''Virginia Gazette'' a property for sale in Richmond, Va. (CWF), [[#Richmond_cite|back up to history]]

:"For sale: A house on Shockoe Hill near the [[Capitol Square|Capitol]] in Richmond. . . . Adjoining this building is a kitchen, laundry, office, coachhouse to hold two carriages, lodging rooms for domestics. This building is connected to the house by a double '''piazza'''."

[[File:0182.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.]]
* [[Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall|Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin]] (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], [[seat]] of [[John Burgwin]], Wilmington, N.C. (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125) <ref>John Flowers, "People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited," ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "You have seen the picture representing the [[Hermitage]], Tho' in appearance it fell far behind Alveston or Ashley [English estates belonging to Burgwin relatives]. . . . a large handsomely finish'd room the middle door opening to a [[porch]], leading to the front garden, on either side of this room, were glass doors opening upon the [[Piazza]] to each wing" [Fig. 8].

*<div id="Sibley"></div>[[John Sibley|Sibley, Dr. John]], September 15, 1802, describing the [[plantation]]s along the Mississippi River, in the vicinity of New Orleans, La. (1927: 477), <ref>John Sibley, "The Journal of Dr. Sibley July-October, 1802," ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 10 (1927):474-497, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFUD923H/q/John%20Sibley| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sibley_cite|back up to history]]

:"The houses all after the same fashion, one story, wood, large on the ground, a Hall & 4 chambers, '''piazzias''' on all Sides and almost all painted white."

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1888: 2: 144) <ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, L.L.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 2:, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commands an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a '''piazza''', supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room."

[[File:0314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.]]
*[[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (n.p.) <ref name="Birch_1808">William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, Pa.: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky [[eminence]], a dignified height on the Potomac. During the French war, Admiral Vernon, who commanded the British fleet on this station, frequently made visits to his friend the father of Gen. W. and thence is derived its name. The additions of a '''piazza''' to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General's taste. It is now the residence of [[George Washington|Judge Washington]]." [Fig. 8]

*<div id="Birch"></div> [[William Russell Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, describing [[York Island]], Long Island, N.Y. (n.p.), <ref name="Birch_1808"></ref> [[#Birch_cite|back up to history]]

:"This [[view]] is taken from the '''piazza''' of the [[seat]] of General Stevens on Long Island, near that extraordinary channel called Hell-gate, on the East river, or sound. The [[view]] was taken in the morning at the rising of the sun, when a glow of light from the arch of Heaven, exhibited to the [[view]] almost innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose, like so many stars in the firmament, upon the face of this beautifully variegated Island. The scene extending [sic] across the North river to the Jersey shore." [<span id="Fig_1_cite"></span>[[#Fig_1|See Fig. 1]]]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Stein 1993:100) <ref> Susan R. Stein, ''The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SK9WTNIU/q/Stein| view on Zotero]</ref>

:"My [[greenhouse|green house]] is only a '''piazza''' adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiana and a very few things of that kind."

*[[David Ramsay|Ramsay, David]], 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 130) <ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A passion for flowers has of late astonishingly increased. Many families in the capital, and several in the country, for some years past have been uncommonly attentive to [[flower garden]]s. Those who cannot command convenient spots of ground have their '''piazzas''', balconies, and windows richly adorned with the beauties of nature far beyond anything that was known in the days their infancy."

*[[William Dickinson Martin|Martin, William Dickinson]], May 13, 1809, [[Moore's Old Ordinary]], Halifax, County, Va. (CWF)

:"We breakfasted this morning at a house much celebrated in Virginia, called [[Moore's old Ordinary]]. It was decidedly superior to any public house, we had yet stopt at on our Route . . . it was now morning, and many of the young people who remained where seated, or walking for their amusement in the cool shade of a long '''piazza''', enjoying the morning breezes."

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 22, 1810, in a letter to his son, [[Rembrandt Peale]], describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:54-55) <ref>Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds.,''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791'' Vol. 1; ''Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810''. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820''. Vol. 3; ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale''. Vol. 5. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983-2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I have marked the ends of some Joice between the windows, from these I intend to make a '''Piazer''' extending round the south End. at the X is a fine spring runing out of a Rock—at this I shall make a spring House & perhaps a Mill."

*[[Margaret Bayard Smith|Smith, Margaret Bayard]], Summer 1811, describing her summer retreat, [[Sidney (Washington, D.C.)|Sidney]], near Washington, D.C. (1906: 87) <ref name="Bayard, 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I had a table with benches round it in the front '''Piazza''', to which we removed after dinner to eat our desert [''sic'']."

*[[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing [[Beaufort, S.C.]] (2:207) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"One peculiarity, however, may be remarked respecting them, which is, that '''piazzas''' are generally attached to their southern front, as well for the convenience of walking therein during the day, as for preventing the sun's too great influence on the interior of the house."

[[File:2044.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Joshua Rowley Watson]], ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.]]
*[[Joshua Rowley Watson|Watson, Joshua Rowley]], June 13, 1816, describing [[Eaglesfield]], country house of [[Robert Egglesof Griffith]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 290) <ref name="Foster_1997">Kathleen A. Foster, ''Captain Watson's Travels in America: The Sketchbooks and Diary of Joshua Rowley Watson, 1772-1818'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J6Q29IVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"You enter the house from a '''Piazza''' 25 feet long, with a [[porch]] in a half circular form, supported by [[pillar]]s, into the hall. . . . The front windows of the eating & drawing rooms reach from near the top of the room to the floor, and open out on a spacious '''Piazza''' 46 ft long and 13 ft wide supported by 6 [[pillar]]s, the whole front of the house. . . . Near the house is a [[pavilion]] with a '''Piazza''' all round it, it consists of two rooms and well situated for privacy." [Fig. 9]

*[[Joshua Rowley Watson|Watson, Joshua Rowley]], June 17, 1816, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of Judge [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Foster 1997: 292-93) <ref name="Foster_1997"></ref>

:"[[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Bellmont]] house is old, but is well built of stone and like all the Country houses, has a '''Piazza''' in front. I don't see why those in England should not have the same, which would secure a fine airy walk in all weathers, besides being ornamental to the building."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Mary Elizabeth Latrobe|Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth]], April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181), <ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero]. </ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our lot is 360 feet and 64 front, the house is up 16 steps with a '''Piazza''' (or Gallery as they call them here) the whole length of the house front and back, there is no entry or passage like our Baltimore houses."

*[[John Fanning Watson|Watson, John Fanning]], 1822-23, describing [[Cape May, N.J.]] (1857: 2:541) <ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Among our few amusements—we swing—gather curious shells and pebbles upon the strand—walk the '''piazza''', and converse.

*[[Capt. Basil Hall|Hall, Capt. Basil]], 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, S.C., to [[Savannah, Ga.]] (quoted in Jones 1957: 98) <ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or '''piazza''', from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]]."
[[File:1771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills'', c. 1817.]]

*<div id="Trollope"></div>[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:147), <ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Trollope_cite|back up to history]]

:"Our cottage had an ample '''piazza''', (a luxury almost universal in the country houses of America), which, shaded by a group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room."

[[File:1022.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur,''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.]]
*[[Sophie Madeleine Du Pont|Du Pont, Sophie Madeleine]], August 9, 1829, describing [[Eleutherian Mills]], estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, Del. (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 93) <ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823-1833'', (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K/q/Hinsley| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Our new deer, Fanny, is very annoying—She is constantly on the '''piazza''', and seizes every opportunity of rushing into the house, and what is worse, is so tame that there is no frightening her away—Azor encouraged by her example, is almost always on the '''piazza''', and if any thing is left on the entry windows, they seize & devour it—if not, they knock it down." [Fig. 10]

*[[Thomas Say|Say, Thomas]], October 19, 1830, describing his residence in [[New Harmony, Indiana]] (Stroud 1992: 227) <ref> Patricia Tyson Stroud, ''Thomas Say: New World Naturalist'', (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSIE7JGM/q/Stroud| view on Zotero.] </ref>

:"In summer, hummingbirds, sometimes three or four at a time, visited the honeysuckle that 'clustered' over his ''''piazza'''.'" [Fig. 11]

*<div id="Hyde_Park"></div>[[James Thacher|Thacher, James]], December 3, 1830, "An Excursion on the Hudson," describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156), <ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Hyde_Park_cite|back up to history]]

:"The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a '''piazza''' on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful [[lawn]] towards the turnpike from New York to Albany."

*[[William Cullen Bryant|Bryant, William Cullen]], June 19, 1832, describing a house in Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 346-47) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'' vol. 1, ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero]</ref>

:"The dwelling was of the most wretched description. It consisted of but one room about half of which was taken up with beds and cribs. . . . In an enormous fireplace blazed a huge fire . . . the hostess and her daughter were busy in cooking a supper for several travellers who were sitting under a kind of '''piazza''' in front of the house or standing in the [[yard]]. . . . About eleven preparations were made for repose. . . . The floor of the '''piazza''' was also occupied with men wrapped in their blankets."

*<div id="Holt"></div>[[Joseph Holt Ingraham|Ingraham, Joseph Holt]], 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:80-81, 231, 243), <ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Holt_cite|back up to history]]

:"The house was quadrangular, with a high steep [[Dutch style|Dutch]] roof, immensely large and two stories in height. . . . [It was] built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed [[veranda]]s, supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . . At each extremity of the '''piazza''' was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side. . . .
:"Around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the '''piazza''' of the dwelling,—the [[column]]s of which were festooned with the golden jasmine and luxuriant multiflora,—stood, in large green vases, a variety of flowers . . . breathing gales of fragrance upon the air. From this point the main [[avenue]] branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering shrubs, completely encircled the cottage. . . .
:"Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy [[hall]] of the dwelling, which opened from '''piazza''' to '''piazza''' through the house, to the front gallery, whose light [[column]]s were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome vases of marble and China-ware. The main [[avenue]] opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, 'Where Flora's brightest broidery shone,' terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s."

*<div id="Martineau"></div>[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, Mass. (1838: 2:182-83), <ref name="Martineau_1838">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Martineau_cite|back up to history]]

:"A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower garden|flower-garden]], its [[lawn]], with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters. A boat is moored in the cove at hand. The cottage itself is built for coolness, and its broad '''piazza''' is draperied with vines, which keep out the sun from the shaded parlours."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing the [[University of Virginia]], Charlottesville, Va. (1838: 1:200) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"After the service we walked to the [[University of Virginia|University]], at the distance, I think, of a little more than a mile from the town. The singular ranges of college buildings are visible from a considerable distance, as they advantageously crown an [[eminence]], presenting the appearance of a '''piazza''' surrounding an oblong [[square]], with the professors' houses rising at regular intervals. We found that the low buildings connecting these larger dwellings were the dormitories of the students; ground-floor apartments opening into the '''piazza''', and designed to serve as places of study as well as sleep." [Fig. 12]

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing life in the southern United States (1838: 1:219) <ref name="Martineau_1838"></ref>

:"You are then invited to see the house, learning by the way the extent and value of the estate you are visiting, and of the 'force' upon it. You admire the lofty, cool rooms, with their green blinds, and the width of the '''piazzas''' on both sides [of] the house, built to compensate for the want of shade from trees, which cannot be allowed near the dwelling for fear of moschetoes [''sic'']."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing [[Elfin Glen]], residence of P. Dodge, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a '''piazza'''; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled."

*<div id="Franklin_1839"></div>Franklin Fire Insurance Company, December 20, 1839, describing [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]], Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 57), <ref name="Greiff_1979">Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Franklin_1839_cite|back up to history]]

:"A two Story Stone Building With An [[Arch]] Way for an Entrance to [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] from the Ridge Road.
:"Dimensions: The Whole front including the [[Arch]] is 68 feet; to wit, in the Centre is the [[Arch]] 12 feet Span, On each Side of the [[Arch]] Way is an [[Arch]] '''Piazza'''. Across the building 9 feet wide, the remaining 19 feet on each side of said arches is divided into lodge rooms, 2 each Story at each Side: the Width of Building 26 1/2 feet with a '''Piazza''' on each Side Whole length of the Building; The '''Piazza''' in front next to the Road is 10 feet Wide the One next to the [[Laurel Hill Cemetery|Cemetery]] is 8 feet wide. The front '''Piazza''' has 4 round frame [[Pillar]]s in front on each side of the [[Arch]]. . . . The floors to all the '''Piazzas''' are faced Sand Stone; The '''Piazza''' under the building on each side of the Entrance has 4 round [[Pillar]]s . . . the [[Arch]]es over the '''Piazzas''' along side of Entrance made in the same way & having block Cornices. There is a cast iron & a wooden laticed [[Gate]] to Entrance & a double panel door in front to each '''Piazza''' by the side of the large [[Arch]], plain jambs painted & sanded: there is a similar door way at the other end of said '''Piazzas''' (but no doors hung) with panel jambs . . . from each '''Piazza''' by the Side of the [[Arch]] there is an entrance Door Midway to the lodge rooms 1st Story which leads directly to a Straight Boxed Stairway to 2nd Story."

*[[John Warner Barber|Barber, John Warner]], and [[Henry Howe]], 1841, describing Jefferson Barracks, [[Sacketts Harbour, N.Y.]] (p. 211) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a general collection of the most interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to its history and antiquities, with geographical descriptions of every township in the state,'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5/q/Barber| view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The two long ranges of buildings in the distance, facing the spectator, are the officers' quarters. The buildings at each end are the soldiers' barracks. These structures are of limestone ... with neat '''piazzas''' in front, forming three sides of a [[square]], on which is the parade ground."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and intermediate places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412-23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[conservatory]] as well as the drawing-room, opens into a '''piazza'''."

*[[James Silk Buckingham|Buckingham, James Silk]], 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, Va. (CWF)

:"One of these [ranges of chambers] is called "Bachelor's Room", as it consists only of single rooms, not more than twelve feet square, with a door letting in immediately from the public '''piazza''', up and down which everybody walks, so that the door cannot be opened without the whole interior of the room being exposed. Each of these has two windows, less than two feet square, one opening into the '''piazza''', and the other against the rock of the hill beyond."

[[File:1439.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.]]
*[[William Cullen Bryant|Bryant, William Cullen]], March 6, 1843, describing Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:150) <ref name="Clarke_1993">Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The city of Charleston strikes the visitor from the North most agreeably. He perceives at once that he is in a different climate. The spacious houses are surrounded with broad '''piazzas''', often a '''piazza''' to each story, for the sake of shade and coolness, and each house generally stands by itself in a garden planted with trees and shrubs, many of which preserve their verdure through the winter." [Fig. 13]

*[[Charles Evans|Evans, Charles]], 1846, describing [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pa. (p. 10) <ref>Charles Evans, ''An Account of the Asylum'', (Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1846), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN72CQS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At the termination of a gravel [[walk]] leading directly from the house through these two gardens, at the distance of about three hundred feet, is an ornamental house, surrounded on all sides by a '''piazza''', fitted up as a library and reading room, and containing numerous specimens of natural history, maps, drawings, &c., &c., affording a most agreeable resort for such patients as may be considered by the physician well enough to enjoy it."

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], December 26, 1846, describing his designs for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 117) <ref name="Greiff_1979"></ref>

:"No. I, is the ground plan. . . . On both sides or fronts of the building where strong direct light is neither desirable nor necessary, piazzas are made within the line of [[wall]]s, forming four sheltered ambulatories or cloisters, each 90 feet long by 10 feet wide; they are also passages from one point to another. . . .
:"The halls, corridors, '''piazza''', and [[porch]]es, [are] to be paved." [Fig. 14]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of Rosalie (Stier) and [[George Calvert]], Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53) <ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The main building is 68 by about 50 feet, with an elegant [[''Portico'']] on its northern [front], and a '''''Piaza''''' [''sic''], running its entire length, on its southern front, each constructed with due regard to classic and architectural propriety."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing the design for a symmetrical, bracketed cottage ([1850] 1968: 122-23) <ref name="Downing_1850">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Reprint, New York: De Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero.]</ref>
:"The [[veranda]] of this cottage is 8 feet wide and 32 feet long. It is one of the most pleasing forms of bracketed '''piazza''', and is built with but little cost. The whole is of wood; the rafter ''a'' (Fig. 45), being worked fair, and beaded at the angles, as well as the narrow sheathing boards, ''b'', which cover them, and form the underside of the roof." [<span id="Fig_2_cite"></span>[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*[[Rev. C. C. Jones|Jones, Rev. C. C.]], June 5, 1851, in a letter to his wife, Mary Jones, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of [[Andrew Jackson]], Nashville, Tenn. ([1851] 1976: 175) <ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. by Robert Manson Myers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1851] 1976) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The carriage drew up at the '''piazza''', resembling the [[Mount Vernon]] '''piazza''', paved with limestone flags, and with the fluted [[column]]s running to the cornice above the second story."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741-43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref name="Chambers_1741-43">Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'',5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741-43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PIAZZA''', in building, popularly called ''piache'', an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[PORTICO]].
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or [[square]]; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico]]'s around them. . . .
: "[[PORTICO]], in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; or a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es supported by [[column]]s, where people walk under covert. See '''PIAZZA'''."

*[[Isaac Ware|Ware, Isaac]], 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (p. 31) <ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"PORTICO.
:"A place for walking under shelter, raised with [[arch]]es, in the manner of a gallery. The [[portico]] is usually vaulted, but it has sometimes a soffit, or ceiling. The [[''portico'']] is a '''piazza''' encompassed with [[arch]]es raised upon [[column]]s, and covered over head in any manner."

*[[William Prince|Prince, William]], 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 145-46) <ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the '''piazza''', or to intermingle with the vines which entwine [[bowers]], &c."

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PIAZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;'' Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. Encyc."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[James E. Teschemacher]], "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]
* <div id="Teschemacher"></div>[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], May 1. 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159), <ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Teschemacher_cite|back up to history]]

:"The '''piazzas''' of many houses are formed by a continuation of the roof supported by thick [[pillar]]s, which give them a heavy appearance; those in the drawing are intended to represent '''piazzas''', with concave roofs formed of painted floor cloth, fastened on slight wooden rafters, cut with curve desired, then supported by slender [[pillar]]s connected by wooden [[arch]]es with open work; such [[pillar]]s may be quickly encircled by hardy climbing plants." [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 824) <ref name="Webster_1848">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:"'''PI-AZ'ZA''', n. [It. for ''plazza''; Sp. ''plaza''; Port. ''praça'', for ''plaça;''; Fr. ''place''; Eng. ''id.''; D. ''plaats''; G. ''platz''; Dan. ''plads''; Sw. ''plats''.]
:"1. In ''building'', a [[portico]] or covered [[walk]] supported by [[arch]]es or [[column]]s. ''P. Cyc''.
:"2. In ''Italian'', it denotes a square open space surrounded by buildings. ''Gwilt.''"

[[File:0779.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Frances Palmer, "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.]]
* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 14, 16-17, 32, 38, 39), <ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>[[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to history]]

:"The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI., is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of [[Oswego, N.Y.]]. . . .
:"ROOFS, CORNICE, &c. . . . The first section of main roof to be covered with first quality 3 feet cedar shingles, laid three thick on hard-wood lath; the roofs of the top section, the two wings, the '''piazza''', [[portico]]s, bay and oriel windows, covered with tongued and grooved plank, and overlaid with 'Naylor's patent tinned iron plates,' with ridge joints. . . . principal [[portico]] and '''piazza''' roofs to be supported by eight round fluted Corinthian [[column]]s, with carved caps and turned bases . . . the ceiling of the [[portico]] and '''piazza''', of narrow, clear boards; the filling below the several floors of '''piazza''', gallery and [[veranda]] to be open work.
:"On the south is a flat-roofed '''piazza''', with open balustrade railing, supported by Corinthian [[column]]s. . . . [Fig. 16]
:"the absence of a '''piazza''', the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and [[shrubbery]] [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of N.Y.], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted views, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity."

* <div id="Ranlett1"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:21) <ref name="Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett1_cite|back up to history]]

:"[[Veranda]]s, '''piazzas''' and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use."

* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 357-58), <ref name="Downing_1850"></ref> [[#Downing1_cite|back up to history]]

:"The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the [[veranda]], or ''piazza''. In a cool climate, like that of England, the [[veranda]] is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a [[veranda]] is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without [[verandas]]. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the [[veranda]] should find its place; or, if not an architectural [[veranda]], then, at least, the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]], covered with foliage. . . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no [[veranda]]-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling."

* <div id="Ranlett3"></div>[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 2:38, 53) <ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>[[#Ranlett3_cite|back up to history]]

:"The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a '''piazza'''; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a [[veranda]]. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking '''piazzas''' on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow."

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:1732.jpg|[[Batty Langley|Batty]] and [[Thomas Langley]], "Four Examples of Arcades for Piazza's," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 29.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs), Va. [detail], 1787. Plan lists "bb" as "two Piazzas with seats".

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787. See Detail.

Image:0069_Detail3.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon [detail], 1787. "Piazza 18 feet high" is inscribed at the top of the detail.

Image:2064.jpg|Nathaniel Shober, Boys' School, 1798.

Image:1219.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807. "Piazza" is inscribed on the principal story.

Image:0720.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817. "Covered piazza" is inscribed on either side of the upper terrace.

Image:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826. Seven piazzas are marked on all the façades

Image:1254.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846. "Piazza" is inscribed near the front of of the building on either side of the "Hall of Entrance" and at the back of the building on either side of the "Principal Stair."

</gallery>

=== Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0907.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0314.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Gen.<sup>l</sup> G. Washington," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 7.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.," in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:1771.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Eleutherian Mills Residence'', c. 1817.

Image:2044.jpg|[[Joshua Rowley Watson]], ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

Image:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon,'' c. 1840–50.

File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, "Bracketed Veranda from the inside," in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.

Image:0779.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "South Front Elevation" of Italian Bracketed Villa, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 9, bottom.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

Image:0272.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

Image:0447.jpg|Benjamin West, ''Maria Hamilton Beckford (Mrs. William Beckford)'', 1799.

Image:0233.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T19:27:50Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39)<ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in [[Monticello]].”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at [[Monticello]] that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river [[view]]s on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]]—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.|[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''[[Belvedere]]'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

*[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes [[square]] and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742–46

File:0076.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794–95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835 36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813 1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T19:20:26Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39)<ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in [[Monticello]].”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at [[Monticello]] that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river [[view]]s on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]]—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.|[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''[[Belvedere]]'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

*[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes [[square]] and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742-46

File:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813-1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T19:19:40Z

Chelsdyl: /* Inscribed */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39)<ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in [[Monticello]].”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at [[Monticello]] that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river [[view]]s on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]]—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.|[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''[[Belvedere]]'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

*[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes [[square]] and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742-46

File:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813-1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T19:18:34Z

Chelsdyl: /* Citations */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39)<ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in [[Monticello]].”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at [[Monticello]] that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river [[view]]s on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]]—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.|[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''[[Belvedere]]'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

*[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes [[square]] and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|James Gibbs, "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|James Gibbs, "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|James Gibbs, "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|James Gibbs, Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742-46

File:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813-1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T19:13:36Z

Chelsdyl: /* Usage */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39)<ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in [[Monticello]].”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at [[Monticello]] that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river [[view]]s on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357)<ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]]—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77) <ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''Belvedere'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

* Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153) <ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the temple of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes square and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473) <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|James Gibbs, "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|James Gibbs, "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|James Gibbs, "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|James Gibbs, Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742-46

File:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813-1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Pavilion

2017-08-31T18:49:11Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

(Pavillion) {{break}}
See also: [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|Belvedere]], [[Summerhouse]], [[Temple]]

==History==

[[File:1721.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[James Gibbs]], Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.]]

[[File:0956.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.]]

Pavilion was a term that appeared throughout the Eastern colonies and, later, the states from New England to the Deep South. Advertisements for garden services in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the pavilion in lists of structures for sale. [[Ephraim Chambers]]’s 1741–43 definition of a pavilion noted three standard meanings of the term as it was used during the colonial and early Republic periods. First, it referred to a tent-like or domed building under a single roof [Fig. 1]; second, it denoted a projecting piece in front of or on the corner of a building; and third, it described a garden building also known as a [[summerhouse]], [[temple]], or pleasure house. All three denotations have relevance in the history of the designed landscape.

[[File:0169.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.]]

[[File:0843.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.]]

[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition suggested that a pavilion could be a moveable or temporary structure. This type of pavilion was also described in an early nineteenth-century account of structures built to accommodate socializing and dancing at Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House) in Arlington, Va. [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] in 1836 sketched a canopied pavilion for Blithewood [Fig. 2]. Its delicate appearance suggests that it might have been temporary. Pavilions, however, were more frequently permanent structures that were part of an architectural or landscape design.

[[File:0028.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.]]

[[File:0104.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."]]

In his design for the University of Virginia, [[Thomas Jefferson]] placed along the main [[lawn]] two rows of individual professor’s houses, which he identified as pavilions. These [[temple]]-like buildings, each ornamented with a different classical order, were linked by covered walkways or [[piazza]]s and backed by enclosed gardens. In this instance, the choice of the term with its garden overtones suggests that [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] conceived of the whole composition based on the interrelationship of architecture and landscape [Fig. 3]. At [[Monticello]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] again planned [[temple]]-like structures that he called pavilions, which stood at the end of each of two symmetrical walkways that extended from the main house into the garden. His 1808 letter indicates that he planned to use at least one of these new pavilions as a library.

The application of the term “pavilion” to a structure that was attached to a house as a [[porch]]-like space seems to have gained popularity with the advent of house pattern books in the 1840s. “More than a [[veranda]],” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, the pavilion was “a room in the open air.” For the frontispiece of an issue of the ''Horticulturist'', he used a drawing by Davis depicting the pavilion at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., through which the surrounding landscape was seen. In another [[view]] of the same estate, Davis depicted what was described in the accompanying article as two types of pavilions: an attached structure and a separate [[temple]]-like building in the garden [Fig. 4].

The garden pavilion was illustrated in Downing’s publications as a wooden structure made in a variety of light framework types. It had a single roof and generally provided shelter for a garden seat. Some pavilions were simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] in appearance, with climbing plants and curved branches adding to their character, while others offered a more finished treatment, such as circular or pedimental [[temple]]s designed in the classical style [Fig. 5]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s advocacy of a “unity of expression” and his concern for the appropriateness of style is illustrated by his choice of a pavilion that corresponded in style to the garden and its architectural or topographical features.

Pavilions were often located at the terminus of a [[walk]], the summit of a hill, or the edge of a garden to provide resting and viewing places. The plan for Calverton, near Baltimore [Fig. 6], is an example of a [[pleasure ground]] design that uses such criteria to determine the placement of pavilions within the landscape.

The term “pavilion” was often used interchangeably with “[[summerhouse]]” and “[[temple]]”. A regional preference is not discernable in the textual evidence for any of these terms. Only [[Noah Webster]], in the later edition of ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848), suggested that the word “pavilion” was not appropriate for describing a [[summerhouse]] in a garden, without explanation. More commonly, pavilion was used broadly to encompass a variety of garden building types. Within one passage, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described one pavilion that formed the north wing of the house at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], and another separate garden temple as a “little [[Rustic_style|rustic]] pavilion” located at the water’s edge. In either case, the function of the pavilion was to offer an open-air structure with a sheltering roof that was linked visually and spatially with the landscape. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) used this particular feature to illustrate the “story of a desideratum growing out of our climate,” and the American adaptation in design to both northern and southern conditions.

-- ''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, [n.d.], an advertisement for design and construction services for parks and gardens (quoted in Chase 1973: 37–39) <ref>David B. Chase, "The Beginnings of the Landscape Tradition in America", ''Historic Preservation'', 25 (1973), 34–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJMNEZBX view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[A surveyor by the name of Theophilus Hardenbrook] ‘Designs all sorts of Buildings, well suited to both town and country, '''Pavilions''', Summer-Rooms, [[Seat]]s for Gardens . . . also Water-houses for Parks . . . Eye Traps to represent a Building terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable Object, Rotundas, Colonades, [[Arcade]]s, Studies in [[Park]]s or Gardens, [[Green House]]s for the Preservation of Herbs.’”

* Raspberry, Thomas, 1758, describing yardage of mosquito netting for a pavilion in Savannah, Ga. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “netted lawn for '''Pavillions''' or [M]usqito Netts—10 Yards each ps at 10d per Yd.”

* Carroll, Charles (of Annapolis), 1777, describing Carroll Garden, Annapolis, Md. (Maryland Historical Society, A. E. Carroll Papers)

: “I like my '''pavillions''': they are rather small.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Indian village south of Charlotia (1928: 250–51) <ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We were received and entertained friendlily [''sic''] by the Indians, the chief of the village conducting us to a grand, airy '''pavilion''' in the center of the village. It was four [[square]]; a range of [[pillar]]s or posts on each side supporting a canopy composed of Palmetto leaves, woven or thatched together, which shaded a level platform in the center, that was ascended to from each side by two steps or flights, each about twelve inches high, and seven or eight feet in breadth, all covered with carpets or mats, curiously woven, of split canes dyed of various colours. Here being seated or reclining ourselves, after smoaking tobacco, baskets of the choicest fruits were brought and set before us.”

* [[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 11 May 1805, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, describing the White House, Washington, D.C. (CWF)

: “The upper floor of the Middle '''pavilions''', level with the surface of the ground on the North side, and opening on it, must ultimately be destined for coachhouses.”

* Jefferson, Thomas, 23 February 1808, in a letter to Hugh Chisolm, describing Monticello, plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I shall be anxious that the south '''pavilion''' be in readiness when I come home in April, because I have as many trunks of books now arrived in Monticello.”

* Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing Monticello, plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (1951: 38) <ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Through the antes of the house, from N. to S. on the cellar floor, is a passage of 300 feet long, leading to two wings or ranges of building of one story, that stand equi-distant from each end of the house, and extend 120 feet eastwardly from the passages, terminated by a '''pavillion''' of two stories at the end of each.”

* Dennie, Joseph, December 1809, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (''The Portfolio'' 2: 505)

: “The building is of stone, and in the Doric order; the north front is ornamented, in the centre, by six Ionic pilasters, and on each side with a '''pavilion'''; the south front by a magnificent [[portico]], twenty-four feet in height, supported by six stately Tuscan [[column]]s.”

* Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing Berkeley Springs, Va. (later W.Va.) (1817: 2:235) <ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There is a '''pavilion''' built over the spring, which is used for drinking, and two bath-houses —one for either sex. The spring which supplies the ladies’ bath is one of the finest I have ever seen. It bursts from a fissure in the rock in the form of a cone, much larger than the crown of a hat, and, together with the others, forms a fine stream, in some places six or eight yards wide.”

* Jefferson, Thomas, 9 September 1819, describing Poplar Forest, property of Thomas Jefferson, Bedford County, Va. (CWF)

: “I wish you therefore to come with the three carpenters under you, as soon as they have done what I directed, that is to say . . . to put in the sleepers of the north '''pavilion''' and secure all the plank and stuff belonging to it.”

* Jefferson, Thomas, 22 June 1822, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “I am suspicious of some mistake in the ornaments for the '''Pavilion''' No. 1 which must have happened through looking at the same order in the [[portico]] at Monticello that a note tells me of 30 (mettle?) heads but no ox skulls. Should there be any sculls [''sic''] in the same frieze with human heads. If there ought to I am sorry having cast in (?) 12 human heads for that '''pavillion''' 1. In the example by Nicholson from the Baths of Diocletian no ox skull is shown or can I find it so in any other work that I have looked at. In fact this mistake of mine if it is one would extend to every frieze of that order and example, and therefore I see the (validity) of your opinion.”

* Eppes, Francis, 23 June 1826, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (CWF)

: “Knowing that all your '''pavilions''' at the University have tin coverings, I write to learn whether they have ever leaked, and if so what method or prevention has been used.” [See Fig. 3]

* Smith, Margaret Bayard, 2 August 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (1906: 225–56) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the '''Pavillions''', or Professor’s houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by [[terrace]]s, beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The [[terrace]] projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the [[arch]]es a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter. A vast wide [[lawn]] separates the two rows of '''pavillions''' and dormitories. . . . There are 12 '''Pavillions''', each one exhibiting the different orders of architecture and built after classic models, generally Grecian.”

* Thacher, James, 3 December 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156) <ref>James Thacher, "An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II", ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'', 9 (1830), 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At the termination of these romantic [[walk]]s fanciful '''pavilions''' are erected, where visitors may contemplate a captivating display of nature’s magnificence in these regions of wonder.”

* Martineau, Harriet, 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, N.Y. (1838: 1:55) <ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Then crossing the road, after paying our respects to his dairy of fine cows, we drove through the [[orchard]], and round Cape Horn, and refreshed ourselves with the sweet river views on our way home. There we sat in the '''pavilion''', and he told me much of De Witt Clinton, and showed me his own Life of Clinton, a copy of which he said should await me on my return to New-York.”

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing Montgomery Place, country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 46, 47, 52) <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Without going into any details of the interior, we may call attention to the unique effect of the '''''pavilion''''', thirty feet wide, which forms the north wing of this house. It opens from the library and drawing-room by low windows. Its ribbed roof is supported by a tasteful series of [[column]]s and [[arch]]es, in the style of an Italian [[arcade]]. As it is on the north side of the dwelling, its position is always cool in summer; and this coolness is still farther increased by the abundant shade of tall old trees, whose heads cast a pleasant gloom, while their tall trunks allow the eye to feast on the rich landscape spread around it. [Fig. 7]
: “At the distance of some hundred yards, we find ourselves on the river shore, and on a pretty jutting point of land stands a little ''rustic '''pavilion''''', from which a much lower and wider [[view]] of the landscape is again enjoyed. ...
: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch]]ways of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or '''pavilion''', of Moresque character.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, describing a design for a country house ([1850] 1968: 357) <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture'' (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D73MUJ5B view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the '''''pavilion'''''. To a Southern house, this would be the greatest necessity, besides adding much to the architectural beauty of the house—for, in fact, such a '''pavilion''' would be the lounging place, ''conversazione'', and often dining-room itself, since it would be the coolest, airiest, and most agreeable part of the house during a certain part of the day. In summer, this '''pavilion''', or its shadow, would give a softened light to the dining hall, while the large windows, thrown open to the floor, between the two, would make the dining-room fresh and pleasant in the most sultry days. To vary the uses of the '''pavilion''', we will only suggest that the dinner being over, the dessert might be served there, and the dessert being concluded, gentlemen addicted to the soothing indulgence of a fragrant ‘Havana,’ would find the '''pavilion''' the best of smoking apartments, after the ladies had retired to the drawing-room.
[[File:1739.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.]]
: “Even in the Middle states, the enjoyment of a large '''pavilion''' of this kind is very great during four months of the year. The only example that we have seen of such an appendage to the house is at Montgomery Place—one of the finest seat on the Hudson, where it is placed on the drawing-room side of the house, and at once impresses every visitor by its combination of beauty, dignity and utility. In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. a room in the open air, the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 8]

* Vedder, Sarah E., 1830–51, describing Custis-Lee Mansion (Arlington House), Arlington, Va. (Junior League of Washington 1977: 77) <ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Arlington . . . was daily visited by strangers, and many were the picnic parties enjoyed there in the lovely [[wood]]s surrounding the mansion. . . . Mr. Custis had two or three '''pavillions''' built to accommodate the parties, either to set the tables or to dance. Frequently he would come down to the grounds and participate in their amusements.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 76–77) <ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Ends and Extremities of a Park are beautified with '''Pavilions''' of Masonry, which the ''French'' call ''[[Belvedere]]s'', or '''Pavilions''' of ''Aurora'', which are as pleasant to rest ones self in, after a long [[Walk]], as they are to the Eye, for the handsome [[Prospect]] they yield; they serve also to retire into for Shelter when it rains. The word ''Belvedere'' is ''Italian'', and signifies a beauteous '''[[Prospect]]''', which is properly given to these '''Pavilions'''.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILLION''',* in architecture, signifies a kind of turret, or building usually insulated, and contained under a single roof; sometimes square, and sometimes in form of a dome: thus called from the resemblance of its roof to a tent.
: “*The word comes from the Italian ''padiglione'', tent, and that from the Latin ''papilio''.
: “'''''Pavillions''''' are sometimes also projecting pieces, in the front of a building, marking the middle thereof. ...
: “There are '''''pavillions''''' built in gardens, popularly called ''[[summer-house]]s'', pleasure-houses, &c.— Some castles or forts consist only of a single '''pavillion'''.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVI’LION'''. ''n.s''. [''pavillion'', French.] A tent; a temporary or moveable house.”

* Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (p. 153) <ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding [[view]]s in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or '''pavilion'''; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the temple of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''PAVILION''', ''n. pavil’yun'' [Fr. ''pavillon''; Sp. ''pabellon''; Port. ''pavilham''; Arm. ''pavihon''; W. ''pabell''; It. ''paviglione'' and ''padiglione''; L. ''papilio''; a butterfly, and a '''pavilion'''. According to Owen, the Welsh ''pabell'' signifies a moving habitation.]
: “1. A tent; a temporary movable habitation.
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret or building, usually insulated and contained under a single roof; sometimes square and sometimes in the form of a dome. Sometimes a '''pavilion''' is a projecting part in the front of a building; sometimes it flanks a corner. ''Encyc''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (p. 806) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language... Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich....'' (Springfield, Mass.: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1. A tent. . . .
: “2. In ''architecture'', a kind of turret . . . ''Gwilt''.
: “The name is sometimes, though improperly, given to a [[summer-house]] in a garden. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0396.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 456, 473) <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[temple]] and the '''pavilion''' are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classic architecture prevails. There is a circular '''pavilion''' of this kind at the termination of one of the [[walk]]s at Mr. Langdon’s residence, Hyde Park. ... [Fig. 8]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. . . .
: “With regard to '''pavilions''', [[summer-house]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, and garden edifices of like character, they should, if possible, in all cases be introduced where they are manifestly appropriate or in harmony with the scene. Thus . . . a classic [[temple]] or '''pavilion''' may crown a beautiful and prominent knoll.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1716.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two other Pavilions propos'd for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex]," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 69.

File:1717.jpg|James Gibbs, "A Pavilion design'd for Sir John Curzon for his seat near Derby," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 70.

File:1719.jpg|James Gibbs, "The Plan, Upright and Section of a Pavillion [sic] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 75.

File:1720.jpg|James Gibbs, "Another Design for two Pavillions at Stowe," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 76.

File:1721.jpg|James Gibbs, Four of "Eight Square Pavillions for my Lord Cobham and others," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 77.

File:1992.jpg|James Gibbs, "Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood," in ''A Book of Architecture'', (1728), pl. 73.

File:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1. The notation at "7" in the center of the lawn at the end of the path indicates a "pavilion rustique."

File:0396.jpg|Anonymous, "A circular pavilion," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 456, fig. 81.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

File:1739.jpg|Anonymous, "Principal Floor" of a Southern Villa—Romanesque Style, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 353, fig. 169.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''Woodlands, the Seat of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792-94.

File:1746.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a "plantation" (or "villa") of a Creek Indian chief, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 38, fig. 1.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:2044.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''From the Piazza looking towards the Pavilion 21st May 1817'', 1817.

File:0169.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820. This view depicts the sixteen campus pavilions, which were positioned at intervals on the lawn and back gardens.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825. Jefferson's pavilions frame this depiction of the main house.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File:0028.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the garden pavilion at Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0956.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Canopied pavilion at Blithewood, 1836.

File:0844.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place — Shore Seat, c. 1847.

File:0357.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, "Montgomery Place," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. p. 153.

File:0842.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View from Montgomery Place'', October 1847.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, "A Rustic Alcove," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. p. 345, fig. 4.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, "View in the Grounds at Hyde Park," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), pl. opp. p. 45, fig. 1.

File:0911.jpg|Anonymous, "Southern Villa—Romanesque Style," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.

File:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place'', n.d.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (later, Mrs. Charles Carter)'', c. 1742-46

File:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0907.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Speranza, in ''Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux'' (1795).

File:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794-95.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Gree''n, c. 1796.

File:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|William Russell Birch, "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast View of "Sedgeley Park," the Country Seat of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0300.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall" and "The piered wall," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:0609.jpg|Anonymous, Floor Plan and Façade of Garden Pavilion, Economy, Pa., c. 1830.

File:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

File:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane'', 1813-1913 (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

File:2038.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Crystal Cove, Hyde Park. New York'', September 11, 1839

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

File:0853.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Octagonal Garden Structure for Montgomery Place'', c. 1850

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Ancient style

2017-08-30T20:55:03Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

(Ancient gardening, Antique)<br/>
See also: [[Geometric style]]

==History==

[[File:1751.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.]]
[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The term ancient did not refer simply to garden design of antiquity but was used in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to refer to Renaissance and baroque gardens. As [[Horace Walpole]] described this style in 1784, "All the ingredients of Pliny’s corresponded exactly with those laid out by London and Wise on [[Dutch principles]]. He talks of [[slope]], [[terrace]], a [[wilderness]], shrubs methodically trimmed, a marble [[basin|bason]], pipes spouting water, a [[cascade]] falling into the [[basin|bason]], bay-trees, alternately planted with planes, and a straight [[walk]], from whence issued others parted off by [[hedge]]s of box, and apple-trees, with [[obelisk]]s placed between every two. There wants for nothing but the embroidery of a [[parterre]], to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one in that of King William." <ref>Horace Walpole, "On Modern Gardening," in ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'' (London: Ward, Lock, 1876), 3:67. Walpole was referring to Pliny, Roman naturalist, encyclopaedist and writer (A.D. 23–79), who is the major source on Roman gardens. He describes the work of George London (fl. 1681–1714) and partner Henry Wise (1653–1738), British landscape designers. They were the most important designers during the period of William III, Prince of Orange, creator of Het Loo (1686–95), the masterpiece of [[Dutch style]] landscape design, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7BEGCURQ view on Zotero.]</ref> Walpole’s description and Robert Castell’s reconstruction of ancient gardens [Fig. 1] were exemplified by many gardens of the early American colonies [Figs. 2-3].

[[File:1165.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.]]
[[File:1675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17. Separated by a centrally placed tree, this prospect depicts the characteristic differences between the geometrically defined "ancient style" on the left and the loosely arranged plantings of the "modern style" on the right.]]
This category of garden style was generally described in relation or in contrast to a [[modern style]], a dualism continuing the traditional argument of the ancient versus the modern that had characterized intellectual debate since the seventeenth century. <ref>Joseph M. Levine, "John Evelyn: Between the Ancients and the Moderns," in ''John Evelyn’s "Elysium Britannicum" and European Gardening'', ed. T. O’Malley and J. Wolschke-Bulmahn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998), 57–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3CHBXD8V view on Zotero.]</ref> In late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century garden theory, landscape art was divided into one or the other general category. [[A. J. Downing]]'s ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) opens with a vignette illustrating these two modes [Fig. 4]. The geometric and regular gardens associated with premodern styles, such as the Dutch, French, and Italian [Fig. 5], became foils for the newer, irregular styles of the [[picturesque]] movement. When [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] visited [[Mount Vernon]], he sketched it from vantage points that emphasized its natural [[park]]-like setting. However, he criticized the [[parterre]]s of the Upper Garden, which were designed in an ancient geometric mode "laid out in [[square]], and boxed with great precision. . . .For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a [[parterre]], chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather[s'] pedantry." <ref>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''The Virginia Journals of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], 1795-1798'', 2 vols., ed. by Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1: 165 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref> At the end of the eighteenth century, the ancient style was seen as retarditaire in the face of the emerging and more fashionable [[modern style]].

[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] illustrated the "regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art of the ancient style" in his treatise with an illustration of the Dutch school [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. He, as did many British and American writers, used the term geometric interchangeably with that of ancient (see [[Geometric style]]). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the method of executing this style as simply extending the geometrical lines of architecture into the garden. It was this link to architecture as opposed to nature that was often the source of criticism of the ancient style.

Many of the garden buildings and ornaments later associated with the modern garden, such as [[temple]]s, [[summerhouse]]s, architecture, sculpture, and water features, also appeared in the ancient-style garden. The difference between the two, <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>as [[Bernard M'Mahon]] made clear in his extensive description "Of Ancient Designs" (in his ''American Gardener’s Calendar'', 1806), lay in the disposition of these parts and their relationship to one another. Symmetry, uniformity, and order prevailed as did a conspicuously artificial arrangement of parts and plant material ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

<span id="Watterston_cite"></span>Long after the taste for the [[modern style]] was fully entrenched in America, however, the ancient style was still tolerated in public spaces or where classical architecture was involved, as [[George Watterston]] wrote in 1844 ([[#Watterston|view citation]]). Espoused by theorists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, this principle was based on the requirements of harmonic design, which demanded the continuation of symmetry and regularity in the garden if the building had been designed predominantly in the classical mode.
[[File:1686.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.]]

The association of the American political system with the democracy of ancient Greece or republican Rome was a frequent argument for the appropriateness of the neoclassical over the romantic style in public or governmental projects during the early national era. <ref>See William H. Pierson, Jr., ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the [[Picturesque]], the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero.]</ref> For this reason it seems that in spite of the fashion for the natural or irregular garden style, the "old and formal style of design" never disappeared. <ref> Unauthored, "The State and Prospects of Horticulture," ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 540.</ref> In fact, according to a writer in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1852, it remained the predominant style throughout "Yankeedom." Even [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the chief exponent of the [[modern style]] in America, employed the ancient or [[geometric style]] for portions of his design for the [[national Mall]] in Washington, D.C. <ref> See Therese O'Malley, "[[Picturesque]] Plan for the [[Mall]]," in ''The [[Mall]] in Washington, 1791–1991'', ed. Richard Longstreth (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 61–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ACAMFXP view on Zotero.] </ref>

<span id="Downing_cite"></span>In his description of "Plantations in the Ancient Style," [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] contributed a political valence to the history of the style when he wrote that "symmetrical uniformity governed with despotic power even the trees and foliage" ([[#Downing|view citation]]). This interpretation of the neoclassical styles in garden and architectural design might explain why [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] declared it expressive of power and therefore appropriate for public edifices and their immediate grounds. Despite his preference for the [[modern style]], [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] justified the ancient style in America, writing that its distinct artifice would give more pleasure by contrast to the surrounding landscape, which, in America, was abounding with natural beauty. <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref> Both [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his predecessor, [[J. C. Loudon]], sought to highlight the hand of the artist seen in contrasting designed or improved scenery with the natural appearance of a given site. Thus the ancient style survived the overwhelming preference or taste for the [[modern style]].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*[[Josiah Quincy|Quincy, Josiah]], May 3, 1773, describing the country [[seat]] of John Dickensen, near Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Take into consideration the '''antique''' look of his house, his gardens, [[greenhouse|green-house]], [[bathhouse|bathing-house]], [[grotto]], study, fish-[[pond]], fields, [[meadow]], [[vista]], through which is distant [[prospect]] of Delaware River."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], January 1837, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs,'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1-10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[Dr. Hosack]]'s [[seat]], [[Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]] may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia."

*W., February 1842, "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery," Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49) <ref> W., "An account of the Lowell Cemetery, its Situation, Historical Associations, and particular description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47-50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"In laying out these grounds, the skill of the designer has been displayed, in combining somewhat the ''''ancient''' or [[geometric style]]' with the natural or irregular. In some parts, the regular forms and right lines are well adapted to the location of the ground, while in others, the varied and gradually curving forms give an air of grandeur and boldness, and in combining these with the natural scenery, cannot fail to call forth, in the minds of visitors, impressions of love and veneration.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[Judge William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa.; [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa.; and [[Clermont]], estate of [[Robert R. Livingston]], Germantown, N.Y. (pp. 42–44) <ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America;...'', 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, [1849]1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[seat]] of the late [[Judge William Peters|Judge Peters]], about five miles from Philadelphia, was, 30 years ago, a noted specimen of the '''ancient''' school of [[landscape gardening]]. . . . Long and stately [[avenue]]s, with [[vista]]s terminated by [[obelisk]]s, a garden adorned with marble [[vase]]s, busts, and [[statue]]s, and [[pleasure ground]]s filled with the rarest trees and shrubs, were conspicuous features here. . . .
:"''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the [[Fairmount waterworks]] of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the geometric mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d'eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the Schuylkill, admirable; and its liberal proprietor, [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.
:"On the Hudson, the show place of the last age was the still interesting ''[[Clermont]]'', then the residence of [[Robert R. Livingston|Chancellor Livingston]]. Its level or gently undulating [[lawn]], four or five miles in length, the rich native [[wood]]s, and the long [[vista]]s of planted [[avenue]]s, added to its fine water [[view]], rendered this a noble place. The mansion, the [[greenhouse]]s, and the gardens, show something of the French taste in design, which Mr. Livingston’s residence abroad, at the time when that mode was popular, no doubt, led him to adopt. . . .
:"Judge Peters' [[seat]], [[Lemon Hill]], and [[Clermont]], were [the best specimens] of the '''ancient style''', in the earliest period of the history of [[Landscape Gardening]] among us."

<br/>
===Citations===
*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (pp. 55, 59, 65–69), <ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"In designs for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], according to modern gardening; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, [[square]] grass-[[plat]]s, corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in '''ancient''' designs; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bound with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s. . . .
:"Regular compartments and figures, in various forms, are also sometimes introduced in some extensive grounds, for variety; in contrast with the irregular works, and still to preserve some appearance of the remains of '''ancient gardening'''; such as straight [[walk]]s, verged with [[border]]s of flowers, &c. regular [[parterre]]s, in flower [[border]]s; [[square]] spaces, circles, and octagons, &c. inclosed with low clipped [[hedge]]s; [[hedge]]-work, formed into various devices; detached ever-greens, formed into pyramids and other regular figures; regular grass-[[slope]]s, formed on the side of some declivity or rising ground; elevated [[terrace]]’s, [[clump]]s of trees, surrounded with low evergreen [[hedge]]s; straight [[avenue]]s of trees, in ranges, &c. a little of each being judiciously disposed in different situations, may prove an agreeable variety, by diversifying the scene, in contrast with the rural works before mentioned. . . .
:"Designs, in '''ancient gardening''', for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], consulted uniformity in every part, exact levels, straight lines, parallels, [[square]]s, angles, circles, and other geometrical figures, &c. all corresponding in the greatest regularity, to effect an exact symmetry and proportion.
:"Grand [[parterre]]s were very commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing the [[parterre]] ground into two divisions. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in '''ancient gardening''', and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more. . . .
:"In the more interior parts, large tracts of ground were frequently divided by straight grass-[[walk]]s, into many [[square]] and angular divisions of [[wilderness]], each division surrounded by regular [[hedge]]s of various kinds of trees and shrubs, kept in uniform order by annual clippings . . . and all the [[walk]]s generally led into uniform openings of grass, particularly to a grand circle or octagon, forming some central part.
:"Frequently there were partitions of regular [[hedge]]-work, particularly of ever-greens, surrounding large [[square]]s of grass-ground, designed as pieces of garden ornaments, the [[hedge]]-work being often formed into various uniform devices; such as pilasters, [[arcade]]s or [[arch]]es, [[portico]]es, galleries, amphitheaters, [[pavilion]]s, cabinets, [[bower]]s, pediments, niches, and cornices; likewise regular [[arbor]]s, having the sides formed into [[arcade]]s, and sometimes the top vaulted; and with various other formal imitations, all performed in [[hedge]]-work, which were often so arranged and trained, as to effect an air of grandeur and art. High [[hedge]]s were also in great repute, as boundaries to grand [[walk]]s and [[avenue]]s, sometimes carried up from fifteen or twenty, or thirty or forty feet high; . . . all sorts of [[hedge]]-work was generally esteemed so ornamental in '''ancient gardening''', that almost every division was surrounded with regular [[hedge]]s of one sort or other, presenting themselves to [[view]] in every part, shutting out all other objects from sight; but in modern designs, such [[hedge]]s are rarely admitted; every compartment of the [[plantation]] being left open to [[view]], from the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, in order to afford a full [[prospect]] of the various trees, shrubs, and flowers, which consequently are more beautiful than continued ranges of close [[hedge]]s; but for the sake of variety, a little ornamental [[hedge]]-work might still be introduced in some particular parts of the ground.
:"[[Labyrinth]]s or mazes of [[hedge]]-work, in the manner of a [[wilderness]], also prevailed in many large gardens. . . .
:"Detached trained figures of ever-greens, as yew, cypress, juniper, holly, box, and various other close-growing ever-[[green]] plants, were also very predominant in '''ancient''' designs, and generally disposed in regular ranges along the [[border]]s and other verges of grand [[walk]]s; being trained by clipping into various formal shapes, as pyramids, [[obelisk]]s, [[column]]s, &c. in a variety of forms, with other formal figures, all placed in the most exact arrangement. :“Straight rows of the most beautiful trees, forming long [[avenue]]s and grand [[walk]]s, were in great estimation, considered as great ornaments, and no considerable estate and eminent pleasure-ground were without several of them.
:"The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible."

[[File:1365.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 792–93, 996, 1002, 1020) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"6093. . . . The '''ancient''' geometric '''style''', in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms; in France, adding [[statue]]s and [[fountain]]s; in Holland, cut trees and grassy [[slope]]s; and in Italy, stone [[wall]]s, walled [[terrace]]s, and flights of steps. . . .
:"7161. . . . From these different theories [of [[landscape gardening]]], as well as from the general objects or end of gardening, there appear to be two principles which enter into its composition; those which regard it as a mixed art, or an art of design, and which are called the principles of relative beauty; and those which regard it as an imitative art, and are called the principles of natural or universal beauty. The '''ancient''' or geometric '''gardening''' is guided wholly by the former principles; [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]], as an imitative art, wholly by the latter; but as the art of forming a country-residence, its arrangements are influenced by both principles. . . .
:"7196. . . . If a deformed space has been restored to natural beauty, we are delighted with the effect, whilst we recollect the difference between the present and the former surface; but when this is forgotten, though the beauty remains, the credit for having produced it is lost. In this respect, the operations on ground under the '''[[ancient style]]''', have a great and striking advantage; for an absolute perfection is to be attained in the formation of geometrical forms, and the beauty created is so entirely artificial . . . as never to admit a doubt of its origin. . . . [Fig. 5]
:"7256. ''[[Terrace]] and [[conservatory]]''. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the '''[[ancient style]]''', that the design of the [[terrace]] must be jointly influenced by the magnitude and style of the house, the [[view]]s from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the [[view]]s of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions."

* <div id="Watterston"></div>[[George Watterston|Watterston, George]], May 1844, "Landscape Gardening" (pp. 310–12), <ref>George Watterston, "Landscape Gardening," ''Southern Literary Messenger'', 10 (May 1844): 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Watterston_cite|back up to history]]

:"In passing from the '''ancient''', or [[geometric style]], to the modern, or natural, the first improvers fell, perhaps, into an opposite extreme. This is the danger in all sudden transitions. They seemed to conceive that crooked lines, serpentine windings and carelessness were true objects of beauty, and declared that nature ''abhorred a straight line''; and thus fatigued the eye by incessant curves. They did not seem to be aware, that in her sublimest works nature prefers the straight line, as is shown in the apparent horizon of the ocean and the rays of the sun. . . .
:"The preceding four heads [congruity, utility, order, and symmetry] are not favorable to [[picturesque]] beauty; but belong more particularly to the '''[[ancient style]]''' of gardening which I have previously recommended to be blended with the modern, where the buildings, limited extent of ground and other circumstances require its retention."

* [[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (p. 210) <ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''The '''ancient''' English [[flower garden|flower-garden]]'' is formed of [[bed]]s, connected together so as to form a regular or symmetrical figure; the [[bed]]s being edged with Box, or sometimes with flowering plants, and planted with herbaceous flowers, Roses, and one or two other kinds of low flowering shrubs. The flowers in the [[bed]]s are generally mixed in such a manner, that some may show blossoms every month during summer, and that some may retain their leaves during winter. This kind of garden should be surrounded by a [[border]] of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, backed by low trees; and in the centre there should be a [[sundial]], a [[vase]], a [[statue]], or a [[basin]] and [[fountain]]."

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14. The orthogonal, symmetrical paths, embellished by tightly clipped and regularly placed plantings, reflect the highly ordered character of the ancient style.]]

:"THE '''ANCIENT STYLE'''. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the '''ancient style''' of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials; an arrangement the more striking, as it differed most widely from nature. And in an age when costly and stately architecture was most abundant, as in the times of the Roman empire, it is natural to suppose, that the symmetry and studied elegance of the palace, or the villa, would be transferred and continued in the surrounding gardens. . . .
:"Whatever may have been the absurdities of the '''ancient style''', it is not to be denied that in connexion with highly decorated architecture, its effect, when in the best taste—as the Italian—is not only splendid and striking, but highly suitable and appropriate. . . .
:"The beauties elicited by the '''ancient style''' of gardening were those of regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art. These were attained in a merely mechanical manner. . . .The geometrical form and lines of the buildings were only extended and carried out in the garden. . . . [Fig. 6]
:"The '''ancient style''' of gardening may, however, be introduced with good effect in certain cases. In public squares and gardens, where display, grandeur of effect, and a highly artificial character are desirable, it appears to us the most suitable; and no less so in very small gardens, in which variety and irregularity are out of the question. Where a taste for imitating an old and quaint style of residence exists, the symmetrical and knotted garden would be a proper accompaniment; and pleached [[alley]]s, and sheared trees, would be admired, like old armor or furniture, as curious specimens of '''antique''' taste and custom. . . .
[[File:0371.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.]]
:"The beautiful and the [[picturesque]] are the new elements of interest, which, entering into the composition of our gardens and home landscapes, have to refined minds increased a hundred fold the enjoyment derived from this species of rural scenery. Still, there is much to admire in the '''ancient style'''. Its long and majestic [[avenue]]s, the wide-spreading branches interlacing over our heads, and forming long, shadowy aisles, are, themselves alone, among the noblest and most imposing sylvan objects. Even the formal and curiously knotted gardens are interesting, from the pleasing associations which they suggest to mind, as having been the favorite haunts of Shakespeare, Bacon, Spenser, and Milton. They are so inseparably connected, too, in our imaginations, with the quaint architecture of that era, that wherever that style of building is adopted . . . this style of gardening may be considered as highly appropriate, and in excellent keeping with such a country house. . . . [Fig. 7]
:"The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]], or in the symmetrical [[terrace]] [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:4) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[Landscape Gardening]] was, formerly, the imitation of geometric figures; hence the '''ancient''' mode of it is called the [[geometric style]] of gardening."

* [[George Jaques|Jaques, George]], January 1852, "Landscape Gardening in New-England" (''Horticulturist'' 7: 34–35) <ref>George Jaques, "Landscape Gardening in New-England," ''The Horticulturist and journal of rural art and rural taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33-36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Again, the taste of New-England people generally, for the beautiful and [[picturesque]] in rural scenery, is either vitiated, or totally uncultivated. Hence, the great mass of the people prefer symmetry, stiff formality, straight lines, and the geometrical forms of the '''ancient''' or artificial '''style''' of laying out grounds. Nearly all our first class places in Yankeedom, are so arranged. . . .
:"A gracefully curved [[drive]] or [[walk]], (from the public street to the buildings,) entering through an irregular group of trees, and forced into its curvature by another little group, will of itself impart to a rural home charms far more pleasing than ten times their cost could infuse into the stiff, old straight-lined primness of the '''ancient style'''."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1365.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.

Image:1366.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Landscape gardening for a residence in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1007, fig. 690.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

Image:0371.jpg|Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.

Image:1751.jpg|Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.

Image:1165.jpg|William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:1686.jpg|James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Ancient style

2017-08-30T20:54:56Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

(Ancient gardening, Antique)<br/>
See also: [[Geometric style]]

==History==

[[File:1751.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.]]
[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The term ancient did not refer simply to garden design of antiquity but was used in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to refer to Renaissance and baroque gardens. As [[Horace Walpole]] described this style in 1784, "All the ingredients of Pliny’s corresponded exactly with those laid out by London and Wise on [[Dutch principles]]. He talks of [[slope]], [[terrace]], a [[wilderness]], shrubs methodically trimmed, a marble [[basin|bason]], pipes spouting water, a [[cascade]] falling into the [[basin|bason]], bay-trees, alternately planted with planes, and a straight [[walk]], from whence issued others parted off by [[hedge]]s of box, and apple-trees, with [[obelisk]]s placed between every two. There wants for nothing but the embroidery of a [[parterre]], to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one in that of King William." <ref>Horace Walpole, "On Modern Gardening," in ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'' (London: Ward, Lock, 1876), 3:67. Walpole was referring to Pliny, Roman naturalist, encyclopaedist and writer (A.D. 23–79), who is the major source on Roman gardens. He describes the work of George London (fl. 1681–1714) and partner Henry Wise (1653–1738), British landscape designers. They were the most important designers during the period of William III, Prince of Orange, creator of Het Loo (1686–95), the masterpiece of [[Dutch style]] landscape design, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7BEGCURQ view on Zotero.]</ref> Walpole’s description and Robert Castell’s reconstruction of ancient gardens [Fig. 1] were exemplified by many gardens of the early American colonies [Figs. 2-3].

[[File:1165.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.]]
[[File:1675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17. Separated by a centrally placed tree, this prospect depicts the characteristic differences between the geometrically defined "ancient style" on the left and the loosely arranged plantings of the "modern style" on the right.]]
This category of garden style was generally described in relation or in contrast to a [[modern style]], a dualism continuing the traditional argument of the ancient versus the modern that had characterized intellectual debate since the seventeenth century. <ref>Joseph M. Levine, "John Evelyn: Between the Ancients and the Moderns," in ''John Evelyn’s "Elysium Britannicum" and European Gardening'', ed. T. O’Malley and J. Wolschke-Bulmahn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998), 57–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3CHBXD8V view on Zotero.]</ref> In late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century garden theory, landscape art was divided into one or the other general category. [[A. J. Downing]]'s ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) opens with a vignette illustrating these two modes [Fig. 4]. The geometric and regular gardens associated with premodern styles, such as the Dutch, French, and Italian [Fig. 5], became foils for the newer, irregular styles of the [[picturesque]] movement. When [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] visited [[Mount Vernon]], he sketched it from vantage points that emphasized its natural [[park]]-like setting. However, he criticized the [[parterre]]s of the Upper Garden, which were designed in an ancient geometric mode "laid out in [[square]], and boxed with great precision. . . .For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a [[parterre]], chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather[s'] pedantry." <ref>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''The Virginia Journals of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], 1795-1798'', 2 vols., ed. by Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1: 165 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref> At the end of the eighteenth century, the ancient style was seen as retarditaire in the face of the emerging and more fashionable [[modern style]].

[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] illustrated the "regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art of the ancient style" in his treatise with an illustration of the Dutch school [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. He, as did many British and American writers, used the term geometric interchangeably with that of ancient (see [[Geometric style]]). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the method of executing this style as simply extending the geometrical lines of architecture into the garden. It was this link to architecture as opposed to nature that was often the source of criticism of the ancient style.

Many of the garden buildings and ornaments later associated with the modern garden, such as [[temple]]s, [[summerhouse]]s, architecture, sculpture, and water features, also appeared in the ancient-style garden. The difference between the two, <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>as [[Bernard M'Mahon]] made clear in his extensive description "Of Ancient Designs" (in his ''American Gardener’s Calendar'', 1806), lay in the disposition of these parts and their relationship to one another. Symmetry, uniformity, and order prevailed as did a conspicuously artificial arrangement of parts and plant material ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

<span id="Watterston_cite"></span>Long after the taste for the [[modern style]] was fully entrenched in America, however, the ancient style was still tolerated in public spaces or where classical architecture was involved, as [[George Watterston]] wrote in 1844 ([[#Watterston|view citation]]). Espoused by theorists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, this principle was based on the requirements of harmonic design, which demanded the continuation of symmetry and regularity in the garden if the building had been designed predominantly in the classical mode.
[[File:1686.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.]]

The association of the American political system with the democracy of ancient Greece or republican Rome was a frequent argument for the appropriateness of the neoclassical over the romantic style in public or governmental projects during the early national era. <ref>See William H. Pierson, Jr., ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the [[Picturesque]], the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero.]</ref> For this reason it seems that in spite of the fashion for the natural or irregular garden style, the "old and formal style of design" never disappeared. <ref> Unauthored, "The State and Prospects of Horticulture," ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 540.</ref> In fact, according to a writer in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1852, it remained the predominant style throughout "Yankeedom." Even [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the chief exponent of the [[modern style]] in America, employed the ancient or [[geometric style]] for portions of his design for the [[national Mall]] in Washington, D.C. <ref> See Therese O'Malley, "[[Picturesque]] Plan for the [[Mall]]," in ''The [[Mall]] in Washington, 1791–1991'', ed. Richard Longstreth (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 61–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ACAMFXP view on Zotero.] </ref>

<span id="Downing_cite"></span>In his description of "Plantations in the Ancient Style," [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] contributed a political valence to the history of the style when he wrote that "symmetrical uniformity governed with despotic power even the trees and foliage" ([[#Downing|view citation]]). This interpretation of the neoclassical styles in garden and architectural design might explain why [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] declared it expressive of power and therefore appropriate for public edifices and their immediate grounds. Despite his preference for the [[modern style]], [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] justified the ancient style in America, writing that its distinct artifice would give more pleasure by contrast to the surrounding landscape, which, in America, was abounding with natural beauty. <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref> Both [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his predecessor, [[J. C. Loudon]], sought to highlight the hand of the artist seen in contrasting designed or improved scenery with the natural appearance of a given site. Thus the ancient style survived the overwhelming preference or taste for the [[modern style]].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*[[Josiah Quincy|Quincy, Josiah]], May 3, 1773, describing the country [[seat]] of John Dickensen, near Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Take into consideration the '''antique''' look of his house, his gardens, [[greenhouse|green-house]], [[bathhouse|bathing-house]], [[grotto]], study, fish-[[pond]], fields, [[meadow]], [[vista]], through which is distant [[prospect]] of Delaware River."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], January 1837, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs,'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1-10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[Dr. Hosack]]'s [[seat]], [[Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]] may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia."

*W., February 1842, "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery," Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49) <ref> W., "An account of the Lowell Cemetery, its Situation, Historical Associations, and particular description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47-50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"In laying out these grounds, the skill of the designer has been displayed, in combining somewhat the ''''ancient''' or [[geometric style]]' with the natural or irregular. In some parts, the regular forms and right lines are well adapted to the location of the ground, while in others, the varied and gradually curving forms give an air of grandeur and boldness, and in combining these with the natural scenery, cannot fail to call forth, in the minds of visitors, impressions of love and veneration.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[Judge William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa.; [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa.; and [[Clermont]], estate of [[Robert R. Livingston]], Germantown, N.Y. (pp. 42–44) <ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America;...'', 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, [1849]1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[seat]] of the late [[Judge William Peters|Judge Peters]], about five miles from Philadelphia, was, 30 years ago, a noted specimen of the '''ancient''' school of [[landscape gardening]]. . . . Long and stately [[avenue]]s, with [[vista]]s terminated by [[obelisk]]s, a garden adorned with marble [[vase]]s, busts, and [[statue]]s, and [[pleasure ground]]s filled with the rarest trees and shrubs, were conspicuous features here. . . .
:"''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the [[Fairmount waterworks]] of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the geometric mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d'eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the Schuylkill, admirable; and its liberal proprietor, [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.
:"On the Hudson, the show place of the last age was the still interesting ''[[Clermont]]'', then the residence of [[Robert R. Livingston|Chancellor Livingston]]. Its level or gently undulating [[lawn]], four or five miles in length, the rich native [[wood]]s, and the long [[vista]]s of planted [[avenue]]s, added to its fine water [[view]], rendered this a noble place. The mansion, the [[greenhouse]]s, and the gardens, show something of the French taste in design, which Mr. Livingston’s residence abroad, at the time when that mode was popular, no doubt, led him to adopt. . . .
:"Judge Peters' [[seat]], [[Lemon Hill]], and [[Clermont]], were [the best specimens] of the '''ancient style''', in the earliest period of the history of [[Landscape Gardening]] among us."

<br/>
===Citations===
*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (pp. 55, 59, 65–69), <ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"In designs for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], according to modern gardening; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, [[square]] grass-[[plat]]s, corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in '''ancient''' designs; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bound with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s. . . .
:"Regular compartments and figures, in various forms, are also sometimes introduced in some extensive grounds, for variety; in contrast with the irregular works, and still to preserve some appearance of the remains of '''ancient gardening'''; such as straight [[walk]]s, verged with [[border]]s of flowers, &c. regular [[parterre]]s, in flower [[border]]s; [[square]] spaces, circles, and octagons, &c. inclosed with low clipped [[hedge]]s; [[hedge]]-work, formed into various devices; detached ever-greens, formed into pyramids and other regular figures; regular grass-[[slope]]s, formed on the side of some declivity or rising ground; elevated [[terrace]]’s, [[clump]]s of trees, surrounded with low evergreen [[hedge]]s; straight [[avenue]]s of trees, in ranges, &c. a little of each being judiciously disposed in different situations, may prove an agreeable variety, by diversifying the scene, in contrast with the rural works before mentioned. . . .
:"Designs, in '''ancient gardening''', for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], consulted uniformity in every part, exact levels, straight lines, parallels, [[square]]s, angles, circles, and other geometrical figures, &c. all corresponding in the greatest regularity, to effect an exact symmetry and proportion.
:"Grand [[parterre]]s were very commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing the [[parterre]] ground into two divisions. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in '''ancient gardening''', and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more. . . .
:"In the more interior parts, large tracts of ground were frequently divided by straight grass-[[walk]]s, into many [[square]] and angular divisions of [[wilderness]], each division surrounded by regular [[hedge]]s of various kinds of trees and shrubs, kept in uniform order by annual clippings . . . and all the [[walk]]s generally led into uniform openings of grass, particularly to a grand circle or octagon, forming some central part.
:"Frequently there were partitions of regular [[hedge]]-work, particularly of ever-greens, surrounding large [[square]]s of grass-ground, designed as pieces of garden ornaments, the [[hedge]]-work being often formed into various uniform devices; such as pilasters, [[arcade]]s or [[arch]]es, [[portico]]es, galleries, amphitheaters, [[pavilion]]s, cabinets, [[bower]]s, pediments, niches, and cornices; likewise regular [[arbor]]s, having the sides formed into [[arcade]]s, and sometimes the top vaulted; and with various other formal imitations, all performed in [[hedge]]-work, which were often so arranged and trained, as to effect an air of grandeur and art. High [[hedge]]s were also in great repute, as boundaries to grand [[walk]]s and [[avenue]]s, sometimes carried up from fifteen or twenty, or thirty or forty feet high; . . . all sorts of [[hedge]]-work was generally esteemed so ornamental in '''ancient gardening''', that almost every division was surrounded with regular [[hedge]]s of one sort or other, presenting themselves to [[view]] in every part, shutting out all other objects from sight; but in modern designs, such [[hedge]]s are rarely admitted; every compartment of the [[plantation]] being left open to [[view]], from the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, in order to afford a full [[prospect]] of the various trees, shrubs, and flowers, which consequently are more beautiful than continued ranges of close [[hedge]]s; but for the sake of variety, a little ornamental [[hedge]]-work might still be introduced in some particular parts of the ground.
:"[[Labyrinth]]s or mazes of [[hedge]]-work, in the manner of a [[wilderness]], also prevailed in many large gardens. . . .
:"Detached trained figures of ever-greens, as yew, cypress, juniper, holly, box, and various other close-growing ever-[[green]] plants, were also very predominant in '''ancient''' designs, and generally disposed in regular ranges along the [[border]]s and other verges of grand [[walk]]s; being trained by clipping into various formal shapes, as pyramids, [[obelisk]]s, [[column]]s, &c. in a variety of forms, with other formal figures, all placed in the most exact arrangement. :“Straight rows of the most beautiful trees, forming long [[avenue]]s and grand [[walk]]s, were in great estimation, considered as great ornaments, and no considerable estate and eminent pleasure-ground were without several of them.
:"The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible."

[[File:1365.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 792–93, 996, 1002, 1020) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"6093. . . . The '''ancient''' geometric '''style''', in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms; in France, adding [[statue]]s and [[fountain]]s; in Holland, cut trees and grassy [[slope]]s; and in Italy, stone [[wall]]s, walled [[terrace]]s, and flights of steps. . . .
:"7161. . . . From these different theories [of [[landscape gardening]]], as well as from the general objects or end of gardening, there appear to be two principles which enter into its composition; those which regard it as a mixed art, or an art of design, and which are called the principles of relative beauty; and those which regard it as an imitative art, and are called the principles of natural or universal beauty. The '''ancient''' or geometric '''gardening''' is guided wholly by the former principles; [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]], as an imitative art, wholly by the latter; but as the art of forming a country-residence, its arrangements are influenced by both principles. . . .
:"7196. . . . If a deformed space has been restored to natural beauty, we are delighted with the effect, whilst we recollect the difference between the present and the former surface; but when this is forgotten, though the beauty remains, the credit for having produced it is lost. In this respect, the operations on ground under the '''[[ancient style]]''', have a great and striking advantage; for an absolute perfection is to be attained in the formation of geometrical forms, and the beauty created is so entirely artificial . . . as never to admit a doubt of its origin. . . . [Fig. 5]
:"7256. ''[[Terrace]] and [[conservatory]]''. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the '''[[ancient style]]''', that the design of the [[terrace]] must be jointly influenced by the magnitude and style of the house, the [[view]]s from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the [[view]]s of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions."

* <div id="Watterston"></div>[[George Watterston|Watterston, George]], May 1844, "Landscape Gardening" (pp. 310–12), <ref>George Watterston, "Landscape Gardening," ''Southern Literary Messenger'', 10 (May 1844): 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Watterston_cite|back up to history]]

:"In passing from the '''ancient''', or [[geometric style]], to the modern, or natural, the first improvers fell, perhaps, into an opposite extreme. This is the danger in all sudden transitions. They seemed to conceive that crooked lines, serpentine windings and carelessness were true objects of beauty, and declared that nature ''abhorred a straight line''; and thus fatigued the eye by incessant curves. They did not seem to be aware, that in her sublimest works nature prefers the straight line, as is shown in the apparent horizon of the ocean and the rays of the sun. . . .
:"The preceding four heads [congruity, utility, order, and symmetry] are not favorable to [[picturesque]] beauty; but belong more particularly to the '''[[ancient style]]''' of gardening which I have previously recommended to be blended with the modern, where the buildings, limited extent of ground and other circumstances require its retention."

* [[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (p. 210) <ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''The '''ancient''' English [[flower garden|flower-garden]]'' is formed of [[bed]]s, connected together so as to form a regular or symmetrical figure; the [[bed]]s being edged with Box, or sometimes with flowering plants, and planted with herbaceous flowers, Roses, and one or two other kinds of low flowering shrubs. The flowers in the [[bed]]s are generally mixed in such a manner, that some may show blossoms every month during summer, and that some may retain their leaves during winter. This kind of garden should be surrounded by a [[border]] of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, backed by low trees; and in the centre there should be a [[sundial]], a [[vase]], a [[statue]], or a [[basin]] and [[fountain]]."

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14. The orthogonal, symmetrical paths, embellished by tightly clipped and regularly placed plantings, reflect the highly ordered character of the ancient style.]]

:"THE '''ANCIENT STYLE'''. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the '''ancient style''' of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials; an arrangement the more striking, as it differed most widely from nature. And in an age when costly and stately architecture was most abundant, as in the times of the Roman empire, it is natural to suppose, that the symmetry and studied elegance of the palace, or the villa, would be transferred and continued in the surrounding gardens. . . .
:"Whatever may have been the absurdities of the '''ancient style''', it is not to be denied that in connexion with highly decorated architecture, its effect, when in the best taste—as the Italian—is not only splendid and striking, but highly suitable and appropriate. . . .
:"The beauties elicited by the '''ancient style''' of gardening were those of regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art. These were attained in a merely mechanical manner. . . .The geometrical form and lines of the buildings were only extended and carried out in the garden. . . . [Fig. 6]
:"The '''ancient style''' of gardening may, however, be introduced with good effect in certain cases. In public squares and gardens, where display, grandeur of effect, and a highly artificial character are desirable, it appears to us the most suitable; and no less so in very small gardens, in which variety and irregularity are out of the question. Where a taste for imitating an old and quaint style of residence exists, the symmetrical and knotted garden would be a proper accompaniment; and pleached [[alley]]s, and sheared trees, would be admired, like old armor or furniture, as curious specimens of '''antique''' taste and custom. . . .
[[File:0371.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.]]
:"The beautiful and the [[picturesque]] are the new elements of interest, which, entering into the composition of our gardens and home landscapes, have to refined minds increased a hundred fold the enjoyment derived from this species of rural scenery. Still, there is much to admire in the '''ancient style'''. Its long and majestic [[avenue]]s, the wide-spreading branches interlacing over our heads, and forming long, shadowy aisles, are, themselves alone, among the noblest and most imposing sylvan objects. Even the formal and curiously knotted gardens are interesting, from the pleasing associations which they suggest to mind, as having been the favorite haunts of Shakespeare, Bacon, Spenser, and Milton. They are so inseparably connected, too, in our imaginations, with the quaint architecture of that era, that wherever that style of building is adopted . . . this style of gardening may be considered as highly appropriate, and in excellent keeping with such a country house. . . . [Fig. 7]
:"The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]], or in the symmetrical [[terrace]] [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:4) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[Landscape Gardening]] was, formerly, the imitation of geometric figures; hence the '''ancient''' mode of it is called the [[geometric style]] of gardening."

* [[George Jaques|Jaques, George]], January 1852, "Landscape Gardening in New-England" (''Horticulturist'' 7: 34–35) <ref>George Jaques, "Landscape Gardening in New-England," ''The Horticulturist and journal of rural art and rural taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33-36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Again, the taste of New-England people generally, for the beautiful and [[picturesque]] in rural scenery, is either vitiated, or totally uncultivated. Hence, the great mass of the people prefer symmetry, stiff formality, straight lines, and the geometrical forms of the '''ancient''' or artificial '''style''' of laying out grounds. Nearly all our first class places in Yankeedom, are so arranged. . . .
:"A gracefully curved [[drive]] or [[walk]], (from the public street to the buildings,) entering through an irregular group of trees, and forced into its curvature by another little group, will of itself impart to a rural home charms far more pleasing than ten times their cost could infuse into the stiff, old straight-lined primness of the '''ancient style'''."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1365.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.

Image:1366.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Landscape gardening for a residence in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1007, fig. 690.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

Image:0371.jpg|Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.

Image:1751.jpg|Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.

Image:1165.jpg|William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sautjier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:1686.jpg|James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Ancient style

2017-08-30T20:54:39Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

(Ancient gardening, Antique)<br/>
See also: [[Geometric style]]

==History==

[[File:1751.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.]]
[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The term ancient did not refer simply to garden design of antiquity but was used in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to refer to Renaissance and baroque gardens. As [[Horace Walpole]] described this style in 1784, "All the ingredients of Pliny’s corresponded exactly with those laid out by London and Wise on [[Dutch principles]]. He talks of [[slope]], [[terrace]], a [[wilderness]], shrubs methodically trimmed, a marble [[basin|bason]], pipes spouting water, a [[cascade]] falling into the [[basin|bason]], bay-trees, alternately planted with planes, and a straight [[walk]], from whence issued others parted off by [[hedge]]s of box, and apple-trees, with [[obelisk]]s placed between every two. There wants for nothing but the embroidery of a [[parterre]], to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one in that of King William." <ref>Horace Walpole, "On Modern Gardening," in ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'' (London: Ward, Lock, 1876), 3:67. Walpole was referring to Pliny, Roman naturalist, encyclopaedist and writer (A.D. 23–79), who is the major source on Roman gardens. He describes the work of George London (fl. 1681–1714) and partner Henry Wise (1653–1738), British landscape designers. They were the most important designers during the period of William III, Prince of Orange, creator of Het Loo (1686–95), the masterpiece of [[Dutch style]] landscape design, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7BEGCURQ view on Zotero.]</ref> Walpole’s description and Robert Castell’s reconstruction of ancient gardens [Fig. 1] were exemplified by many gardens of the early American colonies [Figs. 2-3].

[[File:1165.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.]]
[[File:1675.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17. Separated by a centrally placed tree, this prospect depicts the characteristic differences between the geometrically defined "ancient style" on the left and the loosely arranged plantings of the "modern style" on the right.]]
This category of garden style was generally described in relation or in contrast to a [[modern style]], a dualism continuing the traditional argument of the ancient versus the modern that had characterized intellectual debate since the seventeenth century. <ref>Joseph M. Levine, "John Evelyn: Between the Ancients and the Moderns," in ''John Evelyn’s "Elysium Britannicum" and European Gardening'', ed. T. O’Malley and J. Wolschke-Bulmahn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998), 57–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3CHBXD8V view on Zotero.]</ref> In late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century garden theory, landscape art was divided into one or the other general category. [[A. J. Downing]]'s ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) opens with a vignette illustrating these two modes [Fig. 4]. The geometric and regular gardens associated with premodern styles, such as the Dutch, French, and Italian [Fig. 5], became foils for the newer, irregular styles of the [[picturesque]] movement. When [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] visited [[Mount Vernon]], he sketched it from vantage points that emphasized its natural [[park]]-like setting. However, he criticized the [[parterre]]s of the Upper Garden, which were designed in an ancient geometric mode "laid out in [[square]], and boxed with great precision. . . .For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a [[parterre]], chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourished Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather[s'] pedantry." <ref>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''The Virginia Journals of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], 1795-1798'', 2 vols., ed. by Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 1: 165 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref> At the end of the eighteenth century, the ancient style was seen as retarditaire in the face of the emerging and more fashionable [[modern style]].

[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] illustrated the "regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art of the ancient style" in his treatise with an illustration of the Dutch school [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. He, as did many British and American writers, used the term geometric interchangeably with that of ancient (see [[Geometric style]]). [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the method of executing this style as simply extending the geometrical lines of architecture into the garden. It was this link to architecture as opposed to nature that was often the source of criticism of the ancient style.

Many of the garden buildings and ornaments later associated with the modern garden, such as [[temple]]s, [[summerhouse]]s, architecture, sculpture, and water features, also appeared in the ancient-style garden. The difference between the two, <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>as [[Bernard M'Mahon]] made clear in his extensive description "Of Ancient Designs" (in his ''American Gardener’s Calendar'', 1806), lay in the disposition of these parts and their relationship to one another. Symmetry, uniformity, and order prevailed as did a conspicuously artificial arrangement of parts and plant material ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

<span id="Watterston_cite"></span>Long after the taste for the [[modern style]] was fully entrenched in America, however, the ancient style was still tolerated in public spaces or where classical architecture was involved, as [[George Watterston]] wrote in 1844 ([[#Watterston|view citation]]). Espoused by theorists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, this principle was based on the requirements of harmonic design, which demanded the continuation of symmetry and regularity in the garden if the building had been designed predominantly in the classical mode.
[[File:1686.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.]]

The association of the American political system with the democracy of ancient Greece or republican Rome was a frequent argument for the appropriateness of the neoclassical over the romantic style in public or governmental projects during the early national era. <ref>See William H. Pierson, Jr., ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the [[Picturesque]], the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero.]</ref> For this reason it seems that in spite of the fashion for the natural or irregular garden style, the "old and formal style of design" never disappeared. <ref> Unauthored, "The State and Prospects of Horticulture," ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 540.</ref> In fact, according to a writer in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1852, it remained the predominant style throughout "Yankeedom." Even [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], the chief exponent of the [[modern style]] in America, employed the ancient or [[geometric style]] for portions of his design for the [[national Mall]] in Washington, D.C. <ref> See Therese O'Malley, "[[Picturesque]] Plan for the [[Mall]]," in ''The [[Mall]] in Washington, 1791–1991'', ed. Richard Longstreth (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 61–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ACAMFXP view on Zotero.] </ref>

<span id="Downing_cite"></span>In his description of "Plantations in the Ancient Style," [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] contributed a political valence to the history of the style when he wrote that "symmetrical uniformity governed with despotic power even the trees and foliage" ([[#Downing|view citation]]). This interpretation of the neoclassical styles in garden and architectural design might explain why [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] declared it expressive of power and therefore appropriate for public edifices and their immediate grounds. Despite his preference for the [[modern style]], [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] justified the ancient style in America, writing that its distinct artifice would give more pleasure by contrast to the surrounding landscape, which, in America, was abounding with natural beauty. <ref> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref> Both [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his predecessor, [[J. C. Loudon]], sought to highlight the hand of the artist seen in contrasting designed or improved scenery with the natural appearance of a given site. Thus the ancient style survived the overwhelming preference or taste for the [[modern style]].

--''Therese O'Malley''

==Texts==

===Usage===

*[[Josiah Quincy|Quincy, Josiah]], May 3, 1773, describing the country [[seat]] of John Dickensen, near Philadelphia, Pa. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:"Take into consideration the '''antique''' look of his house, his gardens, [[greenhouse|green-house]], [[bathhouse|bathing-house]], [[grotto]], study, fish-[[pond]], fields, [[meadow]], [[vista]], through which is distant [[prospect]] of Delaware River."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], January 1837, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, "Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs,'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1-10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[Dr. Hosack]]'s [[seat]], [[Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]] may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia."

*W., February 1842, "An Account of the Lowell Cemetery," Lowell, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49) <ref> W., "An account of the Lowell Cemetery, its Situation, Historical Associations, and particular description," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47-50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"In laying out these grounds, the skill of the designer has been displayed, in combining somewhat the ''''ancient''' or [[geometric style]]' with the natural or irregular. In some parts, the regular forms and right lines are well adapted to the location of the ground, while in others, the varied and gradually curving forms give an air of grandeur and boldness, and in combining these with the natural scenery, cannot fail to call forth, in the minds of visitors, impressions of love and veneration.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[Judge William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa.; [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa.; and [[Clermont]], estate of [[Robert R. Livingston]], Germantown, N.Y. (pp. 42–44) <ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America;...'', 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, [1849]1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[seat]] of the late [[Judge William Peters|Judge Peters]], about five miles from Philadelphia, was, 30 years ago, a noted specimen of the '''ancient''' school of [[landscape gardening]]. . . . Long and stately [[avenue]]s, with [[vista]]s terminated by [[obelisk]]s, a garden adorned with marble [[vase]]s, busts, and [[statue]]s, and [[pleasure ground]]s filled with the rarest trees and shrubs, were conspicuous features here. . . .
:"''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the [[Fairmount waterworks]] of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the geometric mode in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d'eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s. The effect of this garden was brilliant and striking; its position, on the lovely banks of the Schuylkill, admirable; and its liberal proprietor, [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Pratt]], by opening it freely to the public, greatly increased the popular taste in the neighborhood of that city.
:"On the Hudson, the show place of the last age was the still interesting ''[[Clermont]]'', then the residence of [[Robert R. Livingston|Chancellor Livingston]]. Its level or gently undulating [[lawn]], four or five miles in length, the rich native [[wood]]s, and the long [[vista]]s of planted [[avenue]]s, added to its fine water [[view]], rendered this a noble place. The mansion, the [[greenhouse]]s, and the gardens, show something of the French taste in design, which Mr. Livingston’s residence abroad, at the time when that mode was popular, no doubt, led him to adopt. . . .
:"Judge Peters' [[seat]], [[Lemon Hill]], and [[Clermont]], were [the best specimens] of the '''ancient style''', in the earliest period of the history of [[Landscape Gardening]] among us."

<br/>
===Citations===
*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (pp. 55, 59, 65–69), <ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"In designs for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], according to modern gardening; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, [[square]] grass-[[plat]]s, corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in '''ancient''' designs; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bound with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s. . . .
:"Regular compartments and figures, in various forms, are also sometimes introduced in some extensive grounds, for variety; in contrast with the irregular works, and still to preserve some appearance of the remains of '''ancient gardening'''; such as straight [[walk]]s, verged with [[border]]s of flowers, &c. regular [[parterre]]s, in flower [[border]]s; [[square]] spaces, circles, and octagons, &c. inclosed with low clipped [[hedge]]s; [[hedge]]-work, formed into various devices; detached ever-greens, formed into pyramids and other regular figures; regular grass-[[slope]]s, formed on the side of some declivity or rising ground; elevated [[terrace]]’s, [[clump]]s of trees, surrounded with low evergreen [[hedge]]s; straight [[avenue]]s of trees, in ranges, &c. a little of each being judiciously disposed in different situations, may prove an agreeable variety, by diversifying the scene, in contrast with the rural works before mentioned. . . .
:"Designs, in '''ancient gardening''', for a [[pleasure ground|Pleasure-ground]], consulted uniformity in every part, exact levels, straight lines, parallels, [[square]]s, angles, circles, and other geometrical figures, &c. all corresponding in the greatest regularity, to effect an exact symmetry and proportion.
:"Grand [[parterre]]s were very commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing the [[parterre]] ground into two divisions. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in '''ancient gardening''', and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more. . . .
:"In the more interior parts, large tracts of ground were frequently divided by straight grass-[[walk]]s, into many [[square]] and angular divisions of [[wilderness]], each division surrounded by regular [[hedge]]s of various kinds of trees and shrubs, kept in uniform order by annual clippings . . . and all the [[walk]]s generally led into uniform openings of grass, particularly to a grand circle or octagon, forming some central part.
:"Frequently there were partitions of regular [[hedge]]-work, particularly of ever-greens, surrounding large [[square]]s of grass-ground, designed as pieces of garden ornaments, the [[hedge]]-work being often formed into various uniform devices; such as pilasters, [[arcade]]s or [[arch]]es, [[portico]]es, galleries, amphitheaters, [[pavilion]]s, cabinets, [[bower]]s, pediments, niches, and cornices; likewise regular [[arbor]]s, having the sides formed into [[arcade]]s, and sometimes the top vaulted; and with various other formal imitations, all performed in [[hedge]]-work, which were often so arranged and trained, as to effect an air of grandeur and art. High [[hedge]]s were also in great repute, as boundaries to grand [[walk]]s and [[avenue]]s, sometimes carried up from fifteen or twenty, or thirty or forty feet high; . . . all sorts of [[hedge]]-work was generally esteemed so ornamental in '''ancient gardening''', that almost every division was surrounded with regular [[hedge]]s of one sort or other, presenting themselves to [[view]] in every part, shutting out all other objects from sight; but in modern designs, such [[hedge]]s are rarely admitted; every compartment of the [[plantation]] being left open to [[view]], from the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, in order to afford a full [[prospect]] of the various trees, shrubs, and flowers, which consequently are more beautiful than continued ranges of close [[hedge]]s; but for the sake of variety, a little ornamental [[hedge]]-work might still be introduced in some particular parts of the ground.
:"[[Labyrinth]]s or mazes of [[hedge]]-work, in the manner of a [[wilderness]], also prevailed in many large gardens. . . .
:"Detached trained figures of ever-greens, as yew, cypress, juniper, holly, box, and various other close-growing ever-[[green]] plants, were also very predominant in '''ancient''' designs, and generally disposed in regular ranges along the [[border]]s and other verges of grand [[walk]]s; being trained by clipping into various formal shapes, as pyramids, [[obelisk]]s, [[column]]s, &c. in a variety of forms, with other formal figures, all placed in the most exact arrangement. :“Straight rows of the most beautiful trees, forming long [[avenue]]s and grand [[walk]]s, were in great estimation, considered as great ornaments, and no considerable estate and eminent pleasure-ground were without several of them.
:"The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible."

[[File:1365.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 792–93, 996, 1002, 1020) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"6093. . . . The '''ancient''' geometric '''style''', in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms; in France, adding [[statue]]s and [[fountain]]s; in Holland, cut trees and grassy [[slope]]s; and in Italy, stone [[wall]]s, walled [[terrace]]s, and flights of steps. . . .
:"7161. . . . From these different theories [of [[landscape gardening]]], as well as from the general objects or end of gardening, there appear to be two principles which enter into its composition; those which regard it as a mixed art, or an art of design, and which are called the principles of relative beauty; and those which regard it as an imitative art, and are called the principles of natural or universal beauty. The '''ancient''' or geometric '''gardening''' is guided wholly by the former principles; [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]], as an imitative art, wholly by the latter; but as the art of forming a country-residence, its arrangements are influenced by both principles. . . .
:"7196. . . . If a deformed space has been restored to natural beauty, we are delighted with the effect, whilst we recollect the difference between the present and the former surface; but when this is forgotten, though the beauty remains, the credit for having produced it is lost. In this respect, the operations on ground under the '''[[ancient style]]''', have a great and striking advantage; for an absolute perfection is to be attained in the formation of geometrical forms, and the beauty created is so entirely artificial . . . as never to admit a doubt of its origin. . . . [Fig. 5]
:"7256. ''[[Terrace]] and [[conservatory]]''. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the '''[[ancient style]]''', that the design of the [[terrace]] must be jointly influenced by the magnitude and style of the house, the [[view]]s from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the [[view]]s of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions."

* <div id="Watterston"></div>[[George Watterston|Watterston, George]], May 1844, "Landscape Gardening" (pp. 310–12), <ref>George Watterston, "Landscape Gardening," ''Southern Literary Messenger'', 10 (May 1844): 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Watterston_cite|back up to history]]

:"In passing from the '''ancient''', or [[geometric style]], to the modern, or natural, the first improvers fell, perhaps, into an opposite extreme. This is the danger in all sudden transitions. They seemed to conceive that crooked lines, serpentine windings and carelessness were true objects of beauty, and declared that nature ''abhorred a straight line''; and thus fatigued the eye by incessant curves. They did not seem to be aware, that in her sublimest works nature prefers the straight line, as is shown in the apparent horizon of the ocean and the rays of the sun. . . .
:"The preceding four heads [congruity, utility, order, and symmetry] are not favorable to [[picturesque]] beauty; but belong more particularly to the '''[[ancient style]]''' of gardening which I have previously recommended to be blended with the modern, where the buildings, limited extent of ground and other circumstances require its retention."

* [[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (p. 210) <ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"''The '''ancient''' English [[flower garden|flower-garden]]'' is formed of [[bed]]s, connected together so as to form a regular or symmetrical figure; the [[bed]]s being edged with Box, or sometimes with flowering plants, and planted with herbaceous flowers, Roses, and one or two other kinds of low flowering shrubs. The flowers in the [[bed]]s are generally mixed in such a manner, that some may show blossoms every month during summer, and that some may retain their leaves during winter. This kind of garden should be surrounded by a [[border]] of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, backed by low trees; and in the centre there should be a [[sundial]], a [[vase]], a [[statue]], or a [[basin]] and [[fountain]]."

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14. The orthogonal, symmetrical paths, embellished by tightly clipped and regularly placed plantings, reflect the highly ordered character of the ancient style.]]

:"THE '''ANCIENT STYLE'''. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the '''ancient style''' of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials; an arrangement the more striking, as it differed most widely from nature. And in an age when costly and stately architecture was most abundant, as in the times of the Roman empire, it is natural to suppose, that the symmetry and studied elegance of the palace, or the villa, would be transferred and continued in the surrounding gardens. . . .
:"Whatever may have been the absurdities of the '''ancient style''', it is not to be denied that in connexion with highly decorated architecture, its effect, when in the best taste—as the Italian—is not only splendid and striking, but highly suitable and appropriate. . . .
:"The beauties elicited by the '''ancient style''' of gardening were those of regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art. These were attained in a merely mechanical manner. . . .The geometrical form and lines of the buildings were only extended and carried out in the garden. . . . [Fig. 6]
:"The '''ancient style''' of gardening may, however, be introduced with good effect in certain cases. In public squares and gardens, where display, grandeur of effect, and a highly artificial character are desirable, it appears to us the most suitable; and no less so in very small gardens, in which variety and irregularity are out of the question. Where a taste for imitating an old and quaint style of residence exists, the symmetrical and knotted garden would be a proper accompaniment; and pleached [[alley]]s, and sheared trees, would be admired, like old armor or furniture, as curious specimens of '''antique''' taste and custom. . . .
[[File:0371.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.]]
:"The beautiful and the [[picturesque]] are the new elements of interest, which, entering into the composition of our gardens and home landscapes, have to refined minds increased a hundred fold the enjoyment derived from this species of rural scenery. Still, there is much to admire in the '''ancient style'''. Its long and majestic [[avenue]]s, the wide-spreading branches interlacing over our heads, and forming long, shadowy aisles, are, themselves alone, among the noblest and most imposing sylvan objects. Even the formal and curiously knotted gardens are interesting, from the pleasing associations which they suggest to mind, as having been the favorite haunts of Shakespeare, Bacon, Spenser, and Milton. They are so inseparably connected, too, in our imaginations, with the quaint architecture of that era, that wherever that style of building is adopted . . . this style of gardening may be considered as highly appropriate, and in excellent keeping with such a country house. . . . [Fig. 7]
:"The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the '''ancient''' or [[geometric style]], or in the symmetrical [[terrace]] [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:4) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[Landscape Gardening]] was, formerly, the imitation of geometric figures; hence the '''ancient''' mode of it is called the [[geometric style]] of gardening."

* [[George Jaques|Jaques, George]], January 1852, "Landscape Gardening in New-England" (''Horticulturist'' 7: 34–35) <ref>George Jaques, "Landscape Gardening in New-England," ''The Horticulturist and journal of rural art and rural taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33-36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Again, the taste of New-England people generally, for the beautiful and [[picturesque]] in rural scenery, is either vitiated, or totally uncultivated. Hence, the great mass of the people prefer symmetry, stiff formality, straight lines, and the geometrical forms of the '''ancient''' or artificial '''style''' of laying out grounds. Nearly all our first class places in Yankeedom, are so arranged. . . .
:"A gracefully curved [[drive]] or [[walk]], (from the public street to the buildings,) entering through an irregular group of trees, and forced into its curvature by another little group, will of itself impart to a rural home charms far more pleasing than ten times their cost could infuse into the stiff, old straight-lined primness of the '''ancient style'''."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1365.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The operations on ground under the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1002, fig. 683.

Image:1366.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Landscape gardening for a residence in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1007, fig. 690.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

Image:0371.jpg|Anonymous, Plantations in the Ancient Style, A Labyrinth, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 91, fig. 17.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.

Image:1751.jpg|Robert Castell, "Tuscum," plan of Pliny’s villa near Lake Como, Italy, in ''The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated'' (1729), pl. after p. 126.

Image:1165.jpg|William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:1686.jpg|James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, "Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Yard

2017-08-30T20:54:03Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, "Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College," 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Ga. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-nineteenth century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy," in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in eighteenth-century travel accounts and nineteenth-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, "Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton," June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the State House in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, N.C.]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln, Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, N.C. [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> Bordley, on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately.This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the 1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]]. This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding Peale’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted fences immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, N.J., and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, Va. (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, 16 August 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, "William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden" (unpublished Master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, 10 November 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, 20 October 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, Va. (CWF)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, 14 February 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, 19 September 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [v view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, 11 September 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, Mass. (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750-1751)'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, S.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, 16 September 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, Md. (CWF)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, Md. (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, "Diary of M. Ambler, 1770", ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'', 45 (April) (1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, 18 March 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, Va. (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, 31 May 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., "The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777", ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'', 62 (1954), 400–423, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], 10 March 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, ed., 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols (Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], 12 July 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, N.J. (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1789] 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, N.J.: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], 2 May 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, "William Hamilton’s Woodlands", 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, Ga. (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark. :* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, 5 May 1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, N.C.]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, Mass.: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, Conn. (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols (New Haven, Conn.: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, Maine]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, 10 April 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, Pa. (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, Mass. (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, N.Y. (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, Pa. (p. 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, 24 August 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, Mass. (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: box 119, folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, "The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806," 1806, Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: "The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “"The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: "The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]]."

* Martin, William Dickinson, 14 May 1809, describing Richmond, Va. (CWF)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* [[Peale, Charles Willson]], 29 July 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al, eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791. Vol. 1; Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820. Vol. 3; The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale. Vol. 5.'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone wall on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, S.C. (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, 18 April 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818-1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, N.H. (p. 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 20 August 1824, describing Newark, N.J. (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814-1845'' (Wilmington, Del.: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, Pa. (p. 231) <ref>Robert Waln, Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'', 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, N.Y. (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700-1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], 11 March 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, 10 July 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, La. (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, 23 August 1832, describing Sangamon County, Ill. (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, 10 June 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, La. (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, La.: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, 26 July 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, La. (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, N.Y. (p. 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, N.Y. (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, "Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks", ''The American Journal of Insanity'', 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, 27 March c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....,'' 1st edn, 3 vols (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd edn (London: R. Baldwin et al, 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews....'', 5th edn (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (p. 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, Mass.: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (pp. 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, 18 May 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, 1 April 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening", ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'', 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, 12 July 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], 1 April 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), "A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne," 1731.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, "Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton," June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, "General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor" [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia," in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College," 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830-40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, "A plot of village property 724 feet by 488," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785-90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, "View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>," in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Yard

2017-08-30T20:53:30Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, "Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College," 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Ga. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-nineteenth century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy," in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in eighteenth-century travel accounts and nineteenth-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, "Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton," June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the State House in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, N.C.]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln, Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, N.C. [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> Bordley, on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately.This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the 1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]]. This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding Peale’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted fences immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, N.J., and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, Va. (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, 16 August 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, "William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden" (unpublished Master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, 10 November 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, 20 October 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, Va. (CWF)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, 14 February 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, S.C. (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, 19 September 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [v view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, 11 September 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, Mass. (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750-1751)'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, S.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, 16 September 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, Md. (CWF)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, Md. (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, "Diary of M. Ambler, 1770", ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'', 45 (April) (1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, 18 March 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, Va. (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, 31 May 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, Va. (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., "The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777", ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'', 62 (1954), 400–423, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], 10 March 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, ed., 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols (Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], 12 July 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, N.J. (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, Pa. ([1789] 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, N.J.: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], 2 May 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[the Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, "William Hamilton’s Woodlands", 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, Ga. (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark. :* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, 5 May 1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, N.C.]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, Mass.: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, Conn. (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols (New Haven, Conn.: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, Maine]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, 10 April 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, Pa. (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, Mass. (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, N.Y. (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, Pa. (p. 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, 24 August 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, Mass. (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: box 119, folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, "The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806," 1806, Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: "The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “"The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: "The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]]."

* Martin, William Dickinson, 14 May 1809, describing Richmond, Va. (CWF)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* [[Peale, Charles Willson]], 29 July 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al, eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791. Vol. 1; Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820. Vol. 3; The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale. Vol. 5.'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone wall on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, S.C. (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, 18 April 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818-1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, N.H. (p. 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, Conn.: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 20 August 1824, describing Newark, N.J. (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814-1845'' (Wilmington, Del.: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, Pa. (p. 231) <ref>Robert Waln, Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'', 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, N.Y. (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700-1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], 11 March 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, D.C. (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827-1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, 10 July 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, La. (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, 23 August 1832, describing Sangamon County, Ill. (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, 10 June 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, La. (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, La.: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, 26 July 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, La. (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, N.Y. (p. 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, N.Y. (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, Pa. (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, "Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks", ''The American Journal of Insanity'', 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, 27 March c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....,'' 1st edn, 3 vols (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd edn (London: R. Baldwin et al, 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews....'', 5th edn (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (p. 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, Mass.: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (pp. 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, 18 May 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, 1 April 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, "Landscape Gardening", ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'', 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, 12 July 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], 1 April 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' ([1849] 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' ([1850] 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (Originally published New York; Reprint, New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), "A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne," 1731.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, "Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton," June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, "General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor" [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital," 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia," in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, "Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College," 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830-40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, "A plot of village property 724 feet by 488," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785-90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, "View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>," in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Sundial

2017-08-30T20:53:07Z

Chelsdyl: /* Inscribed */

(Dial, Dyal)

==History==

[[File:1842.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, George Harvey, ''A Morning Rainbow, A Composition on the Grounds of R. Donaldson, Esq.'', 1840-50.]]

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautiher, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783. The feature "dyel" is marked at the center of the parterres.]]

The sundial, like the garden [[statue]], has proved to be an ephemeral garden feature. Sundials (also referred to as dials or dyals) have occasional presence in the written record of the American landscape. Perhaps like other utilitarian features, such as outhouses, they were not considered worthy of extensive descriptions. Nevertheless, eighteenth-century observers noted their presence and treatise authors espoused their value. In 1841, garden magazine editor [[C. M. Hovey]] was pleased to note the use of sundials, which he described as old but worthy ornaments that would contribute to the “finished” appearance of a garden.

[[File:1216.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.]]

[[File:0339.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 35, policy no. 18, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, June 5, 1805.]]

“Sundial” was the term used to describe a planar device, typically made of wood, stone, or metal, designed to determine the passage of time by showing the shadow of the sun. <ref>Mark P. Leone and Paul A. Shackel argue that clocks and scientific instruments, including sundials, were used in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Annapolis to measure the natural world and regularize time and work. These devices helped to establish “the discipline associated with work for a profit.” As wealth-owning classes expanded in the first and third quarters of the eighteenth century, so did the use of clocks, watches, and scientific and musical instruments. See Mark P. Leone and Paul A. Shackel, “Forks, Clocks and Power,” in ''Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Construction of Reality'', ed. Daniel W. Ingersoll and Gordon Bronitsky (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987), 45–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W9MWTT9S view on Zotero].</ref> Composed of a dial face and a gnomon, the sundial required an exposed, sunny location. As the sun passed overhead each day, the style (the straight edge of the gnomon) cast a shadow on the calibrated system of markings located on the dial. In addition to the obvious need for sunlight, the calibrations of the dial face and style had to be coordinated with calculations regarding the earth’s axis and latitudinal position. As outdoor markers of time, sundials could be fixed either vertically, sometimes attached to the exterior of a building, or horizontally. In the latter case, they were typically placed on pedestals, such as the cedar, locust, or mulberry posts that were specified in 1764 by the Kingston Parish in Gloucester County, Va. The pedestals on which they were situated could also be made of stone, as depicted in a view of the grounds at [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River in New York [Fig. 1]. This kind of elevated mount allowed both visibility and ease of use.

[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Fig. 5, Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], 1809. The plan indicates two sundials in two oval spaces at "I."]]

In private estate gardens, the position of sundials was governed by both practical and aesthetic concerns, as garden treatise writers noted. Sundials could be placed along major [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, and other points of access [Fig. 2], where they acted as visual foci and accentuated the central axis of a house or landscape design, as was the case at several late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century sites. At [[Mount Airy]] in Richmond County, Va. [Fig. 3], and at [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4], for example, the sundial was aligned with the central axis of the house and was placed at the center of the circular [[lawn]] created by the [[drive]]. The eighteenth-century plan for Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), Va. (later W.Va.), indicated a two-sided sundial located near the basin and [[bowling green]], at letter “I” [Fig. 5]. Several nineteenth-century designs show the sundial placed in the center of either circular flower [[bed]]s or [[parterre]]s, as in the 1841 plan published in the ''New England Farmer''.

The development of cast-iron sundials, mentioned in 1826 by [[J. C. Loudon]], increased the availability of sundials and the variety of forms they could take. [[C.M. Hovey|Hovey’s]] 1841 article also suggests that as the nineteenth century progressed and industrial manufacture accelerated, the production of sundials increased apace while their relative cost decreased.

With respect to form, nineteenth-century designer [[A. J. Downing]] insisted that if the sundial was placed within sight of the house, its design should be kept stylistically consistent with that of the house. The sundial at his own [[Highland Place]], for example, was executed, as was the house, in the Gothic style.

Besides fulfilling a pragmatic function, sundials inspired poetic musings. Downing’s treatise discussion of the placement of sundials relied on evocative metaphors. He referred to the devices as “silent monitors of the flight of time,” and attributed a sense of “intelligence” to them. Since the garden often depended heavily upon sunshine for the growth of plants, and since its contents reflected the change of seasons, the sundial, as a symbol of time’s passage, was a logical addition to the space.

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 17 September 1741, describing an instrument maker in Boston, Mass. (Pennsylvania Gazette)

: “JOHN DABNEY, Mathematical Instrument Maker from LONDON, In King-Street, BOSTON, New-England.
: “MAKES and Mends all Sorts of Mathematical Instruments, as Theodolites, Spirit Levels, Semicircles, Circumferentors, and Protractors, Horizontal and Equinoctial '''Sun-Dials''', Azimuth and Amplitude Compasses.”

* Anonymous, 1764, describing the Kingston Parish, Gloucester County, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 112) <ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Ordered that two '''dials''' [be] presented to the parish by the Revd John Dixon be fixed up on substantial and neat posts of cedar locust or mulberry.”

* Anonymous, December 1768, describing in the Queen Anne’s County Deed Book Queen Anne’s County, Md. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “one sun '''dial''' set on cedar post.”

* [[Hovey, C. M]]., November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403–9) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'', 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. '''Sun Dial'''. We are gratified to witness the introduction of the '''sun dial''' into our gardens. It is an old, but suitable ornament, and now that they can be procured at such reasonable prices, and such beautiful pedestals upon which to place them, we shall advise their general introduction into [[lawn]]s and extensive [[flower garden]]s. We shall give an engraving, in a future number, of some of the pedestals made in New York, at the manufactory of Mr. Goodwin, corner of Chamber and Hudson Streets, and of Mr. Little, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. A very neat dial plate is manufactured by S. Moore, of Connecticut, which may be had at the very low price of one dollar, and which answers every purpose. [These dials are offered for sale by Messrs. Hovey & Co., Boston, and G.C. Thorburn, New York.] ...
: “The '''sun dial''' is the last object which invites our attention, as we stand again on the main entrance. The pedestal is executed in the Gothic style, and we do not know of a single object which would add so much in itself to the finished appearance of the [[lawn]].”
{{break}}
===Citations===

* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: 195–97) <ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “XVIII. That the Intersections of [[Walk]]s be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, Groves, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest trees, [[Bason]]s, [[Fountain]]s, '''Sun-Dials''', and [[Obelisk]]s.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “DIAL is more accurately defined, a draught, or description of certain lines on a plane, or surface of a body given, so contrived, as that the shadow of a style, or ray of the sun passed through a hole therein, shall touch certain points at certain hours. See STYLE.
: “The diversity of '''''Sun-Dials''''' arises from the different situation of the planes, and the different figure of the surfaces whereon they are described; whence they become denominated ''equinoctial, horizontal, vertical, polar, direct, erect, declining, inclining, reclining, cylindrical, &c.”''

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews....'', 5th edn (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''SUNDIAL''', sun-di-el. s. A marked plate on which the shadow points the hour.”

* [[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 359) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1834. ''''Sun-dials'''' are venerable and pleasing garden-decorations; and should be placed in conspicuous frequented parts, as in the intersection of principal [[walk]]s, where the ‘note which they give of time’ may be readily recognised by the passenger. Elegant and cheap forms are now to be procured in cast-iron, which, it is to be hoped, will render their use more frequent.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''Sundial''', n. (sun and dial), An instrument to show the time of day, by means of the shadow of a gnomon or style on a plate (Locke).”

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. A sundial was proposed for the center of "D." ]]
* [[Walsh, Alexander]], 31 March 1841, “Plan of a Garden” (''New England Farmer'' 19, 1841: 308–9) <ref>Alexander Walsh, "Remarks on Ornamental Gardening, With a Plan of a Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Garden", ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Register'', 19 (1841), 308–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HD2AV62D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden and pleasure ground I would describe, is of an oblong form, 165 feet by 120 feet, with one end next the north side of the house. . . .
: “D has a circle in the center 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers; in the centre a '''sun-dial.'''” [Fig. 6]

[[File:0390.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 7, Anonymous, "Sundial," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 427, fig. 75.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 423, 427, 473) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with [[urn]]s or [[vase]]s, and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, [[vase]]s, '''sundials''', etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure-ground]]s in various different points near the house. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured [[vase]], is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. . . .
: “'''Sundials''' . . . are among the oldest decorations for the garden and grounds, and there are scarcely any which we think more suitable. They are not merely decorative, but have also an useful character, and may therefore be occasionally placed in distant parts of the grounds, should a favorite [[walk]] terminate there. When we meet daily in our [[walk]]s for a number of years, with one of these silent monitors of the flight of time, we become in a degree attached to it, and really look upon it as gifted with a species of intelligence, beaming out when the sunbeams smile upon its dial-plate. . . . [Fig. 7]
: “[In the architectural [[flower-garden]]] The flowers are generally planted in beds in the form of circles, octagons, [[square]]s, etc., the centre of the garden being occupied by an elegant vase, a '''sundial''', or that still finer ornament, a [[fountain]], or ''[[jet d’eau]]''. . . .”
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant [[vase]]s, '''sundials''', or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain [[square]] edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783. The feature "dyel" is marked at the center of the parterres.

File:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], 1809. The plan indicates two sundials in two oval spaces at "I."

File:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. A sundial was proposed for the center of "D."

File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, "Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries," in ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Improvement in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:0390.jpg|Anonymous, "Sundial," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 427, fig. 75.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0339.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 35, policy no. 18, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, June 5, 1805.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0615.jpg|William Ponyer, Sundial for John Endecott, 1630.

File:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantle painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:0332.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1831.

File:2034.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''View of David Hosack Estate, Hyde Park, New York, with a Sundial'' (from Hosack Album), c. 1832.

File:1842.jpg|George Harvey, ''A Morning Rainbow, A Composition on the Grounds of R. Donaldson, Esq.'', 1840-50.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

Sundial

2017-08-30T20:52:45Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

(Dial, Dyal)

==History==

[[File:1842.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, George Harvey, ''A Morning Rainbow, A Composition on the Grounds of R. Donaldson, Esq.'', 1840-50.]]

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautiher, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783. The feature "dyel" is marked at the center of the parterres.]]

The sundial, like the garden [[statue]], has proved to be an ephemeral garden feature. Sundials (also referred to as dials or dyals) have occasional presence in the written record of the American landscape. Perhaps like other utilitarian features, such as outhouses, they were not considered worthy of extensive descriptions. Nevertheless, eighteenth-century observers noted their presence and treatise authors espoused their value. In 1841, garden magazine editor [[C. M. Hovey]] was pleased to note the use of sundials, which he described as old but worthy ornaments that would contribute to the “finished” appearance of a garden.

[[File:1216.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.]]

[[File:0339.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 35, policy no. 18, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, June 5, 1805.]]

“Sundial” was the term used to describe a planar device, typically made of wood, stone, or metal, designed to determine the passage of time by showing the shadow of the sun. <ref>Mark P. Leone and Paul A. Shackel argue that clocks and scientific instruments, including sundials, were used in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Annapolis to measure the natural world and regularize time and work. These devices helped to establish “the discipline associated with work for a profit.” As wealth-owning classes expanded in the first and third quarters of the eighteenth century, so did the use of clocks, watches, and scientific and musical instruments. See Mark P. Leone and Paul A. Shackel, “Forks, Clocks and Power,” in ''Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Construction of Reality'', ed. Daniel W. Ingersoll and Gordon Bronitsky (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987), 45–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W9MWTT9S view on Zotero].</ref> Composed of a dial face and a gnomon, the sundial required an exposed, sunny location. As the sun passed overhead each day, the style (the straight edge of the gnomon) cast a shadow on the calibrated system of markings located on the dial. In addition to the obvious need for sunlight, the calibrations of the dial face and style had to be coordinated with calculations regarding the earth’s axis and latitudinal position. As outdoor markers of time, sundials could be fixed either vertically, sometimes attached to the exterior of a building, or horizontally. In the latter case, they were typically placed on pedestals, such as the cedar, locust, or mulberry posts that were specified in 1764 by the Kingston Parish in Gloucester County, Va. The pedestals on which they were situated could also be made of stone, as depicted in a view of the grounds at [[Blithewood]], on the Hudson River in New York [Fig. 1]. This kind of elevated mount allowed both visibility and ease of use.

[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Fig. 5, Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], 1809. The plan indicates two sundials in two oval spaces at "I."]]

In private estate gardens, the position of sundials was governed by both practical and aesthetic concerns, as garden treatise writers noted. Sundials could be placed along major [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, and other points of access [Fig. 2], where they acted as visual foci and accentuated the central axis of a house or landscape design, as was the case at several late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century sites. At [[Mount Airy]] in Richmond County, Va. [Fig. 3], and at [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4], for example, the sundial was aligned with the central axis of the house and was placed at the center of the circular [[lawn]] created by the [[drive]]. The eighteenth-century plan for Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), Va. (later W.Va.), indicated a two-sided sundial located near the basin and [[bowling green]], at letter “I” [Fig. 5]. Several nineteenth-century designs show the sundial placed in the center of either circular flower [[bed]]s or [[parterre]]s, as in the 1841 plan published in the ''New England Farmer''.

The development of cast-iron sundials, mentioned in 1826 by [[J. C. Loudon]], increased the availability of sundials and the variety of forms they could take. [[C.M. Hovey|Hovey’s]] 1841 article also suggests that as the nineteenth century progressed and industrial manufacture accelerated, the production of sundials increased apace while their relative cost decreased.

With respect to form, nineteenth-century designer [[A. J. Downing]] insisted that if the sundial was placed within sight of the house, its design should be kept stylistically consistent with that of the house. The sundial at his own [[Highland Place]], for example, was executed, as was the house, in the Gothic style.

Besides fulfilling a pragmatic function, sundials inspired poetic musings. Downing’s treatise discussion of the placement of sundials relied on evocative metaphors. He referred to the devices as “silent monitors of the flight of time,” and attributed a sense of “intelligence” to them. Since the garden often depended heavily upon sunshine for the growth of plants, and since its contents reflected the change of seasons, the sundial, as a symbol of time’s passage, was a logical addition to the space.

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 17 September 1741, describing an instrument maker in Boston, Mass. (Pennsylvania Gazette)

: “JOHN DABNEY, Mathematical Instrument Maker from LONDON, In King-Street, BOSTON, New-England.
: “MAKES and Mends all Sorts of Mathematical Instruments, as Theodolites, Spirit Levels, Semicircles, Circumferentors, and Protractors, Horizontal and Equinoctial '''Sun-Dials''', Azimuth and Amplitude Compasses.”

* Anonymous, 1764, describing the Kingston Parish, Gloucester County, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 112) <ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Ordered that two '''dials''' [be] presented to the parish by the Revd John Dixon be fixed up on substantial and neat posts of cedar locust or mulberry.”

* Anonymous, December 1768, describing in the Queen Anne’s County Deed Book Queen Anne’s County, Md. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “one sun '''dial''' set on cedar post.”

* [[Hovey, C. M]]., November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403–9) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'', 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. '''Sun Dial'''. We are gratified to witness the introduction of the '''sun dial''' into our gardens. It is an old, but suitable ornament, and now that they can be procured at such reasonable prices, and such beautiful pedestals upon which to place them, we shall advise their general introduction into [[lawn]]s and extensive [[flower garden]]s. We shall give an engraving, in a future number, of some of the pedestals made in New York, at the manufactory of Mr. Goodwin, corner of Chamber and Hudson Streets, and of Mr. Little, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. A very neat dial plate is manufactured by S. Moore, of Connecticut, which may be had at the very low price of one dollar, and which answers every purpose. [These dials are offered for sale by Messrs. Hovey & Co., Boston, and G.C. Thorburn, New York.] ...
: “The '''sun dial''' is the last object which invites our attention, as we stand again on the main entrance. The pedestal is executed in the Gothic style, and we do not know of a single object which would add so much in itself to the finished appearance of the [[lawn]].”
{{break}}
===Citations===

* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: 195–97) <ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “XVIII. That the Intersections of [[Walk]]s be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, Groves, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest trees, [[Bason]]s, [[Fountain]]s, '''Sun-Dials''', and [[Obelisk]]s.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th edn, 2 vols (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “DIAL is more accurately defined, a draught, or description of certain lines on a plane, or surface of a body given, so contrived, as that the shadow of a style, or ray of the sun passed through a hole therein, shall touch certain points at certain hours. See STYLE.
: “The diversity of '''''Sun-Dials''''' arises from the different situation of the planes, and the different figure of the surfaces whereon they are described; whence they become denominated ''equinoctial, horizontal, vertical, polar, direct, erect, declining, inclining, reclining, cylindrical, &c.”''

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews....'', 5th edn (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''SUNDIAL''', sun-di-el. s. A marked plate on which the shadow points the hour.”

* [[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (p. 359) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

: “1834. ''''Sun-dials'''' are venerable and pleasing garden-decorations; and should be placed in conspicuous frequented parts, as in the intersection of principal [[walk]]s, where the ‘note which they give of time’ may be readily recognised by the passenger. Elegant and cheap forms are now to be procured in cast-iron, which, it is to be hoped, will render their use more frequent.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''Sundial''', n. (sun and dial), An instrument to show the time of day, by means of the shadow of a gnomon or style on a plate (Locke).”

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. A sundial was proposed for the center of "D." ]]
* [[Walsh, Alexander]], 31 March 1841, “Plan of a Garden” (''New England Farmer'' 19, 1841: 308–9) <ref>Alexander Walsh, "Remarks on Ornamental Gardening, With a Plan of a Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Garden", ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Register'', 19 (1841), 308–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HD2AV62D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden and pleasure ground I would describe, is of an oblong form, 165 feet by 120 feet, with one end next the north side of the house. . . .
: “D has a circle in the center 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers; in the centre a '''sun-dial.'''” [Fig. 6]

[[File:0390.jpg|thumb|150px|Fig. 7, Anonymous, "Sundial," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 427, fig. 75.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 423, 427, 473) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with [[urn]]s or [[vase]]s, and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, [[vase]]s, '''sundials''', etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure-ground]]s in various different points near the house. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured [[vase]], is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. . . .
: “'''Sundials''' . . . are among the oldest decorations for the garden and grounds, and there are scarcely any which we think more suitable. They are not merely decorative, but have also an useful character, and may therefore be occasionally placed in distant parts of the grounds, should a favorite [[walk]] terminate there. When we meet daily in our [[walk]]s for a number of years, with one of these silent monitors of the flight of time, we become in a degree attached to it, and really look upon it as gifted with a species of intelligence, beaming out when the sunbeams smile upon its dial-plate. . . . [Fig. 7]
: “[In the architectural [[flower-garden]]] The flowers are generally planted in beds in the form of circles, octagons, [[square]]s, etc., the centre of the garden being occupied by an elegant vase, a '''sundial''', or that still finer ornament, a [[fountain]], or ''[[jet d’eau]]''. . . .”
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant [[vase]]s, '''sundials''', or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain [[square]] edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783. The feature "dyel" is marked at the center of the parterres.

File:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], 1809. The plan indicates two sundials in two oval spaces at "I."

File:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. A sundial was proposed for the center of "D."

File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, "Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries," in ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Improvement in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:0390.jpg|Anonymous, "Sundial," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 427, fig. 75.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0339.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 35, policy no. 18, Insurance policy drawings for Mount Vernon, June 5, 1805.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0615.jpg|William Ponyer, Sundial for John Endecott, 1630.

File:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantle painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:0332.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1831.

File:2034.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''View of David Hosack Estate, Hyde Park, New York, with a Sundial'' (from Hosack Album), c. 1832.

File:1842.jpg|George Harvey, ''A Morning Rainbow, A Composition on the Grounds of R. Donaldson, Esq.'', 1840-50.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

Bed

2017-08-30T20:52:27Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Border]], [[Flower garden]], [[Nursery]], [[Parterre]]

==History==

[[File:0016.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. "asparagus bed" near the top of the plan.]]
Definitions of bed, ranging from [[Ephraim Chambers]]’ ''Cyclopaedia'' entry of 1741 to George William Johnson’s discussion of 1847, indicate that the word generally referred to, as the latter wrote, “the site on which any cultivated plants are grown.” As spaces for growing plants, beds were the basic building blocks of most [[kitchen_garden|kitchen]] and [[flower garden]]s, as well as [[parterre]]s.
[[File:0393.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "English Flower-Garden," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 434, fig. 78. "''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds"]]

As seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and nineteenth-century treatises and dictionaries explain, beds could be raised above the surface of the ground through the addition of extra soil or manure to distinguish them from surrounding walkways or turf and to allow better drainage and ease of maintenance. [[edging|Edgings]] of organic or inorganic materials also helped to shore up the raised surface as well as to establish the bed’s outline.

Treatise writers distinguished between different types of beds, each with a specific function, composition, and placement—such as hot bed, cold bed, kitchen bed, nursery bed, or flower bed. <ref>Hot beds, which used either an internal or external source for warming the soil, were particularly popular for raising young or exotic plants.</ref> The form and techniques of making specialized utilitarian beds, such as hot beds, changed little over the centuries. Oblong and rectangular forms were favored for utilitarian beds because such shapes allowed easy maintenance— especially when intersected by walkways. They were well suited to the general practice of subdividing [[kitchen garden]]s into [[square]]s or rectangles [Fig. 1]. In contrast, the shape and arrangement of ornamental flower beds changed dramatically between 1700 and 1850 [Fig. 2].

[[File:0172.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, David Heubner (attr.), ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.]]
At the end of the eighteenth century, treatise writers such as Charles Marshall and Bernard M’Mahon dismissed the [[ancient style]] of [[flower garden]]s and its predilection for beds shaped in imitation of scroll work or embroidery. They advocated oblong or square beds framed with boards and separated by [[walk]]s or [[alley]]s. David Huebner’s watercolor of 1818, ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', is a stylized representation of the rectangular form of bed described by these two authors [Fig. 3].

In addition to specifying the form of beds, M’Mahon (1806) also provided specific instructions for the arrangement of flowers within beds, separating bulbous from herbaceous plants for ease of maintenance. (This tradition of separating flowers into individual beds can be traced back to at least the eighteenth century, when British florists advocated such planting practices.) M’Mahon did, however, allow for mixing species in order to ensure continuous blooms. Evidence indicates that separating plant types by bed was practiced in nineteenth-century America, as at Monticello.

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.]]
During the second half of the eighteenth century, another pronounced shift in flower bed design developed in England, from geometric rectilinear beds to circular or irregular oval (or kidney-shaped) beds. The latter beds were sometimes planted in concentric circles with plants arranged according to height, from lowest at the edges to highest at the center of the bed. <ref>See Mark Laird, “Ornamental Planting and Horticulture in English Pleasure Grounds, 1700–1830,” in ''Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods'', ed. John Dixon Hunt (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992b), 243–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TR5C2WE view on Zotero,] and Mark Laird, “ ‘Our Equally Favorite Hobby Horse’: The Flower Gardens of Lady Elizabeth Lee at Hartwell and the 2nd Earl Harcourt at Nuneham Courtenay,” ''Garden History'' 18 (Autumn 1990): 103–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7559CS8I view on Zotero]. For a synthetic history of the display of flowers in eighteenth-century British gardens, see Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero.]</ref> These practices, adopted in America, are well documented at Jefferson’s plantation, which vividly illustrates the growing preference for oval or curved beds. Jefferson originally proposed rectangular beds to be encompassed by twin [[pavilion]]s [Fig. 4], but eventually he built oval beds [Fig. 5]. This oval shape was repeated in the beds located along the serpentine [[walk]] extending from the [[pavilion]] arms. While it is not known how the plants were arranged within these outlying beds, Jefferson noted that oval beds permitted him a greater variety of flowers, as compared to his strict arrangement by species in the beds nearest the house. Monticello also demonstrates how beds might be interspersed throughout the grounds, particularly along walkways, underneath windows, or outside doorways.

[[File:0968.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807. "1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower beds as above. . . . " ]]
The accounts of treatise writers and observers of the American landscape confirm that circular or oval beds became the fashion in the first half of the nineteenth century [Fig. 6]. In the May 1835 issue of ''Horticultural Register'', James E. Teschemacher proposed situating oval beds, filled with herbaceous flowers arranged in graduated rows, in front of the house. Like Jefferson, Teschemacher also envisioned punctuating walks with beds tucked along the curves of the [[walk]] and set into the turfed [[lawn]]. In 1840, C. M. Hovey declared that circular beds set in the front [[lawn]] was the new mode, an observation attested to by such sites as the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., and the Hudson River estates of Montgomery Place and Highland Place.

[[File:1015.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.]]
While the pseudonymous Londoniensis, writing in October 1850 in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'', insisted that circular beds were universally adopted in the United States, alternate forms of bed designs also proliferated. The ''Magazine of Horticulture'', in February 1840, for example, proposed that beds be arranged in knot patterns for a [[flower garden]] featuring annuals; it also described [[A. J. Downing]]’s employment of “arabesque” beds set into the lawn of his garden, as well as circular and irregular oval-shaped beds.

In his 1849 treatise on landscape gardening, Downing provided a cogent explanation for the proliferation of different forms of bed designs at mid-century. He argued that different styles of gardens required different forms of beds. The architectural garden employed beds in the shape of circles, octagons, and squares, set off by [[edging|edgings]] of permanent or semi-permanent material; the irregular garden featured beds “varied in outline” cut into the turf; the French garden relied on beds executed in “embroidery” designs and separated by grass or gravel [[walk]]s; and the English [[flower garden]] utilized patterned beds of “irregular curved designs” (also known as arabesques) cut into the turf. Each corresponding style of garden and bed required different types of plants; for example, the French or embroidery garden employed “low-growing” herbaceous plants that allowed the design to be rendered distinctly. Moreover, each style was suited for a particular location. For example, the irregular garden was ideal for [[picturesque]] or rustic settings distant from the house, while the architectural garden was intended to be placed near the house, where it could be viewed from the windows.

Closely related to the issue of the shape of beds was that of how the feature might be edged. Treatise writers, from around 1700 to 1850, debated repeatedly whether beds should be edged with semi-permanent materials, such as boards and tile, or living materials, such as boxwood (see [[Edging]]). In general, the aim was to achieve the appearance of neatness, no matter what the shape, style, or planting arrangement of the bed. While questions of form, technique, and style of beds preoccupied the design profession, the social significance of flower beds was also considered. At least two treatise writers, Teschemacher (1835) and Walter Elder (1849), explicitly linked flower beds to women. Teschemacher recommended that women, probably from middle or upper classes, should supervise the arrangement of plants by color because of their presumed training in domestic arts and decoration. Elder, however, suggested that women were best suited to the task of weeding flower beds, similarly linking femininity and domestic order.

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Grigg, William, October 4, 1736, describing the residence of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, Mass. (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:32) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I the Subscriber oblidge myself for Consideration of forty pounds to be well & truly paid me by Thos. Hancock Doe undertake to layout the upper garden allys. Trim the '''Beds''' & fill up all the [[allies]] with such Stuff as Sd Hancock shall order. . . ."

* Gardener, John Little, 1742, describing items in a garden in Boston, Mass. (Massachusetts Archives, Suffolk County Probate Records, 76456)

:{|
|12 Frames for hot '''Beds'''
|@30
|10 = =
|-
|1 basket fo old Iron w.g. 82lb
|@6d
|2 = 1 =
|-
|36 Frames with Glass for the hot '''Beds'''
|20/
|36 = =
|}

* Lamboll, Thomas, February 16, 1761, describing his wife's garden in Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Pinckney 1969: 12) <ref>Elise Pinckney, ''Thomas and Elizabeth Lamboll: Early Charleston Gardeners'', Charleston Museum Leaflet, No. 28 (Charleston, S.C.: Charleston Museum, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU97BPKV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In Cold Weather she causes the Flower-'''Beds''' to be Covered and Sheltered, especially when they have begun to Sprout."

* Drowne, Samuel, June 24, 1767, describing Redwood Farm, seat of Abraham Redwood Jr., Portsmouth, R.I. (Rhode Island Landscape Survey)

:"Mr. Redwood's garden . . . is one of the finest gardens I ever saw in my life. In it grows all sorts of West Indian fruits, viz: Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Pineapples, and Tamarinds and other sorts. It has also West Indian flowers—very pretty ones—and a fine [[summer house]]. It was told my father that the man that took care of the garden had above 100 dollars per annum. It had [[Hot House]]s where things that are tender are put for the winter, and hot '''beds''' for the West India Fruit. I saw one or two of these gardens in coming from the beach."

* [[Logan, Martha]], 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, S.C. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 30) <ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"flower shrubs and box for [[edging]] '''beds''', now growing in her garden."

* [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing Gray's Tavern, Philadelphia, Pa. (1987: 1:276) <ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We at length came to a considerable [[eminence]], which was adorned with an infinite variety of '''beds''' of flowers and artificial groves of flowering shrubs."

* [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 17, 1787, describing gardens of François André Michaux, Bergen, N.J. (1987: 1:291) <ref name="Cutler"></ref>

:"They, however, showed me the Gardens, and were very complaisant. There were a considerable collection of exotic shrubs and plants, set in a kind of '''beds''' for transplanting."

* [[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789?, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, discussing plans for [[the Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4) <ref>Karen Madsen, "William Hamilton’s Woodlands," 1988 (Paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790-1900, instructed by E. McPeck. Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I desire George when he is about it [digging a border] will put the Ranunculus roots in the same '''Bed''' in the same manner [planted at six or eight Inches from each other & about 5 or 6 inches deep]."

* Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, Mass. (1962: 1:180, 373) <ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The Strawberry '''beds''' are in the upper garden, & the whole divisions are not according to the plants they contain. The unnatural opening of the Branches of the trees is attempted with very bad effect. . . .

:"By invitation from Mr Derby the Clergy spent this afternoon at the Farm in Danvers. We were regaled at our arrival, after the best liquors at the house, with a feast in his Strawberry '''beds'''. They were in excellent order, & great abundance. He measured a berry, which was 2 inches 1/2 in circumference."

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, Pa. (p. 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In the rear of this [girl's school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass walk and is skirted on each side by '''beds''' devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own."

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (1806: 56)<ref>Charles Drayton, "The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806," 1806, Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a [[wall]] heated by flues—& 3 glazed [[wall]]s & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the [[wall]]s. In the flue [[wall]], or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot '''bed'''; into which the pots & tubs with plants, are plunged. This [[conservatory|Conservatory]] is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally."

[[File:0166.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower beds at Monticello, June 7, 1807. "oval beds of flowering shrubs" [written on reverse] ]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 7, 1807, in a letter to his granddaughter, Anne Cary Randolph, describing Monticello, plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (quoted in Betts and Perkins 1986: 36) <ref>Edwin M. Betts and Hazlehurst Bolton Perkins, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Flower Garden at Monticello'' (Charlottesville, Va.: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, University of Virginia, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/53FZXDN6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"I find that the limited number of our flower '''beds''' will too much restrain the variety of flowers in which we might wish to indulge, and therefore I have resumed an idea . . . of a winding [[walk]] surrounding the lawn . . . with a narrow [[border]] of flowers on each side. . . . I enclose you a sketch of my idea, where the dotted lines on each side. . .shew the [[border]] on each side of the [[walk]]. The hollows of the [[walk]] would give room for oval '''beds''' of flowering shrubs." [Fig. 7]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 1, 1813, describing Poplar Forest, property of Thomas Jefferson, Bedford County, Va. (quoted in Chambers 1993: 105) <ref>S. Allen Chambers, Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, Va.: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[Planted] large roses of difft. kinds in the oval '''bed''' in the N. front. dwarf roses in the N.E. oval. Robinia hispida in the N. W. do. Althaeas, Gelder roses, lilacs, calycanthus, in both [[mound]]s."

* [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the [[Montgomery House]], New Orleans, La. (1951: 43) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818-1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road."

* Trollope, Frances Milton, 1828, describing Cincinnati, Ohio (1832: 1:87) <ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2nd edn., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The water-melons, which in that warm climate furnish a delightful refreshment, were abundant and cheap; but all other melons very inferior to those of France, or even of England, when ripened in a common hot-'''bed'''."

* Anonymous, October 3, 1828, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," describing André Parmentier’s horticultural and botanical garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. (''New England Farmer'' 7: 84) <ref>Anonymous, "Parmentier's Horticultural Garden," ''The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The '''beds''' of the flowering or ornamental part compose broad belts laid out in a serpentine or waving direction, and [[edging|edged]] with thrift, (''statice armeria'')."

* Dearborn, H.A.S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (quoted in Ward 1831: 48) <ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[nursery|nurseries]] may be established, the departments for culinary vegetables, fruit, and ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers, laid out and planted, a [[greenhouse|green house]] built, hot-'''beds''' formed"

* Driver, George, 1838, describing his garden in Salem, Mass. (Peabody Essex Institute Phillips Library, Diaries of George Driver, mss 200, box 1, folder 1)

:"[6 March] Put the Glass on my hot '''bed'''....

:"[25 March] Hot [[Bed]] in fine order this morning finished fitting it up this morning and planted radishes, lattic, york cabbage and cucumber at noon. have put in about 12 inches of manure and 8 or 9 of loom appear to be in fine order. . . .

:"[30 March] Have lost most of the under heat in my hot '''beds''' on account of storm the rain not having shower for three day and very cold. still they are in very good order today, have planted cucumber, Mellon, Cabbage, lattic, pepper grass, and radish seed."

* [[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1839, "Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore," describing the residence of Charles Phelps, Esq., Stonington, Conn. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 362) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Balitmore," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The [[flower garden]] contains about a quarter of an acre, in front of the house, and between that and the road, and is walled in on the north and west side. It is tastefully laid out in small '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box; on the north side stands a moderately sized [[green-house]], about forty feet long."

* Buckingham, James Silk, April 1840, describing the garden of Father George Rapp, Economy, Pa. (1842: 227) <ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''The Eastern and Western States of America'', 3 vols (London: Fisher, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FFXTKXCI view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This [the garden] covered about an acre and half of ground, and was neatly laid out in [[lawn]]s, [[arbour]]s, and flower-'''beds''', with two prettily ornamented open octagonal [[arcade]]s, each supporting a circular dome over a [[fountain]]."

* [[Charles Mason|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, "Select Villa Residences," describing Highland Place, estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, N.Y. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403, 406, 409) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

:"4. Arabesque '''beds''' on the [[lawn]], for choice flowers, such as roses, geraniums, fuchsias, Sálvia pàtens, fúlgens, and cardinàlis, &c., to be turned out of [[pot]]s in the summer season, after being wintered in [[green-houses]] or frames. Such '''beds''' should be sparingly introduced, or they would give the [[lawn]] a frittered appearance by cutting it up to an extent which would destroy its breadth, which constitutes its greatest beauty. It is even considered by some landscape writers, rather an error to introduce any forms but the circle, unless the '''beds''' are looked down upon from an elevated [[terrace]], when these arabesque shapes will have a pretty appearance.

:"5. Circular '''beds''' for petunias, verbenas, which now form one of the principal ornaments of the garden, ''P''hlóx Drummónd''ii'', nemophilas, nolanas, dwarf morning-glory, &c. ...

:"18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. It is laid out in circular '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box, with gravel [[walk]]s. . . .

[[File:0878.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, "Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries," in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "4. Arabesque beds....5. Circular beds" ]]

:"the [[flower garden]] (18,) a small space laid out with seven circular '''beds'''; the centre one nearly twice as large as the outer ones: these were all filled with plants: a running rose in the centre of the large '''bed''', and the outer [[edging|edge]] planted with fine phloxes, Bourbon roses, &c.: the other six '''beds''' were all filled with similar plants, excepting the running rose, which would be of too vigorous growth for their smaller size. Under the arborvitae [[hedge]] here, on the south side of the garden, the [[green-house]] plants were arranged in rows, the tallest at the back." [Fig. 8]

* [[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], April 1842, "Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.," describing the [[U.S. Capitol]], Washington, D.C. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841’, ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero]</ref>

:"From this lower [[terrace]], a long flight of steps leads to the upper one, upon which the building of the Capitol is placed: on the turf between the [[walk]]s, are oval and circular '''beds''', planted with shrubs and roses, and filled with dahlias and other annual flowers."

* Moore, Mary Clara, April 26, 1843, in a letter to Frances Magill, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, La. (quoted in Turner 1993: 493–94) <ref>Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, La.: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Please make Martha sow some more mustard in the Garden for Greens and plant some of those black-eyed Peas...that the Negroes may have something to boil with...she can put some of them in the '''bed''' where I planted artichokes and many other places in the meantime."

* [[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], July 1846, "Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York," describing the garden of W. H. Corcoran, Washington, D.C. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 245) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes of a Visit to Several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 7 (July 1846): 241–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S9UVTJM3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Four of the '''beds''' on the turf were edged with basket work, and had the appearance of being filled with a profusion of flowers."

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (''Horticulturist'' 2: 159) <ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, "A Visit to Montgomery Place," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].

:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright [[parterre]]s of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the '''beds''' are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery."

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing pleasure grounds and farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, Philadelphia, Pa. (''Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, "Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks," ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"East of the entrance is the private yard and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-'''beds''', seed-houses, &c."

* Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, "Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443) <ref>Londoniensis, "Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co. Cambridge," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"This [[lawn]] is encircled by a broad [[walk]], on the [[lawn]] side of which are circular '''beds''' of the choicest summer blooming plants. I did not much like this multitude of circular '''beds''', but it is the general style throughout the country."

* Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, Tenn. (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:"The garden in which the monument is erected is beautifully laid on with flower and fruits. There is a small circle in the middle which is one solid '''bed''' of verbena, pinks, tulips, pinys and other flowers too tedious to mention and too beautiful for me to attempt a description."

* Jackson, Sarah Y., April 10, 1852, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, Tenn. (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers, G-13-1)

:"We are making some few improvements in it this season, bricking round the '''beds''', and have had a supply of fine roses. We have now about fifty varieties of roses, some very fine."

* [[Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the garden of Charles Norris, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6) <ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54/ view on Zotero]. </ref>

:"It was laid out in [[square]] [[parterre]]s and '''beds''', regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

<br/>

===Citations===

* Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (p. 147) <ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson, 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>

:"To make a hot '''Bed''' in February, or earlier if you please, for the raising of ''Melons, Cucumbers, Radishes, Coleflowers'', or any other tender Plants or Flowers, you must provide a warm place defended from all Windes, by being inclosed with a Pale, or [[Hedge]] made of ''Reed'' or ''Straw'', about six or seven foot high . . . within which you must raise a '''Bed''' of about two or three foot high, and three foot over, of new Horse-dung . . . [[edging|edged]] round with boards, lay of fine, rich mould about three or four inches thick, and when the extream heat of the '''Bed''' is over . . . than plant your Seeds.”

* [[Jean de La Quintinie|La Quintinie, Jean de]], 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gardener'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.) <ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''''Beds''''' are plots of dressed Ground, which in digging, are wrought into such a form by the Gard'ner, as is most convenient to the temper and situation of the Earth in that place, and to the nature of the Plants to be sown or planted in it. They are of two sorts, ''Cold and Hot''.

:"''Cold '''Beds''''' are made either of ''Natural Earth'', or mixed and improved ''Mold'', and are in moist Grounds raised higher than the Paths, to keep them moderately dry, and in rising and dry Grounds, laid lower than the Paths, that they may on the contrary retain moisture so much the better, and profit so much the more by the Rain that falls.

:"''Hot '''Beds''''', are '''''Beds''''' composed of ''Long New Dung'', well packt together, to such a height and breadth as is prescribed in the Body of the Book, and then covered over to a certain thickness, with a well tempered Mold, in order to the planting or sowing such plants in them, as are capable of being by Art, forced to grow, and arrive to maturity even in the midst of ''Winter'', or at least a considerable while before their natural Season.

:"How these '''''Beds''''' are differently made for ''Mushrooms'', and how for other Plants, See in the work itself.

:"''Deaf '''Beds''''' are such ''Hot '''Beds''''' as are made hollow in the Ground, by taking away the natural Earth to such a certain depth, and filling the place with Dung, and then covering it with ''Mold'', till it rise just even with the Surface of the Ground. They are used for ''Mushrooms''.

:"''Kernel '''Beds''''' are ''Nursery '''Beds''''', wherein the Seed or Kernels of Kernel Fruit are sown in order to raise Stocks to Graff upon."

* Bradley, Richard, 1728, ''Dictionarium Botanicum'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Richard Bradley, ''Dictionarium Botanicum, or A Botanical Dictionary for the Use of the Curious in Husbandry and Gardening'', 2 vols. (London: Printed for T. Woodward and J. Peele, 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AH42HTTW view on Zotero].</ref>

:"It is an Error to lay the Flower-'''Beds''' in [[Parterre]] Works high in the Middle, or round, as the Gardeners call it; I would rather advise that such '''Beds''' be made concave, so as lie hollow in the Middle; for as these shou'd chiefly be furnish'd with annual Flowers in the Summer, and the most fiberous Rooted Plants, and perhaps Ever-greens, likewise, by this Means the wateuring they may require in the scorching Seasons, will be effectual to them. . . . There is indeed some Beauty in the roundness of a '''Bed''', and that Roundness is necessary, when we design a '''Bed''' only for our finest bulbous Roots, because their chiefest Growing-time is in the moister Seasons of the Year."

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . .'' ., 5th edn., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[vol. 1] '''BED''', in gardening, a piece of made-ground, raised above the level of the adjoining ground, usually [[square]] or oblong, and enriched with dung or other amendments; intended for the raising of herbs, flowers, seeds, roots, or the like.

:"''Hot''-'''BED'''. See the article HOT-'''''Bed'''''....

:"HOT-'''''BED''''', a piece of earth or soil plentifull enriched with manure, and defended from cold winds, &c. to forward the growth of plants, and force vegetation, when the season or the climate of itself is not warm enough. . . .

:"[vol. 2] [[PARTERRE]], in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into '''beds''', encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN. . . .

:"PLAT-BAND, in gardening, a [[border]], or '''bed''' of flowers, along a [[wall]], or the side of a [[parterre]]; frequently edged with box, &c. See [[PARTERRE]], [[EDGING]], &c."

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''BED'''. ''n.s.'' [''beb'', Sax.] . . . .

:"4. Bank of earth raised in a garden. . . .

:"HO'T'''BED'''. ''n.s''. A '''bed''' of earth made hot by the fermentation of dung."

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews....'', 5th edn. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:"bank of earth raised in a garden . . . the place where any thing is generated; a layer, a stratum."

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (8:682) <ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:"HOT-'''BEDS''', in gardening, '''beds''' made with fresh horse-dung, or tanner's bark, and covered with glasses to defend them from cold winds.

:"By the skilful management of hot-'''beds''', we may imitate the temperature of warmer climates; by which means, the seeds of plants brought from any of the countries within the torrid zone may be made to flourish even under the poles.

:"The hot-'''beds''' commonly used in [[kitchen-garden]]s, are made with new horse dung."

* Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43) <ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The ''[[flower garden]]'' (properly so called) should be rather ''small'' than large; and if a portion of ground be separately appropriated for this, only the ''choicest'' gifts of ''Flora'' should be introduced, and no trouble spared to cultivate them in the best manner. The '''beds''' of this garden should be narrow, and consequently the [[walk]]s numerous; and not more than one half or two thirds the width of the '''beds''', except one principal walk all round, which may be a little wider. . . .

:"''Figured parterres'' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the '''beds''' are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[''Chinese'' manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet square, is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserves to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these '''beds''', or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

* Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (p. 107) <ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, D.C.: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero]. </ref>

:"CROCUSES, RANACULUSES, ANEMONES AND OTHER BULBS.

:"These flowers may be planted this month [January] (when the weather is mild) in '''beds''' and borders of dry light earth well dug and broke."

* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (pp. 66, 71–72) <ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:"These [[parterre|[parterres]]] were bounded by a long '''bed''', or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were [[edging|edged]] with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.

:"The partitions or '''beds''' were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of the flowers was past. . . .

:"The form of this [[flower garden|[flower-garden]]] ground may be either [[square]], oblong, or somewhat circular; having the boundary embellished with a collection of the most curious flowering-shrubs; the interior part should be divided into many narrow '''beds''', either oblong, or in the manner of a [[parterre]]; but plain four feet wide '''beds''' arranged parallel, having two feet wide alleys between '''bed''' and '''bed''', will be found most convenient, yet to some not the most fanciful.

:"In either method, a [[walk]] should be carried round the outward boundary, leaving a [[border]] to surround the whole ground, and within this, to have the various divisions or '''beds''', raising them generally in a gently rounding manner, [[edging]] such as you like with dwarf-box, some with thrift, pinks, sisyrinchium, &c. by way of variety, laying the [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s with the finest gravel. Some '''beds''' may be neatly edged with boards, especially such as are intended for the finer sorts of bulbs, &c.

:"In this division you may plant the finest hyacinths, tulips, polyanthus-narcissus, double jonquils, anemones, ranunculus's, bulbous-iris's, tuberoses, scarlet and yellow amaryllis's, colchicums, fritillaries, crown-imperials, snowdrops, crocus's, lilies of various sorts, and all the different kinds of bulbous, and tuberous-rooted flowers, which succeed in the open ground; each sort principally in separate '''beds''', especially the more choice kinds, being necessary both for distinction sake and for the convenience of giving, such as need it, protection from inclement weather; but for particulars of their culture, see the respective articles in the various months.

:"Likewise in this division should be planted a curious collection of carnations, pinks, polyanthus's, and many other beautiful sorts, arranging some of the most valuable in '''beds''' separately; others may be intermixed in different '''beds''', forming an assemblage of various sorts.

:"In other '''beds''', you may exhibit a variety of all sorts, both bulbous, tuberous, and fibrous rooted kinds, to keep up a succession of bloom in the same '''beds''' during the whole season."

* Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener's Kalendar'' (pp. 5–6) <ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd edn. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"[January] FORMATION OF HOT-'''BEDS'''.

:"Take fresh horse-dung with plenty of long litter in it; shake the dung well and place it on a piece of ground the size of the '''bed''' you want to make; the first layer or two should have more litter than the others;—beat the dung well down with your fork as you proceed with the layers, till your '''bed''' is the height you want it. Different vegetables require '''beds''' of different heights—but the mode of making them is the same. The '''bed''' being thus made, place a frame light over it’ and in six or eight days the '''bed''' will be in strong fermentation."

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''BED''', ''n.'' [Sax. '''''bed'''''; D. '''''bed'''''; G. ''bett'' or ''beet''; Goth. ''badi''. The sense is a lay or spread, from laying or setting.] ...

:"4. A [[plat]] or level piece of ground in a garden, usually a little raised above the adjoining ground. ''Bacon''."

* Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (pp. 87, 155) <ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Dwarf Box.''—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden [[walk]]s and flower '''beds'''. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country. . . .

:"DIRECTIONS for the ''Culture of Bulbous and Tuberous Flower Roots.''

:"The '''beds''' should be raised from four to six inches above the level of the [[walk]]s, and moderately arched, which will give an opportunity for all superfluous moisture to run off; some sand strewed in the trenches, both before and after placing the roots, would be of advantage."

* Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener's Assistant'' (pp. 110–11) <ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener's Assistant'', 3rd edn. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>

:"Generally speaking, a [[Flower Garden]] should not be upon a large scale; the '''beds''' or [[border]]s should in no part of them be broader than the cultivater can reach to, without treading on them: the shape and number of the '''beds''' must be determined by the size of the ground, and the taste of the person laying out the garden. Much of the beauty of a [[pleasure garden]] depends on the manner in which it is laid out; a great variety of figures may be indulged in for the Flower '''bed'''. Some choose oval or circular forms, others [[square]]s, triangles, hearts, diamonds, &c., and intersected winding gravel [[walk]]s."

* Fessenden, Thomas, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (pp. 109–10) <ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th edn. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''Sowing and planting''....The '''beds''' should be raised three or four inches above the level of the [[walk]]s."

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.]]

* Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159–60) <ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The three oval '''beds''' may be used for flowers in masses; for instance, that in the centre for varieties of roses planted at sufficient distance to enable a mixture of the monthly and sanguinea species which have been protected during the winter, thus maintaining a succession. . . . On the right, opposite to the principal chamber window, are three curved '''beds''', each four and a half feet wide, [[edging|edged]] with box and divided by narrow [[walk]]s three or three and half feet in width, for the purpose of permitting examination, intended for choice herbaceous flowers; observing that the tall growing species, as dahlia, lofty delphinium, &c. should be placed in the '''bed''' most distant from the house, and those of the lowest growth in front. Here may be a fine collection of Paeonia, Iris, Trigidia, Lychnis fulgens and chalcedonica, Phloxes, particularly the white, Ornothera, Pentstemon, Lilum flavum, Gentians, with any others; it will add much to their charm if the colors are so blended as to harmonize well; for instance, by bringing the blues and yellows or whites and scarlets into immediate contrast, as may be observed in many striped flowers; those who wish to imbibe true principles of taste will achieve more by observing and studying forms and arrangements of colors presented by nature, than by any artificial rules that can be offered; this department however may safely be entrusted to the superintendence of the ladies, who naturally possess a finer tact in these matters, and to whom it will prove a constant fund of amusement. In the original formation of these '''beds''' great attention should be paid not to have the plants too near each other, for then confusion ensues and it is almost impossible to keep them neat, on which much of their effect depends." [Fig. 9]

* Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, "On Horticultural Architecture" (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 229) <ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The separate '''beds''' for distinct flowers may be formed behind the turnings of the walk so as to come upon them unexpectedly; for instance, at a bend the eye may fall suddenly on a '''bed''' eight or ten feet long of scarlet turban Ranunculus, and from thence pass on to others containing mixed Ranunculus and mixed Anemone,—one for tulips, another for pinks, a '''bed''' of peat filled with Gentiana acaulis—if the experiment making this year prove it able to be cultivated here—makes a most magnificent shew."

* Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (p. 15) <ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The '''beds''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should also be well proportioned, and not too much cut up into small figures, which when bordered with box [[edging]], have the appearance of so many figures formed for the amusement of children more than for the purpose of growing flowers."

* W., M. A., February 1840, "On Flower Beds" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 51–52) <ref>M. A. W., "On Flower Beds," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 2 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref>

:"The laying out of a flower knot, or system of '''beds''' in a [[flower garden]], is one of the first feats in which the young gardener undertakes to show off his abilities; and being one which affords the most ample scope for the play of fancy, is therefore, perhaps, the one in which he is most likely to manifest the display of a bad taste. Even where the design is of the most happy conception, and the plotting beautiful upon paper, the difficulty of defining and preserving accurately the outline of the figure, when practically applied, will often quite destroy the anticipated pleasing effect. [[edging|Edge]]-boards of wood, so thin as to be easily bent to the required form, are commonly the first material employed. These soon warped out of shape, or quickly rot, and impart a deleterious principle to the soil in contact with them; and a very common fault is to have them too wide, so that the plants in the '''beds''' suffer from drought, while the paths between them resemble gutters more than [[walk]]s for pleasure.

:"Bricks, or tiles moulded expressly for the purpose, are next resorted to, and if sunk so that the earth in the '''beds''' shall not be more than from one to two inches above the level of the paths, they serve pretty well for some time. But so soon as they begin to crumble from the influence of frost, or are covered with green mould or moss, as they soon will be in moist or shady exposures, they become offensive to the eye, though not, like the first, injurious to the soil. A living margin, therefore, becomes the next and last expedient; and indeed it may be regarded as one of the last steps in the march of horticultural refinement. To adapt such a line of vegetation to the size and form of the '''bed''', and make it harmonize in every point of reference with the group of plants within, requires a cultivated delicacy of perception, a sound judgement, and an accurate knowledge of all the principles of natural and [[gardenesque]] beauty, as well as of the characters of the plants or materials which are necessary, with a due arrangement, to produce it.

:"It is probably as difficult to fix upon the most suitable plant for the [[edging]] of a flower '''bed''', as it is to determine the best shrub for a [[hedge]] around fields. For the [[border]]s of main [[avenue]]s, or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best; but for small [[parterre]]s, or the flower '''beds''' in a front door yard, it seems much less suitable. They can commonly be taken in at one glance of the eye, and notwithstanding all that has been said of the artificial or [[geometric style]], it is the proper one for such places; for symmetry, or a perfect balance of corresponding parts, greatly strengthens the impression of such a scene, taken as a whole, or single mass of objects. The '''beds''', therefore, will not only be small, but when there is the proper variety in the form of them, some, at least, must have quite acute angles."

* [[Charles Mason Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], March 1840, "Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 84–85) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 3 (March 1840): 84–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ETMJJXR6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"We are glad to learn that our observations have been the means of drawing attention to the subject, and that they have, in some instances, induced amateurs to adopt the style of planting small grass [[plot]]s, and forming upon them circular, or other shaped '''beds''', for flowers. In front gardens to small suburban villas, nothing can be prettier than this plan of occupying the ground, and the method is, generally, to be much preferred to the old, and almost universally followed system, of forming gravelled [[walk]]s, with board, grass, or box [[edging]]s, and dug [[border]]s. This is particularly so, when the object is to have a neat garden, and kept in order at the least expense."

[[File:0835.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6. ]]

* Anonymous, May 1840, "On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers" (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 186–88) <ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers; with a Description of Some of the More Recently Introduced Species and Varieties, and a List of the Most Beautiful and Desirable Kinds for Cultivation," ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 175–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QC94QDP view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In the two plans annexed, we have supposed the [[flower garden]] to be situated directly in front of the [[green-house]] and to be just the same length, (thirty-two feet, the ordinary length of a common sized house,) and width; the '''beds''' should be laid out with care, as on their precision much of their beauty depends: the '''beds''' may be surrounded with box [[edging]], and gravel [[walk]]s between, or they may be edged with what we have found to answer a good purpose, Iceland moss. This forms a perpetual green, and, if kept neatly trimmed, is full as desirable an [[edging]] around such common '''beds''' as the box: supposing this to be all completed, we next come to the planting of the '''beds'''. This, as we have just observed, may be devoted wholly to annuals, to annuals and perennials, and to both, with the addition of tender plants, such as verbenas, &c. &c.; but we shall at present speak of them as only to be filled with annuals. . . .

:"The first plan . . . may be planted as follows: In the centre circular [[bed]] may be planted marigolds, Marvel of Peru, tall branching larkspurs, and German asters, placing the tallest in the centre; or a dahlia or two may be planted in the same place, and on the outer edge a few dwarf plants may be planted; the eight small '''beds''' next to this may be planted with a miscellaneous collection of sorts, growing from a foot to two feet high, placing the dwarfest at the outer edge of the '''bed'''; the four larger '''beds''' next, may be also planted with miscellaneous kinds, growing about a foot high; and the four corner '''beds''' may be planted with very dwarf or trailing sorts, such as the nemophilas, nolanas, Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia pulehélla and élegans, Chrysèis cròcea, Silène multiflòra, pansies, &c. [Fig. 10]

[[File:1750.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.]]

:"The second plan . . . admits of a greater display of plants, and, in particular, when it is desirable to have them in masses of one color, viz: the centre may be wholly planted with the finest double German asters in mixed colors: two of the four oval '''beds''', those opposite each other, may be planted with Clárk''ia'' élegans, C. élegans ''r''òsea, and C. pulchélla, placing the latter at the outer [[edging|edge]]; and the other, two with rocket larkspurs in mixed colors, to be succeeded with German astors, brought forward and reserved for the purpose. Two of the four large '''beds''' between the oval ones may be planted with Chrysèis cròcea and califórnica mixed, and the other two with crimson and white petunias mixed together: the four small [[bed]]s may be filled with Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia élegans, Nemóphila insígnis, and Nolàna atriplicifòlia, each kind in separate '''bed''', and the two latter opposite to each other." [Fig. 11]

* Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 84, 165, 304–8) <ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:"'''BED''' is a comprehensive word, applicable to the site on which any cultivated plants are grown. It is most correctly confined to narrow divisions, purposely restricted in breadth for the convenience of hand weeding or other requisite culture. . . .

:"[[CONSERVATORY]]. This structure is a [[greenhouse]] communicating with the residence, having [[border]]s and '''beds''' in which to grow its tenant plants. . . .

:"HOT-'''BED'''. When a temperature of 45°, moisture, and atmospheric air occur to deaden vegetable matters, these absorb large quantities of oxygen, evolving also an equal volume of carbonic acid. As in all other instances where vegetable substances absorb oxygen gas in large quantities, much heat is evolved by them when putrefying; and advantage is taken of this by employing leaves, stable-litter, and tan, as sources of heat, or hot-'''beds''', in the gardener’s forcing department.

:"A hot-'''bed''' is usually made of stable-dung. . . .

:"In making the '''beds''', they must be so situated as to be entirely free from the overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c., and having an aspect rather a point eastward of the south. A reed [[fence]] surrounding them on all sides is a shelter that prevents any reverberation of the wind, an evil which is caused by paling or other solid inclosure. This must be ten feet high to the northward or back part, of a similar height at the side, but in front only six. . . . An inclosure of this description, one hundred feet in length and sixty broad, will be of a size sufficiently large for the pursuit of every description of hot-'''bed''' forcing.

:"To prevent unnecessary labour, this inclosure should be formed as near to the stable as possible. . . .

:"The breadth of a '''bed''' must always be five feet. . . .

:"The roots of plants being liable to injury from an excessive heat in the '''bed''', several plans have been devised to prevent this effect. If the plants in pots are plunged in the earth of the '''bed''', they may be raised an inch or two from the bottom of the holes they are inserted in by means of a stone. But a still more effectual mode is to place them within other [[pot]]s, rather larger than themselves."

* [[Downing, A. J.]], April 1847, "Hints on Flower Gardens" (''Horticulturist'' 1: 443–44) <ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, "Hints on Flower Gardens," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:"our own taste leads us to prefer the modern [[English style]] of laying out flower gardens upon a ''ground work of grass'' or turf, kept scrupulously short. Its advantage over a [[flower garden]] composed only of '''beds''' with a narrow [[edging]] and gravel [[walk]]s, consists in the greater softness, freshness and verdure of the green turf, which serves as a setting to the flower '''beds''', and heightens the brilliancy of the flowers themselves. Still, both these modes have their merits, and each is best adapted to certain situations, and harmonizes best with its appropriate scenery. . ..

:"One of these [defects] is the common practice, brought over here by gardeners from England, of forming raised ''convex'' '''beds''' for flowering plants. This is a very unmeaning and injurious practice in this country, as a moment’s reference to the philosophy of the thing will convince any one. In a ''damp'' climate, like that of England, a '''bed''' with a high convex surface . . . by throwing off the superfluous water, keeps the plants from suffering by excess of wet, and the form is an excellent one. In this country, where most frequently our flower gardens fail from drouth, what sound reason can be given for forming the '''beds''' with a raised and rounded surface of six inches in every three feet, so as to throw off four-fifths of every shower? The true mode, as a little reflection and experience will convince any one, is to form the surface of the '''bed''' nearly level . . . so that it may retain its due proportion of all the rains that fall."

*[[William Valk|Valk, Dr. William W.]], June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58) <ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a geometrical [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.

:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French [[parterre]], or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers throughout the season....The [[parterre]] gives great facilities. Planting in masses produces the most imposing effect; arrangement of the [[bed]]s, and contrasting of colours, is the chief thing to be considered....

:"The above plan would look best with gravel [[walk]]s and small box [[edging]]s in front of a [[greenhouse|green-house]] or a dwelling. In planting the [[bed]]s, very much will depend upon the proprietor's taste with regard to his favorite flowers. Nevertheless, if the [[bed]]s be planted in the following manner, very general pleasure and satisfaction will be given."

* Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, "Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''" (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181) <ref>Anonymous, "Reviews: Cottages and Cottage Life," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref>

:"As to the ''flower-'''beds''''', it is desirable, in any place of considerable extent, to set apart a portion of ground for them; of which some of the windows of the house command a sight, and through which one might go to a grapery or a [[green-house]]. But a very beautiful way, is to cut them in circles, or other graceful shapes, upon the [[edging|edges]] of the [[walk]]s, making the soil rich and deep."

[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, "The Irregular Flower-garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. "the flower-beds ''b''"]]

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 427–37) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:"In almost all the different kinds of [[flower-garden]]s, two methods of forming the '''beds''' are observed. One is, to cut the beds out of the green turf, which is ever afterwards kept well-mown or cut for the [[walk]]s, and the [[edging|edges]] pared; the other, to surround the '''beds''' with [[edging]]s of verdure, as box, etc., or some more durable material, as tiles, or cut stone, the [[walk]]s between being covered with gravel. . . .

:"The ''irregular'' [[flower-garden]] is surrounded by an irregular belt of trees and ornamental [[shrub]]s of the choicest species, and the '''beds''' are varied in outline, as well as irregularly disposed, sometimes grouping together, sometimes standing singly, but exhibiting no uniformity of arrangement. ... [Fig. 12]

:"Where the [[flower-garden]] is a spot set apart, of any regular outline, not of large size, and especially where it is attached directly to the house, we think the effect is most satisfactory when the '''beds''' or [[walk]]s are laid out in symmetrical forms. Our reasons for this are these: the [[flower-garden]], unlike distant portions of the [[pleasure-ground]] scenery, is an appendage to the house, seen in the same [[view]] or moment with it, and therefore should exhibit something of the regularity which characterizes, in a greater or less degree, all architectural compositions; and when a given scene is so small as to be embraced in a single glance of the eye, regular forms are found to be more satisfactory than irregular ones, which, on so small a scale, are apt to appear unmeaning.

:"The ''[[French style|French]]'' [[flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. . . . The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the '''beds''' are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of [[flower-garden]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the '''beds''', or ''parterres of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height.

:"In the [[English style|English]] [[flower-garden]], the '''beds''' are either in symmetrical forms and figures, or they are characterized by irregular ''curved'' outlines. The peculiarity of these gardens, at present so fashionable in England, is, that each separate '''bed''' is planted with a single variety, or at most two varieties of flowers. Only the most striking and showy varieties are generally chosen, and the effect, when the selection is judicious, is highly brilliant. Each '''bed''', in its season, presents a mass of blossoms, and the contrast of rich colors is much more striking than in any other arrangement. No plants are admitted that are shy bloomers, or which have ugly habits of growth, meagre or starved foliage; the aim being brilliant effect, rather than the display of a great variety of curious or rare plants. To bring about more perfectly, and to have an elegant show during the whole season of growth, hyacinths and other fine bulbous roots occupy a certain portion of the '''beds''', the intervals being filled with handsome herbaceous plants, permanently planted, or with flowering annuals and green-house plants renewed every season. . . .

:"The ''mingled'' [[flower-garden]], as it is termed, is by far the most common mode of arrangement in this country, though it is seldom well effected. The object in this is to dispose the plants in the '''beds''' in such a manner, that while there is no predominance of bloom in any one portion of the '''beds''', there shall be a general admixture of colors and blossoms throughout the entire garden during the whole season of growth.

:"To promote this, the more showy plants should be often repeated in different parts of the garden, or even the same parterre when large, the less beautiful sorts being suffered to occupy but moderate space. The smallest plants should be nearest the [[walk]], those a little taller behind them, and the largest should be furthest from the eye, at the back of the border, when the latter is seen from one side only, or in the centre, if the '''bed''' be viewed from both sides. A neglect of this simple rule will not only give the '''beds''', when the plants are full grown, a confused look, but the beauty of the humbler and more delicate plants will be lost amid the tall thick branches of sturdier plants, or removed so far from the spectator in the walks, as to be overlooked."

* Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (pp. 34, 65) <ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:"EVERY cottage garden in America might have its hot '''bed'''. Make the sash six feet long, and three feet wide; the outer frame three inches broad, the laths all running lengthwise, seven inches apart; glaze it with glass seven by nine inches, the panes to lap each other a quarter of an inch, so as to carry off the rains without leaking through; make a box to fit the sash, three feet deep at back, and twenty-eight inches in front, the sides sloping, and a piece of scantling in each corner to nail the boards on and keep it firm. . . .

:"KEEPING THE FLOWER-'''BEDS''' CLEAN.

:"THIS is a branch in the keeping of the cottage garden properly belonging to the fair sex; and those of a good disposition take much pleasure in attending to it. Pull out the weeds from among the flowers in the patches, and hoe and rake the '''beds''' every two weeks."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, "Design for a Suburban Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 3: 380) <ref>A. J. Downing, "Design for a Suburban Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"At the end of this [[wall]], we come to the semicircular ''Italian [[arbor]]'', D. This [[arbor]], which is very light and pleasing in effect, is constructed of slender posts, rising 8 or 9 feet above the surface, from the tops of which strong transverse strips are nailed, as shown in the plan. The grapes ripen on this kind of Italian [[arbor]] much more perfectly than upon one of the common kind, thickly covered with foliage.

:"Beyond this [[arbor]], and at the termination of the central [[walk]], is a [[vase]], [[rustic style|rustic]] basket, or other ornamental object, ''e''. The semi-circle, embraced within the [[arbor]], is a space laid with regular [[bed]]s."

* Jaques, George, January 1852, "Landscape Gardening in New-England" (''Horticulturist'' 7: 36) <ref>George Jaques, "Landscape Gardening in New-England," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero].</ref>

:"A man of refinement would in these days, scarcely tolerate a geometrical arrangement of grounds of this extent. Such places admit of a winding carriage-way, leading through a fine [[lawn]] studded with groups of trees, irregularly circuitous [[walk]]s, bordered with various [[shrubbery]]; here and there a massive forest tree, standing in its full development singly upon the [[lawn]]; a [[summerhouse]] embowered in the midst of a little retired grove; arabesque forms of flower '''beds''' occasionally inserted in the midst of the smooth green of a grass-[[plot]]; a [[vase]], pretty even when empty, but better over-flowing with water, which it costs not much to bring in a leaden pipe from some neighboring hill:—such are among the charms which almost seem to make a little paradise of home."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. "asparagus bed" near the top of the plan.

Image:0090.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a "Garden Olitory," c. 1804. See detail.

Image:0090a.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a "Garden Olitory" [detail], c. 1804. "beds" marked at the foot of the terrace.

Image:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807. "H. Hot-beds"

Image:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807. "1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower beds as above. . . . "

Image:0166.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Sketch of the garden and flower beds at Monticello, June 7, 1807. "oval beds of flowering shrubs" [written on reverse]

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, "Plan for a Garden," in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), p. 33, pl. 1. "The Hot-bed Ground, No. 1"

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier's Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828. "F. Hot beds"

Image:1705.jpg|J. C. Loudon, Kitchen garden, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 721, fig. 696. "hot-bed ground (''b'')"

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, "Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries," in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "4. Arabesque beds....5. Circular beds"

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "flower beds, at ''i''"

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, "Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia," in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280. "4.4.4 Range of Hot beds"

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, "A Small Arabesque Flower Garden," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25. "small arabesque beds near the house"

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. "''d'', hot-beds"

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, "The Irregular Flower-garden," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. "the flower-beds ''b''"

Image:0392.jpg|Anonymous, "The Flower-Garden at Dropmore," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 431, fig. 77. Shown alongside a list of the plants which occupy each of the beds

Image:0393.jpg|Anonymous, "English Flower-Garden," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 434, fig. 78. "''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds"

Image:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman's country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 95, fig. 32. "''A, A, A, A, A, A'', Beds"

Image:1664.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, One method of heating in a hothouse, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 198, fig. 38. "''g'',...shows the bed"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.

Image:0073.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of serpentine walk and flower beds at Monticello, May 23, 1808.

Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.

Image:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825.

Image:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, "A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East View of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0240.jpg|Andreas Anton Lawatsch, "Prospect of Bethabara," Salem, N.C., c. 1759.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

image:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, "View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.ts," in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794-95.

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

Image:0241.jpg|Anonymous, ''Anstalt Haus in Salem'', 1798.

Image:0226.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800-1820.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A View of New Orleans taken from the plantation of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''Vauxhall Garden 1803'', 1803.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick's Hill'', 1810.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0044.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''View of the garden at Belfield'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, "Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences," 1817.

Image:0172.jpg|David Heubner (attr.), ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.

Image:0242.jpg|W. T. Neuhauser, ''Salem in Nord Carolina von der Süd West-Seite'', c. 1819.

Image:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''View of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

Image:0493.jpg|Thomas Whelpley, ''Cleveland, Ohio. From the Corner of Bank and S<sup>t</sup> Clair St<sup>r</sup> Looking East'', 1833-34.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840-47.

Image:0033.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, D.C., 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|Robert Mills, Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0892.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Henry Coit's villa, 1841-44.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells (attr.), ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

Image:0701.jpg|Lewis Miller, Botanic garden at Princeton College, 1847, in ''Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles'' (1966), p. 134. "...went...to the Botanic garden."

Image:0949.jpg|Anonymous, "Rustic Arbours," in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 7 (January 1850): pl. opp. p. 297.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman ("Third Sketch of the Pioneer"), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. p. 565.

Image:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

Image:0114.jpg|Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858-60.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Parterre

2017-08-30T20:51:59Z

Chelsdyl: /* History */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Flower garden]], [[Pleasure ground]]

==History==
[[File:1413.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.]]
The form, materials, and associated meanings of parterre all changed markedly between 1650 and 1850. <span id="Switzer_cite"></span>Stephen Switzer's ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718) provides a clear introduction to the etymology of the word, establishing that in England it referred to a sharply demarcated, level division of ground that was devoted to [[green]]s, flowers, and other vegetation ([[#Switzer|view citation]]). The feature generally was located near the house, where its design could be appreciated from elevated viewpoints, as well as from [[terrace]] [[walk]]s surrounding them. <span id="Argenville_cite"></span>Alluding to [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s earlier classification (1712) of parterres into four types (embroidery, "compartiment," English, and cut-work) ([[#Argenville|view citation]]), Switzer announced that the English mode, characterized by "large Grass-[[Plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and . . . encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers," was the prevailing style in England. Although he preferred more plain designs, Switzer also provided illustrations for rectangular parterres with shell and scroll work that bore a strong resemblance to the designs for embroidery, compartiment, and cut-work parterres noted in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s text [Fig. 1].

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The patterns described in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s and Switzer's treatises were achieved primarily with grass or turf, iron filings, smith's dust, black earth, red sand, brick dust, gravel, and cockleshells, <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>despite Jean de La Quintinie's assertion in 1693 that parterres were [[flower garden]]s or flower [[plot]]s ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]). In [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]'s designs, flowers, yews, and other shrubs generally were relegated to the [[border]]. Only two of his designs—a parterre of cutwork for flowers and a parterre of orange trees—were devoted to flowers, [[shrub]]s, or trees. Although such parterres were not common in the North American context, prominent examples exist, such as the garden at the [[Governor's House]] in New Bern, N.C., which bears a striking resemblance to plans found in British treatises [Fig. 2]. There are many reasons for their rarity. First, the cost was prohibitive for all but the most wealthy. Second, the formality and scale of parterre designs were often regarded as appropriate only to large houses, which were uncommon in the colonial world. Third, the shift away from the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], in which parterres were featured prominently, began in British and colonial landscape aesthetics in the early eighteenth century (see [[Ancient style]] and [[Geometric style]]).

<span id="Langley_cite"></span>In 1728, English writer [[Batty Langley]] discouraged the use of embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres by proclaiming that the house should open onto a "plain" parterre—a bordered [[square]] of grass, perhaps with a [[basin]] in the center ([[#Langley|view citation]]) [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] continued this trend in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1733) ([[#Miller|view citation]]). This mode of parterre design was an important antecedent to the practice of placing the house within a [[lawn]] setting (see [[Lawn]]).

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. The notation at "D" indicates a parterre for annual flowers.]]
<span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>The marked disfavor in which elaborate parterres were held in England by the end of the eighteenth century influenced the reception of them in America. English-born architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) disapproved of [[George Washington]]'s inclusion of a parterre in the form of a "richly flourishing Fleur de Lis" in the midst of his [[flower garden]], which was otherwise arranged in "[[square]]s, and boxed with great precision" ([[#Latrobe|view citation]]). [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] complained that the parterre was old-fashioned, an opinion upheld by leading garden treatise writers. <span id="Marshall_cite"></span>British author [[Charles Marshall]] (1799) claimed that scrolls and flourishes typical of the embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterre "have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed." He recommended instead that parterres be made up of regularized [[bed]]s, neatly edged with box, and set within a squared [[plot]] ([[#Marshall|view citation]]).

In the nineteenth century, as the function of the so-called "plain," or unembellished, parterre was replaced slowly by the [[lawn]], the term began to refer exclusively to densely planted [[bed]]s. These patterns were achieved through an extensive use of plants and [[shrub]]s as opposed to the inorganic materials that had been featured in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>Moreover, [[Bernard M'Mahon]] (1806) argued that the parterre, displaced by the [[lawn]] from its position adjacent to the house, could be "introduced in some of the more internal parts" of the [[pleasure ground]], where it could serve as a [[flower garden]] and be divided into flower [[bed]]s edged with box or turf ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

[[File:1765.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.]]
In general, "[[flower garden]]," as opposed to "parterre," became the preferred term to denote a garden space devoted to the display of flowers. For example, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), [[J. C. Loudon]] described the parterre in just a few paragraphs, in contrast to the chapters he devoted to the [[flower garden]]. Nevertheless, the term was used by British travelers in America, chiefly to refer to gardens situated near the entrance to the house. Their descriptions, as well as planting advice published in horticulture magazines, reveal that parterres employed a wide variety of vegetation, ranging from herbaceous flowers to flowering [[shrub]]s and ornamental or fruit trees, and the use of these plant types depended upon local climate.

The general trend toward the parterre as a planting feature continued into the mid-century. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>[[Robert Buist]]'s 1841 recommendation that the [[flower garden]] be composed of scattered groupings of parterres and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], suggests that parterres were considered more like flower [[bed]]s than the earlier intricately patterned spaces ([[#Buist|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., used the term "parterre" in 1847 to refer to flower [[bed]]s crowned by [[vase]]s, while he used the term "[[flower garden]]" to refer to the entire ornamental area in front of the [[greenhouse]] ([[#Downing|view citation]]). The parterre thus denoted a space within the [[pleasure ground]] that was densely or intricately planted. <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>As [[Jane Loudon]] succinctly stated in 1845, "in a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel" ([[#JaneLoudon|view citation]]). These mid-nineteenth century parterres might range from the very simple (such as the circular [[bed]] of annuals at "D" set within a [[square]] of dahlias, which was proposed by the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841) [Fig. 3], to the more elaborate (such as the curvilinear design of symmetrical [[bed]]s divided by [[walk]]s, as proposed in 1848 by Dr. William W. Valk in the ''Horticulturist'') [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]]. In these designs, color contrast was an important consideration, as noted in [[Jane Loudon]]'s 1845 treatise.

Although by 1850 the parterre had changed dramatically since the early eighteenth century, the term still retained some of its associations of intricacy and elaboration, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>as suggested by [[Joseph Breck]]'s incorporation of fanciful style with parterre ([[#Breck|view citation]]). The term also developed an additional connotation of Frenchness, despite both French and British seventeenth-century treatise writers having traced the word back to a common Latin root. The association with France (particularly of flower [[bed]]s executed in "regular and intricate figures") can be attributed to the eighteenth-century division between "plain" British parterres and so-called "French" embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres. This connection may also be linked to the important role that French treatise writers played in establishing the eighteenth-century typology of the parterre [Fig. 4].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (Colden 1920: 4:472)<ref>Cadwallader Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918-37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AWRMN2FD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an [[arbor|Arbour]], Every run of water, a [[Canal]], & every small level Spot a '''Parterre'''." [Fig. 5]

*Bentley, William, October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, Mass. (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[58] 4. . . . I visited Mr. Brattle's Gardens, &c. at Cambridge. . . . The garden is laid out upon a very considerable descent & formed with [[terrace]] [[walk]]s, abounding with Trees, fruits, & the whole luxury of vegetation, & is unrivaled [''sic''] by any thing I have seen of the kind. The poultry was excellent & numerous. The '''parterres''' in fine order in the Garden."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 165),<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]]. . . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precision. Along the North [[Wall]] of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a '''parterre''', chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourishing Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 4, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M'Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 456) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"My old friend Thouin, Director of the National garden of France has just sent me a fresh parcel of seeds which he thus describes. 'They consist of about 200. species, foreign to N. American, selected from among 1. the large trees, the word of which is useful in the arts. 2. small trees & [[shrub]]s, ornamental for [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. 3. plants vivacious & [[picturesque]]. 4. flowers for '''parterres'''. 5. plants of use in medicine & all the branches of rural & domestic economy.'"

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, "An American Wedding Journey in 1825" (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"From the top of [[Mount Holyoke]], which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive [[view]]s in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into '''parterres'''."

*Ferrall, S. A., 1832, describing New Orleans, La. (p. 206)<ref>S. A. Ferrall, ''A Ramble of Six Thousand Miles through the United States of America'' (London: Effingham Wilson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA3ZUPRN/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The planters' and merchants' villas immediately in the vicinity are extremely tasteful, and are surrounded by large '''parterres''' filled with plantain, banana, palm, orange, and rose trees."

*Kennedy, John Pendleton, 1833, in an address to the Horticultural Society of Maryland, describing the flower hall of the First Annual Exhibition (p. 25)<ref>John Pendleton Kennedy, ''Address Delivered before the Horticultural Society of Maryland at Its First Annual Exhibition, June 12, 1833'' (Baltimore, Md.: John D. Toy, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RK9Q8MT2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A garden is a theme of pleasant recollections to us in every stage of life. We remember, with a peculiar fondness, those days of infancy which were spent in playing through the [[labyrinth]]s of the trimmed [[hedge]]s of box, and where the althea, the lilac and the hawthorn, bounded the '''parterre'''."

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:81)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Situated about two hundred yards back from the river, the approach to it [the house] was by a lofty massive [[gateway]] which entered upon a wide gravelled [[walk]], bordered by dark foliaged orange trees, loaded with their golden fruit. Pomegranate, fig, and lemon trees, shrubs, plants and exotics of every clime and variety, were dispersed in profusion over this charming '''''parterre'''''. Double palisades of lemon and orange trees surrounded the spot, forming one of the loveliest and most elegant rural retirements, that imagination could create or romantic ambition desire."

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, describing the vicinity of Boston, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409-12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s; [[walk]]s now winding through the small adjacent [[copse]] filled with wild flowers assembled from every location where they are found, gradually ascending an elevated spot where the beauty of the [[prospect]] bursts upon the astonished eye, then leading into the cultivated [[flower garden]], with its [[basin]]s or [[pond]]s of water for aquatics, its [[rock work]], the [[trellis]] covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium, the '''parterres''' for collections of herbaceous perennials, the damp and protected spots for the rhododendron, azalea and other peat earth plants, the [[rustic style|rustic]] moss house, and the collections of flowers in masses."

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52), <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:"THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright '''parterres''' of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of '''parterres''' in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summerhouse|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On either front is an ample [[lawn]] with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, '''parterres''', [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation."

*Committee on the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing [[John Notman]]'s plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], '''parterres''', and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort."

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the Charles Norris House, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"It [the garden] was laid out in [[square]] '''parterres''' and [[bed]]s, regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.),<ref>Jean de la Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterres''''', are ''[[Flower Gardens]]'', or ''Flower'' [[plot]]s in such ''Gardens''."

*<div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine Joseph Dézallier d'Argenville|[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 17–18, 32–33),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:"A '''PARTERRE''' is the first Thing that should present itself to Sight, and possess the Ground next the Fabrick, whether in Front, or on the Sides; as well on Account of the Opening it affords the Building, as for the Beauty and Splendor wherewith it constantly entertains the Eye, when seen from every Window of the House. The Sides of a '''Parterre''' should be furnished with such Works as may improve and set it off; for this being low, and flat, necessarily requires something raised, as [[Grove]]s and Palisades are. But, herein, Regard should be had to the Situation of the Place; and it should be observ’d, before you plant, whether the [[Prospect]] that way be agreeable; for then the Sides of the '''Parterre''' should be kept entirely open, making use of [[Quarter]]s of Grass, and other flat Works, to make the best of the [[View]], and taking Care not to shut it up with [[Grove]]s, unless they are planted in Quincunce, or opened with low [[Hedge]]-Rows, which hinder not the Eye from piercing through the Trees, and discovering the Beauties of the [[Prospect]] on every side. . . .
:"THE Name of '''''Parterre''''' has its Original from the ''Latin'' word ''Partiri'', to ''divide''; and according to some, a '''Parterre''' denotes a flat and eaven [''sic''] Surface.

[[File:1414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.]]

:"The Compartiments and [[Border]]s of '''Parterres''' are taken from [[geometric style|Geometrical]] Figures, as well right-lined, as circular, mix'd, ''&c''. They take various Designs into their Composition, as branch’d and flourish’d Work, Palms, Foliage, Hawks-Bills, Sprigs, Tendrells, Volutes, Knots, Stalks, Ties, Chaplets, Beads, Husks, Cartoozes, Plumes, Compartiments, Frets or Interlacings, Wreaths, and Shell-works of Grass, Paths, [[Border]]s, ''&c''. And sometimes to these are added the Designs of Flowers, as Roses, Pinks, Tulips, and the like. . . .
:"There are divers Sorts of '''Parterres''', which may be all reduced to these Four that follow; namely, '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, '''Parterres''' of Compartiment, '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Manner, and '''Parterres''' of Cut-Work. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery are so called, because the Box wherewith they are planted, imitates Embroidery upon the Ground. These are the finest and most magnificent of all, and are sometimes accompanied with Knots and Scrolls of Grass-work. Their Bottom should be sanded, the better to distinguish the Foliage and Flourish'dwork of the Embroidery, which is usually filled with * Smiths-Dust, or black Earth. [Fig. 7]

[[File:1415.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.]]

:"'''PARTERRES''' of Compartiment differ from those of Embroidery, in that the same Symmetry of Design is repeated, as well in respect of the Ends, as of the Sides. These '''Parterres''' are made up of Scrolls and other Grass-works, Knots, and [[Border]]s for Flowers, with a little well-disposed Embroidery, which Mixture produces an Effect very agreeable to the Eye. The Ground of these should be very well made, and filled with Sand between the Leaves; the narrow Paths that separate the Compartiments, we usually distinguish with † Tile-shards powdered, or Brick-dust. [Fig. 8]
:"'''PARTERRES''' after the ''English'' Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-[[plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a § Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Cut-work, tho' not so fashionable at present, are however not unworthy of our Regard. They differ from the others, in that all the Parts which compose them should be cut with Symmetry, and that they admit neither of Grass nor Embroidery, but only [[Border]]s edged with Box, that serve to raise Flowers in; and by means of a Path of convenient Breadth that runs round each Piece, you may [[walk]] through the whole '''Parterre''' without hurting any Thing: All these Paths should be sanded.
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery, being the finest, should possess the principal Place, and lie next the Building: Those of Compartiment should accompany them; and the '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Fashion may serve to fill up the greater Spaces and in the [[orangery|Orangeries]], and then we call it '''''Parterre''' d’Orangerie''. Those of Cut-work are proper for small Places where you would raise Flowers, and then 'tis called, likewise, '''''Parterre''' Fleuriste''....
:"You may dispose '''Parterres''' several ways, as the Place shall require; either by cutting them into two long [[Quarter]]s repeated with an [[Alley]] between them, or making only one [[Square]] of Embroidered-work, with [[Walk]]s upon the Sides; or cutting it by Diagonal [[Walk]]s, in Form of S. ''Andrew''s Cross; and sometimes into [[Quarter]]s arched at one End; of all which you have Examples in the following Plates."

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Macheser'', i.e. ''Dross, or Scales of Iron. Smiths-Dust is either the Scales beaten off at the Anvil, or Iron Fillings.''
:† Fr. Ciment, ''i.e. Powdered Tile, or Brick, mix’d with Lime, which makes excellent Mortar, and is used by the'' French ''in Works under Water.''
:§ Sentier ratissé, ''by which the French understand a Path raked over only, and not rolled, as ‘tis generally translated, to comply with our Custom of Rolling, which is not so much used by the'' French, ''their Gravel rarely binding, as ours does.''

[[File:1412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.]]
*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:183–84),<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....'', 1st edn, 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Switzer_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterre''''' (says the Author of ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', as he has it from the ''Royal Dictionary'') is deriv'd from the ''Latin'' Word ''partiri''. I shall not absolutely determine against so great Authority; but it seems to have a nearer Relation to ''Pars'', or rather the ''Latin'' Compound, ''par'' and ''Terra'', a level, even Piece of Land; neither does it seem to imply any particular Decoration or Embellishment with which it is furnish’d, and is therefore, by Mistake, suppos’d purely to imply, in a limited Sense only, that Division of [[Plat]] of Ground, which with us (as well as in other Countries where Gardening is in Esteem) is call’d the '''''Parterre''''', or ''[[flower garden|Flower-Garden]]''; since the ''French'' have their '''''Parterre''' d’Eau'' or '''Parterre''' of Water, ''&c''. And '''Parterres''' themselves are divided into several Kinds, and have an Epithet join’d to them, to express more fully their proper Distinction. But however general the Word is in its Construction, 'tis what we understand here in ''England'', by that level Division of Ground that, generally speaking, faces the South and best Front of an House, furnish'd, as it has always been with us, with [[Green]]s, Flowers, ''&c''. These the ''French'' (as already hinted) divide into several Kinds, as they are more or less, and according to the Manner they are set off and adorn’d, ''viz''. [[bowling green|Bowling-green]] or plain '''Parterres''', the Method of which they own to have receiv’d from ''England'', and '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, ''&c''. The first of these Kinds is of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in ''England'', on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. Of these Kinds I have given some Designs, as also of others cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-Alleys between them. And these are the finest Kinds of '''''Parterre''''' Works in Esteem with us." [Fig. 9]

*Bradley, Richard, 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1.2:62)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"every one of the ''Flowering [[Shrub]]s'' I have mentioned, may be cultivated in Garden-[[Pot]]s, and so placed from time to time as they ''blossom'', in the [[Border]]s; by which Method a Gardener may change the Face of his '''''Parterre''''' every Week, and supply it constantly with fresh Beauties."

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:1384.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*<div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: x, vi),<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"And the plainer '''''Parterres''''' are, the more Grandeur, for when they are stuff'd up with so many ''small Ornaments'', they ''break the Rays of Sight'', and the whole appears a Confusion. . . . [Fig. 10]
:"And since '''''Parterres''''' are most beautiful when ''entirely plain'', I therefore recommend the removal of all Kinds of Ever-Greens from thence, and to have no more ''Gravel [[Walk]]s'' about them than are necessary for Use. . . .
:"Plate X and XI, are Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens . . . to the ''South'' upon the '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water'' C....
:"Plate XI hath its House opening to the ''North'' upon a ''plain '''Parterre''' of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water''....
:"Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House . . . to the ''South'', [opens] on a ''grand '''Parterre''' of Grass'', from which over the ''[[Canal]]'' you have a boundless [[View]] into the country."

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.),<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 2nd edn (London: Philip Miller, 1733), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3GIUJC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Miller_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENS. . . . In a fine ''Garden'', the first thing that should present itself to the Sight, should be an open level Piece of Grass, full as broad as the Length of the Building, which may be surrounded by a Gravel-[[Walk]], for the Conveniency of walking in wet Weather.
:"The Pieces of Grass should not be divided in the Middle with a Gravel-[[Walk]] (as is too frequently seen), for it is much more agreeable to [[view]] an intire [''sic''] Carpet of Grass from the House, than to have it intersected by [[Walk]]s. On the opposite Side of the Gravel-[[walk]]s may be [[Border]]s four Feet wide fon [''sic''] Flowers; which will sufficiently answer the purpose of '''Parterres'''; and if from the Back of these [[Border]]s there are Evergreens planted theatrically; it will bound the [[Prospect]] very agreeably; and where there are any objects worthy the Sight, or distant [[Prospect]]s to be obtain’d, there should be [[vista]]'s left. . . .
:"In ''Gardens'' which have [[terrace|Terrasses]] either in the Side or Front of the House, where there is a delightful [[Prospect]], so that you cannot shut up the '''''Parterre''''' by a circular Pallisade; in order to continue the new [[View]], you should lay several Compartiments of a '''''Parterre''''' together, such as plain Green-[[plot]]s, after the modern Fashion, or Cut-work; which ought to be divided at convenient Distances by Cross-[[walk]]s: But the '''''Parterre''''' or ''plain Green-[[plot]]'', must always be next to the House, because it is very agreeable to the Eye. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', is a level Division of Ground, which, for the most part, faces the South and best Front of an House, and is generally furnish'd with ''[[Green]]s, Flowers, &c''.
:"There are several Sorts of '''''Parterres''''', and ''[[Bowling-green]]'', or ''Plain'', '''''Parterres''' of Embroidery, &c''.
:"''Plain '''Parterres''''' are more beautiful in ''England'' than in any other Countries, by reason of the Excellency of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity that it affords to the Eye of the Spectator.
:"Others are cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-[[Alley]]s between them, which are the finest '''''Parterre''''' Works esteemed in ''England''.
:"As to the general Proportion of '''''Parterres''''' an Oblong or Long [[Square]] is accounted the most proper Figure for a '''''Parterre'''''; because by the Rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural Declension of the visual Rays in ''Opticks'', a long [[Square]] sinks almost to a [[Square]], and an exact [[Square]] appears much less than it really is; therefore a '''''Parterre''''' should not be less than twice as long as it is broad; twice and a half is accounted a very good Proportion, and it is very rare that three times is exceeded.
:"As to the Breadth of a '''''Parterre''''', it is to take its Dimensions from the Breadth of the Front of the House: If it be not above an hundred Feet, ’twill be too narrow; and if the Front be two hundred Feet, the '''''Parterre''''' must be of the same Breadth.
:"Some do not approve of making '''''Parterres''''' very broad, because it makes 'em appear too short; when nothing is more pleasing to the Eye, than a contracted, regular, Conduct and [[View]], as soon as a Person goes out of an House or Building: And a forward, direct [[View]] is the best, whether it be either '''''Parterre''''' or ''[[Lawn]]'', or any other open Space, either two, three, or four-fold to the Width: And for that Reason, those Designs may justly be disapprov'd by which the Nobleness of the [[View]] is marred at the immediate Entrance into the Garden, the Angle of Light being broken and confused.
:"The making of '''''Parterres''''' too large, causes a great Expence, and at the same time occasions a Diminution of [[Wood]], which is consequently the most valuable Part of a Garden.
:"There should be a [[terrace|Terrass]] [[walk]] on each Side the '''''Parterre''''', for an Elevation proper for [[View]]; and therefore there should never be the Flat of a '''''Parterre''''' between [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] and [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] above three hundred Feet; nor can it well be made less then an hundred and forty; and then the Length, at twice and a half the Breadth, would be three hundred and fifty Feet, which some account a handsome Proportion.
:"As to the Adorning and Furnishing these '''''Parterres''''', whether it be Plain, or with Embroidery, that depends much upon the Form of them, and therefore must be left to the Judgment and Fancy of the Designer."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.)<ref> Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PARTERRE''', in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into [[bed]]s, encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN.
:"The '''''Parterre''''' is a level division of ground, which, for the most part, faces the south and best front of a house, and is generally furnished with [[green]]s, flowers, ''&c''.
:"There are divers kinds of '''''parterres''''', as [[bowling green|bowling-green]] or plain '''''parterres'''''; '''''parterres''''' of embroidery; '''''parterres''''' cut in shell-work, in scroll-work, ''&c''. with sand allies between.
:"An oblong, or long [[square]] is accounted the most proper figure for a '''parterre'''; the sides whereof to be as two, or two and a half to one."

*<div id="Marshall"></div>Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Marshall_cite|back up to history]]

:"''Figured'' '''''parterres''''' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the [[bed]]s are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet [[square]], is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserve to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these [[bed]]s, or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (pp. 58, 66–67),<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower garden|flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the '''parterre''' way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . . .
:"Grand '''parterres''' were commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing '''parterre''' ground into two divisions.
:"A '''parterre''', is a spacious level [[plot]] of ground, divided into many partitions, of different figures and dimensions; by means of [[edging]]s or lines of dwarf-box, &c. or by verges of grass-turf, and tracks of sand, fine gravel, shell, and scroll-work, &c. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in ancient gardening, and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more.
:"The general figure of a '''parterre''', is an oblong or long [[square]]; because by the rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural declension of the visual rays in ''opticks'', a long [[square]] sinks almost to a [[square]], and an exact [[square]] appears much less so than it really is, when viewed at a distance; therefore '''parterres''' were generally made twice as long a broad.
:"These were bounded by a long [[bed]], or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were edged with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.
:"The partitions or [[bed]]s were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of flowers was past.
:"Though '''parterres''' in general are now become rather unfashionable, a little of that kind of work, might still be permitted for variety sake, though not immediately in front of the house as heretofore. A spacious [[lawn]], bounded with rural [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], is the most eligible situation for such; but a plain '''parterre''' of a moderate extent, either formed with lines of box, or with turf, might be introduced in some of the more internal parts, and distributed either into plain or complex departments, or [[bed]]s of earth for flowers, so as to answer the purpose of a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], for the most curious sorts; it will have an agreeable effect in forming a contrast with the more rural scenes."

[[File:1796.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.]]
[[File:1351.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 375, 796–97)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1924. ''Intricate and fanciful figures of '''parterres''''' are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with [[square]]s . . . formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar [[square]]s, but much larger, according to the scale .... [Fig. 11]
:"6106. ''In extensive and irregular '''parterres''''', one gravel-[[walk]], accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as [[walk]]s by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting [[walk]]s of the same width, of gravel and smaller [[walk]]s for displaying particular details. The main [[walk]], however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the [[walk]]; but in that sort of French '''parterre'''s which they call '''parterres''' of embroidery . . . the breadth of the gravelled part (''a'') varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers; and whoever wishes to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris; and consult the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau, Le Blond, &c." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (pp. 11–12),<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Buist_cite|back up to history]]

:"But, in commencing these operations, a design [for the [[flower garden]]] should be kept in [[view]] that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the '''parterre''' and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. . . . The outer margin of the [[[flower] garden]] should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and '''parterres'''."

*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (pp. 309–11),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [ttps://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''PARTERRE'''.—The French term for what in England is called a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but which in France in former times, when the word was originated, was most frequently a figure formed on the surface of the ground by turf, box, and gravel or sand, with occasional flowers or low [[shrub]]s. In these '''parterres''' flowers and shrubs were altogether secondary objects, the main features being the compartments of turf and the curious scroll-work of box. . . . '''Parterres''' of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England. . . . '''Parterres''' of compartments . . . are at present common both in France and England. '''''Parterres''' anglaises'' may now be considered as included in the '''parterres''' of compartments; because the French do not now cut up the ground into so many [[bed]]s as formerly, and plant a great many more flowers than they did in the time of Le Nôtre. . . . In a word, '''parterres''' are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel; in the former case the [[bed]]s are dug out of the [[lawn]], and in the latter they are separated from the gravel by [[edging]]s of box or stone, or of some plant, or durable material. The shape of the [[bed]]s in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the '''parterre''' belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of [[bed]]s ceases to be a '''parterre''', or a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], and can only be designated as a group or collection of groups on a [[lawn]]. Hence it is that all '''parterres''' and regular flower-gardens ought to be separated from the scenery by which they are surrounded by a line of demarcation, such as a low architectural [[wall]] with a balustrade and piers, and [[vase]]s; a low evergreen [[hedge]], a [[canal]], a ridge of [[rockwork]], a [[sunk fence]] with the sides of turf or of stone, a raised [[fence]] with the ridges and top of turf, or a raised [[terrace]]-[[walk]] of grass or gravel. . . .
:"In planting '''parterres''' there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in a [[bed]] so as that each [[bed]] shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same [[bed]]. It is almost needless to state that the former system is by far the best for general and striking effect; but as a '''parterre''' is frequently a kind of [[botanic garden]], and as in this case it is desirable to keep all the species of a genus together, flowers of all colours must occasionally occur in the same [[bed]]. In general, botanic '''parterres''' should not be mixed with '''parterres''' for effect, because the one kind never fails greatly to injure the other.
:"In planting '''parterres''' for general effect, the colours should be arranged so that those which are adjoining each other should be contrasts; and those which occupy corresponding parts of the same figure should be the same. . . .
:"The laying out and planting of '''parterres''' should always be attended to by the ladies of the place, because it requires a degree of taste and artistical feeling which is very seldom to be found among some gardeners to a sufficient extent; and which, indeed, can hardly be expected in many of them."

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[FLOWER GARDEN]], is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in '''parterres''' and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. . . .
:"No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his '''parterres''' should not be large, though his villa be small. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name ''[[Flower Garden]]''."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.
:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French '''parterre''', or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers." [Fig. 13]

[[File:0777.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21–25, 430)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th edn (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials. . . .
:"'The gardens of Versailles,' says a tasteful English reviewer, 'may indeed be taken as the great exemplar of this style. . . . Every tree was planted with [[geometric style|geometrical]] exactness, and '''parterre''' answered to '''parterre''' across a half a mile of gravel. . . . It takes the middle line between the two other [[geometric style|geometrical]] schools . . . the Italian [and] . . . the Dutch. There is more of [[promenade]], less of '''parterre'''; more of gravel than turf. . . .'
:"The ''French'' [[flower garden|flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area [attached directly to the house] devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of flower-garden [[French style|[French style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or '''''parterres''' of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height."

*<div id="Breck"></div>[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (p. 19),<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck's Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Breck_cite|back up to history]]

:"The form of the ground [for a [[flower garden]]] may be either [[square]] or oblong, somewhat circular or irregular. The interior part may be divided into oblong four-feet [[bed]]s, or in the manner of a '''parterre''', in some fanciful style; the former being more convenient, particularly for most of what are called florist’s flowers, but the latter more pleasing to the eye."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 10)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Ground [[plot]] of 4 1-4 acres of ground on Staten Island, the front on the Clove road, and rear on a brook of cold spring water. . . . The lawn is on the north of the house and filled with the choicest fruit trees, the vegetable garden on the south-west, and [[flower garden]]s and parterre's on the south and east, with borders on the north side." [Fig. 14]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1414.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.

Image:1415.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.

Image:1413.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.

Image:1425.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper" and "The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 124.

Image:1426.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The Parterre C drawn & Squar'd over upon Paper," "The same Parterre C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground," and "The Grove V & ye Bowling-green X design'd upon paper," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 130.

Image:1412.jpg|Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. "Plate. III is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, where the front of the House opens upon a ''large plain Parterre''...."

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "In Plate X, the House opens. . .to the ''South'' upon the ''Parterre of Grass and Water'' C . . . ."

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. House opens "to the ''North'' upon a ''plain Parterre of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a ''Parterre of Grass and Water''. . . ."

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. House opens "to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'' . . . ."

Image:1338.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-lines of gardens and parterres, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 361 and 362.

Image:1796.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.

Image:1374.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The house and French parterre," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1026, fig. 730.

Image:1765.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "D has a circle in the centre 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers...."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "...the parterre, or flower beds cut into the turf on the lawn, at ''k''"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67.

Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0250.jpg|Anonymous, The Castello Plan of New York ("Afbeeldinge Van de Stadt Amsterdam in Nieuw Neederlandt"), 1660.

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769. See detail.

Image:0248_detail.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', detail of Governor's Palace, 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794–95.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:1977.jpg|Charles Varlé (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 794, fig. 545.

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 796, fig. 549.

image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>

</references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

File:0299.jpg

2017-08-30T20:51:43Z

Chelsdyl:

Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783. Archivo de Francisco de Miranda, Viajes, 1769, Tomo 5, folios 95–97. Academia Nacional de la Historia, Caracas, Venezuela.

Parterre

2017-08-30T20:51:11Z

Chelsdyl: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Flower garden]], [[Pleasure ground]]

==History==
[[File:1413.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.]]
The form, materials, and associated meanings of parterre all changed markedly between 1650 and 1850. <span id="Switzer_cite"></span>Stephen Switzer's ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718) provides a clear introduction to the etymology of the word, establishing that in England it referred to a sharply demarcated, level division of ground that was devoted to [[green]]s, flowers, and other vegetation ([[#Switzer|view citation]]). The feature generally was located near the house, where its design could be appreciated from elevated viewpoints, as well as from [[terrace]] [[walk]]s surrounding them. <span id="Argenville_cite"></span>Alluding to [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s earlier classification (1712) of parterres into four types (embroidery, "compartiment," English, and cut-work) ([[#Argenville|view citation]]), Switzer announced that the English mode, characterized by "large Grass-[[Plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and . . . encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers," was the prevailing style in England. Although he preferred more plain designs, Switzer also provided illustrations for rectangular parterres with shell and scroll work that bore a strong resemblance to the designs for embroidery, compartiment, and cut-work parterres noted in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s text [Fig. 1].

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The patterns described in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s and Switzer's treatises were achieved primarily with grass or turf, iron filings, smith's dust, black earth, red sand, brick dust, gravel, and cockleshells, <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>despite Jean de La Quintinie's assertion in 1693 that parterres were [[flower garden]]s or flower [[plot]]s ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]). In [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]'s designs, flowers, yews, and other shrubs generally were relegated to the [[border]]. Only two of his designs—a parterre of cutwork for flowers and a parterre of orange trees—were devoted to flowers, [[shrub]]s, or trees. Although such parterres were not common in the North American context, prominent examples exist, such as the garden at the [[Governor's House]] in New Bern, N.C., which bears a striking resemblance to plans found in British treatises [Fig. 2]. There are many reasons for their rarity. First, the cost was prohibitive for all but the most wealthy. Second, the formality and scale of parterre designs were often regarded as appropriate only to large houses, which were uncommon in the colonial world. Third, the shift away from the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], in which parterres were featured prominently, began in British and colonial landscape aesthetics in the early eighteenth century (see [[Ancient style]] and [[Geometric style]]).

<span id="Langley_cite"></span>In 1728, English writer [[Batty Langley]] discouraged the use of embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres by proclaiming that the house should open onto a "plain" parterre—a bordered [[square]] of grass, perhaps with a [[basin]] in the center ([[#Langley|view citation]]) [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] continued this trend in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1733) ([[#Miller|view citation]]). This mode of parterre design was an important antecedent to the practice of placing the house within a [[lawn]] setting (see [[Lawn]]).

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. The notation at "D" indicates a parterre for annual flowers.]]
<span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>The marked disfavor in which elaborate parterres were held in England by the end of the eighteenth century influenced the reception of them in America. English-born architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) disapproved of [[George Washington]]'s inclusion of a parterre in the form of a "richly flourishing Fleur de Lis" in the midst of his [[flower garden]], which was otherwise arranged in "[[square]]s, and boxed with great precision" ([[#Latrobe|view citation]]). [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] complained that the parterre was old-fashioned, an opinion upheld by leading garden treatise writers. <span id="Marshall_cite"></span>British author [[Charles Marshall]] (1799) claimed that scrolls and flourishes typical of the embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterre "have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed." He recommended instead that parterres be made up of regularized [[bed]]s, neatly edged with box, and set within a squared [[plot]] ([[#Marshall|view citation]]).

In the nineteenth century, as the function of the so-called "plain," or unembellished, parterre was replaced slowly by the [[lawn]], the term began to refer exclusively to densely planted [[bed]]s. These patterns were achieved through an extensive use of plants and [[shrub]]s as opposed to the inorganic materials that had been featured in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>Moreover, [[Bernard M'Mahon]] (1806) argued that the parterre, displaced by the [[lawn]] from its position adjacent to the house, could be "introduced in some of the more internal parts" of the [[pleasure ground]], where it could serve as a [[flower garden]] and be divided into flower [[bed]]s edged with box or turf ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

[[File:1765.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.]]
In general, "[[flower garden]]," as opposed to "parterre," became the preferred term to denote a garden space devoted to the display of flowers. For example, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), [[J. C. Loudon]] described the parterre in just a few paragraphs, in contrast to the chapters he devoted to the [[flower garden]]. Nevertheless, the term was used by British travelers in America, chiefly to refer to gardens situated near the entrance to the house. Their descriptions, as well as planting advice published in horticulture magazines, reveal that parterres employed a wide variety of vegetation, ranging from herbaceous flowers to flowering [[shrub]]s and ornamental or fruit trees, and the use of these plant types depended upon local climate.

The general trend toward the parterre as a planting feature continued into the mid-century. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>[[Robert Buist]]'s 1841 recommendation that the [[flower garden]] be composed of scattered groupings of parterres and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], suggests that parterres were considered more like flower [[bed]]s than the earlier intricately patterned spaces ([[#Buist|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., used the term "parterre" in 1847 to refer to flower [[bed]]s crowned by [[vase]]s, while he used the term "[[flower garden]]" to refer to the entire ornamental area in front of the [[greenhouse]] ([[#Downing|view citation]]). The parterre thus denoted a space within the [[pleasure ground]] that was densely or intricately planted. <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>As [[Jane Loudon]] succinctly stated in 1845, "in a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel" ([[#JaneLoudon|view citation]]). These mid-nineteenth century parterres might range from the very simple (such as the circular [[bed]] of annuals at "D" set within a [[square]] of dahlias, which was proposed by the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841) [Fig. 3], to the more elaborate (such as the curvilinear design of symmetrical [[bed]]s divided by [[walk]]s, as proposed in 1848 by Dr. William W. Valk in the ''Horticulturist'') [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]]. In these designs, color contrast was an important consideration, as noted in [[Jane Loudon]]'s 1845 treatise.

Although by 1850 the parterre had changed dramatically since the early eighteenth century, the term still retained some of its associations of intricacy and elaboration, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>as suggested by [[Joseph Breck]]'s incorporation of fanciful style with parterre ([[#Breck|view citation]]). The term also developed an additional connotation of Frenchness, despite both French and British seventeenth-century treatise writers having traced the word back to a common Latin root. The association with France (particularly of flower [[bed]]s executed in "regular and intricate figures") can be attributed to the eighteenth-century division between "plain" British parterres and so-called "French" embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres. This connection may also be linked to the important role that French treatise writers played in establishing the eighteenth-century typology of the parterre [Fig. 4].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (Colden 1920: 4:472)<ref>Cadwallader Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918-37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AWRMN2FD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an [[arbor|Arbour]], Every run of water, a [[Canal]], & every small level Spot a '''Parterre'''." [Fig. 5]

*Bentley, William, October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, Mass. (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[58] 4. . . . I visited Mr. Brattle's Gardens, &c. at Cambridge. . . . The garden is laid out upon a very considerable descent & formed with [[terrace]] [[walk]]s, abounding with Trees, fruits, & the whole luxury of vegetation, & is unrivaled [''sic''] by any thing I have seen of the kind. The poultry was excellent & numerous. The '''parterres''' in fine order in the Garden."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 165),<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]]. . . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precision. Along the North [[Wall]] of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a '''parterre''', chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourishing Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 4, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M'Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 456) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"My old friend Thouin, Director of the National garden of France has just sent me a fresh parcel of seeds which he thus describes. 'They consist of about 200. species, foreign to N. American, selected from among 1. the large trees, the word of which is useful in the arts. 2. small trees & [[shrub]]s, ornamental for [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. 3. plants vivacious & [[picturesque]]. 4. flowers for '''parterres'''. 5. plants of use in medicine & all the branches of rural & domestic economy.'"

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, "An American Wedding Journey in 1825" (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"From the top of [[Mount Holyoke]], which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive [[view]]s in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into '''parterres'''."

*Ferrall, S. A., 1832, describing New Orleans, La. (p. 206)<ref>S. A. Ferrall, ''A Ramble of Six Thousand Miles through the United States of America'' (London: Effingham Wilson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA3ZUPRN/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The planters' and merchants' villas immediately in the vicinity are extremely tasteful, and are surrounded by large '''parterres''' filled with plantain, banana, palm, orange, and rose trees."

*Kennedy, John Pendleton, 1833, in an address to the Horticultural Society of Maryland, describing the flower hall of the First Annual Exhibition (p. 25)<ref>John Pendleton Kennedy, ''Address Delivered before the Horticultural Society of Maryland at Its First Annual Exhibition, June 12, 1833'' (Baltimore, Md.: John D. Toy, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RK9Q8MT2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A garden is a theme of pleasant recollections to us in every stage of life. We remember, with a peculiar fondness, those days of infancy which were spent in playing through the [[labyrinth]]s of the trimmed [[hedge]]s of box, and where the althea, the lilac and the hawthorn, bounded the '''parterre'''."

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:81)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Situated about two hundred yards back from the river, the approach to it [the house] was by a lofty massive [[gateway]] which entered upon a wide gravelled [[walk]], bordered by dark foliaged orange trees, loaded with their golden fruit. Pomegranate, fig, and lemon trees, shrubs, plants and exotics of every clime and variety, were dispersed in profusion over this charming '''''parterre'''''. Double palisades of lemon and orange trees surrounded the spot, forming one of the loveliest and most elegant rural retirements, that imagination could create or romantic ambition desire."

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, describing the vicinity of Boston, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409-12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s; [[walk]]s now winding through the small adjacent [[copse]] filled with wild flowers assembled from every location where they are found, gradually ascending an elevated spot where the beauty of the [[prospect]] bursts upon the astonished eye, then leading into the cultivated [[flower garden]], with its [[basin]]s or [[pond]]s of water for aquatics, its [[rock work]], the [[trellis]] covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium, the '''parterres''' for collections of herbaceous perennials, the damp and protected spots for the rhododendron, azalea and other peat earth plants, the [[rustic style|rustic]] moss house, and the collections of flowers in masses."

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52), <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:"THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright '''parterres''' of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of '''parterres''' in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summerhouse|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On either front is an ample [[lawn]] with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, '''parterres''', [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation."

*Committee on the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing [[John Notman]]'s plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], '''parterres''', and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort."

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the Charles Norris House, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"It [the garden] was laid out in [[square]] '''parterres''' and [[bed]]s, regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.),<ref>Jean de la Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterres''''', are ''[[Flower Gardens]]'', or ''Flower'' [[plot]]s in such ''Gardens''."

*<div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine Joseph Dézallier d'Argenville|[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 17–18, 32–33),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:"A '''PARTERRE''' is the first Thing that should present itself to Sight, and possess the Ground next the Fabrick, whether in Front, or on the Sides; as well on Account of the Opening it affords the Building, as for the Beauty and Splendor wherewith it constantly entertains the Eye, when seen from every Window of the House. The Sides of a '''Parterre''' should be furnished with such Works as may improve and set it off; for this being low, and flat, necessarily requires something raised, as [[Grove]]s and Palisades are. But, herein, Regard should be had to the Situation of the Place; and it should be observ’d, before you plant, whether the [[Prospect]] that way be agreeable; for then the Sides of the '''Parterre''' should be kept entirely open, making use of [[Quarter]]s of Grass, and other flat Works, to make the best of the [[View]], and taking Care not to shut it up with [[Grove]]s, unless they are planted in Quincunce, or opened with low [[Hedge]]-Rows, which hinder not the Eye from piercing through the Trees, and discovering the Beauties of the [[Prospect]] on every side. . . .
:"THE Name of '''''Parterre''''' has its Original from the ''Latin'' word ''Partiri'', to ''divide''; and according to some, a '''Parterre''' denotes a flat and eaven [''sic''] Surface.

[[File:1414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.]]

:"The Compartiments and [[Border]]s of '''Parterres''' are taken from [[geometric style|Geometrical]] Figures, as well right-lined, as circular, mix'd, ''&c''. They take various Designs into their Composition, as branch’d and flourish’d Work, Palms, Foliage, Hawks-Bills, Sprigs, Tendrells, Volutes, Knots, Stalks, Ties, Chaplets, Beads, Husks, Cartoozes, Plumes, Compartiments, Frets or Interlacings, Wreaths, and Shell-works of Grass, Paths, [[Border]]s, ''&c''. And sometimes to these are added the Designs of Flowers, as Roses, Pinks, Tulips, and the like. . . .
:"There are divers Sorts of '''Parterres''', which may be all reduced to these Four that follow; namely, '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, '''Parterres''' of Compartiment, '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Manner, and '''Parterres''' of Cut-Work. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery are so called, because the Box wherewith they are planted, imitates Embroidery upon the Ground. These are the finest and most magnificent of all, and are sometimes accompanied with Knots and Scrolls of Grass-work. Their Bottom should be sanded, the better to distinguish the Foliage and Flourish'dwork of the Embroidery, which is usually filled with * Smiths-Dust, or black Earth. [Fig. 7]

[[File:1415.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.]]

:"'''PARTERRES''' of Compartiment differ from those of Embroidery, in that the same Symmetry of Design is repeated, as well in respect of the Ends, as of the Sides. These '''Parterres''' are made up of Scrolls and other Grass-works, Knots, and [[Border]]s for Flowers, with a little well-disposed Embroidery, which Mixture produces an Effect very agreeable to the Eye. The Ground of these should be very well made, and filled with Sand between the Leaves; the narrow Paths that separate the Compartiments, we usually distinguish with † Tile-shards powdered, or Brick-dust. [Fig. 8]
:"'''PARTERRES''' after the ''English'' Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-[[plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a § Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Cut-work, tho' not so fashionable at present, are however not unworthy of our Regard. They differ from the others, in that all the Parts which compose them should be cut with Symmetry, and that they admit neither of Grass nor Embroidery, but only [[Border]]s edged with Box, that serve to raise Flowers in; and by means of a Path of convenient Breadth that runs round each Piece, you may [[walk]] through the whole '''Parterre''' without hurting any Thing: All these Paths should be sanded.
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery, being the finest, should possess the principal Place, and lie next the Building: Those of Compartiment should accompany them; and the '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Fashion may serve to fill up the greater Spaces and in the [[orangery|Orangeries]], and then we call it '''''Parterre''' d’Orangerie''. Those of Cut-work are proper for small Places where you would raise Flowers, and then 'tis called, likewise, '''''Parterre''' Fleuriste''....
:"You may dispose '''Parterres''' several ways, as the Place shall require; either by cutting them into two long [[Quarter]]s repeated with an [[Alley]] between them, or making only one [[Square]] of Embroidered-work, with [[Walk]]s upon the Sides; or cutting it by Diagonal [[Walk]]s, in Form of S. ''Andrew''s Cross; and sometimes into [[Quarter]]s arched at one End; of all which you have Examples in the following Plates."

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Macheser'', i.e. ''Dross, or Scales of Iron. Smiths-Dust is either the Scales beaten off at the Anvil, or Iron Fillings.''
:† Fr. Ciment, ''i.e. Powdered Tile, or Brick, mix’d with Lime, which makes excellent Mortar, and is used by the'' French ''in Works under Water.''
:§ Sentier ratissé, ''by which the French understand a Path raked over only, and not rolled, as ‘tis generally translated, to comply with our Custom of Rolling, which is not so much used by the'' French, ''their Gravel rarely binding, as ours does.''

[[File:1412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.]]
*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:183–84),<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....'', 1st edn, 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Switzer_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterre''''' (says the Author of ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', as he has it from the ''Royal Dictionary'') is deriv'd from the ''Latin'' Word ''partiri''. I shall not absolutely determine against so great Authority; but it seems to have a nearer Relation to ''Pars'', or rather the ''Latin'' Compound, ''par'' and ''Terra'', a level, even Piece of Land; neither does it seem to imply any particular Decoration or Embellishment with which it is furnish’d, and is therefore, by Mistake, suppos’d purely to imply, in a limited Sense only, that Division of [[Plat]] of Ground, which with us (as well as in other Countries where Gardening is in Esteem) is call’d the '''''Parterre''''', or ''[[flower garden|Flower-Garden]]''; since the ''French'' have their '''''Parterre''' d’Eau'' or '''Parterre''' of Water, ''&c''. And '''Parterres''' themselves are divided into several Kinds, and have an Epithet join’d to them, to express more fully their proper Distinction. But however general the Word is in its Construction, 'tis what we understand here in ''England'', by that level Division of Ground that, generally speaking, faces the South and best Front of an House, furnish'd, as it has always been with us, with [[Green]]s, Flowers, ''&c''. These the ''French'' (as already hinted) divide into several Kinds, as they are more or less, and according to the Manner they are set off and adorn’d, ''viz''. [[bowling green|Bowling-green]] or plain '''Parterres''', the Method of which they own to have receiv’d from ''England'', and '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, ''&c''. The first of these Kinds is of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in ''England'', on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. Of these Kinds I have given some Designs, as also of others cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-Alleys between them. And these are the finest Kinds of '''''Parterre''''' Works in Esteem with us." [Fig. 9]

*Bradley, Richard, 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1.2:62)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"every one of the ''Flowering [[Shrub]]s'' I have mentioned, may be cultivated in Garden-[[Pot]]s, and so placed from time to time as they ''blossom'', in the [[Border]]s; by which Method a Gardener may change the Face of his '''''Parterre''''' every Week, and supply it constantly with fresh Beauties."

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:1384.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*<div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: x, vi),<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"And the plainer '''''Parterres''''' are, the more Grandeur, for when they are stuff'd up with so many ''small Ornaments'', they ''break the Rays of Sight'', and the whole appears a Confusion. . . . [Fig. 10]
:"And since '''''Parterres''''' are most beautiful when ''entirely plain'', I therefore recommend the removal of all Kinds of Ever-Greens from thence, and to have no more ''Gravel [[Walk]]s'' about them than are necessary for Use. . . .
:"Plate X and XI, are Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens . . . to the ''South'' upon the '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water'' C....
:"Plate XI hath its House opening to the ''North'' upon a ''plain '''Parterre''' of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water''....
:"Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House . . . to the ''South'', [opens] on a ''grand '''Parterre''' of Grass'', from which over the ''[[Canal]]'' you have a boundless [[View]] into the country."

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.),<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 2nd edn (London: Philip Miller, 1733), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3GIUJC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Miller_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENS. . . . In a fine ''Garden'', the first thing that should present itself to the Sight, should be an open level Piece of Grass, full as broad as the Length of the Building, which may be surrounded by a Gravel-[[Walk]], for the Conveniency of walking in wet Weather.
:"The Pieces of Grass should not be divided in the Middle with a Gravel-[[Walk]] (as is too frequently seen), for it is much more agreeable to [[view]] an intire [''sic''] Carpet of Grass from the House, than to have it intersected by [[Walk]]s. On the opposite Side of the Gravel-[[walk]]s may be [[Border]]s four Feet wide fon [''sic''] Flowers; which will sufficiently answer the purpose of '''Parterres'''; and if from the Back of these [[Border]]s there are Evergreens planted theatrically; it will bound the [[Prospect]] very agreeably; and where there are any objects worthy the Sight, or distant [[Prospect]]s to be obtain’d, there should be [[vista]]'s left. . . .
:"In ''Gardens'' which have [[terrace|Terrasses]] either in the Side or Front of the House, where there is a delightful [[Prospect]], so that you cannot shut up the '''''Parterre''''' by a circular Pallisade; in order to continue the new [[View]], you should lay several Compartiments of a '''''Parterre''''' together, such as plain Green-[[plot]]s, after the modern Fashion, or Cut-work; which ought to be divided at convenient Distances by Cross-[[walk]]s: But the '''''Parterre''''' or ''plain Green-[[plot]]'', must always be next to the House, because it is very agreeable to the Eye. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', is a level Division of Ground, which, for the most part, faces the South and best Front of an House, and is generally furnish'd with ''[[Green]]s, Flowers, &c''.
:"There are several Sorts of '''''Parterres''''', and ''[[Bowling-green]]'', or ''Plain'', '''''Parterres''' of Embroidery, &c''.
:"''Plain '''Parterres''''' are more beautiful in ''England'' than in any other Countries, by reason of the Excellency of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity that it affords to the Eye of the Spectator.
:"Others are cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-[[Alley]]s between them, which are the finest '''''Parterre''''' Works esteemed in ''England''.
:"As to the general Proportion of '''''Parterres''''' an Oblong or Long [[Square]] is accounted the most proper Figure for a '''''Parterre'''''; because by the Rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural Declension of the visual Rays in ''Opticks'', a long [[Square]] sinks almost to a [[Square]], and an exact [[Square]] appears much less than it really is; therefore a '''''Parterre''''' should not be less than twice as long as it is broad; twice and a half is accounted a very good Proportion, and it is very rare that three times is exceeded.
:"As to the Breadth of a '''''Parterre''''', it is to take its Dimensions from the Breadth of the Front of the House: If it be not above an hundred Feet, ’twill be too narrow; and if the Front be two hundred Feet, the '''''Parterre''''' must be of the same Breadth.
:"Some do not approve of making '''''Parterres''''' very broad, because it makes 'em appear too short; when nothing is more pleasing to the Eye, than a contracted, regular, Conduct and [[View]], as soon as a Person goes out of an House or Building: And a forward, direct [[View]] is the best, whether it be either '''''Parterre''''' or ''[[Lawn]]'', or any other open Space, either two, three, or four-fold to the Width: And for that Reason, those Designs may justly be disapprov'd by which the Nobleness of the [[View]] is marred at the immediate Entrance into the Garden, the Angle of Light being broken and confused.
:"The making of '''''Parterres''''' too large, causes a great Expence, and at the same time occasions a Diminution of [[Wood]], which is consequently the most valuable Part of a Garden.
:"There should be a [[terrace|Terrass]] [[walk]] on each Side the '''''Parterre''''', for an Elevation proper for [[View]]; and therefore there should never be the Flat of a '''''Parterre''''' between [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] and [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] above three hundred Feet; nor can it well be made less then an hundred and forty; and then the Length, at twice and a half the Breadth, would be three hundred and fifty Feet, which some account a handsome Proportion.
:"As to the Adorning and Furnishing these '''''Parterres''''', whether it be Plain, or with Embroidery, that depends much upon the Form of them, and therefore must be left to the Judgment and Fancy of the Designer."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.)<ref> Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PARTERRE''', in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into [[bed]]s, encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN.
:"The '''''Parterre''''' is a level division of ground, which, for the most part, faces the south and best front of a house, and is generally furnished with [[green]]s, flowers, ''&c''.
:"There are divers kinds of '''''parterres''''', as [[bowling green|bowling-green]] or plain '''''parterres'''''; '''''parterres''''' of embroidery; '''''parterres''''' cut in shell-work, in scroll-work, ''&c''. with sand allies between.
:"An oblong, or long [[square]] is accounted the most proper figure for a '''parterre'''; the sides whereof to be as two, or two and a half to one."

*<div id="Marshall"></div>Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Marshall_cite|back up to history]]

:"''Figured'' '''''parterres''''' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the [[bed]]s are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet [[square]], is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserve to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these [[bed]]s, or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (pp. 58, 66–67),<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower garden|flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the '''parterre''' way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . . .
:"Grand '''parterres''' were commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing '''parterre''' ground into two divisions.
:"A '''parterre''', is a spacious level [[plot]] of ground, divided into many partitions, of different figures and dimensions; by means of [[edging]]s or lines of dwarf-box, &c. or by verges of grass-turf, and tracks of sand, fine gravel, shell, and scroll-work, &c. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in ancient gardening, and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more.
:"The general figure of a '''parterre''', is an oblong or long [[square]]; because by the rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural declension of the visual rays in ''opticks'', a long [[square]] sinks almost to a [[square]], and an exact [[square]] appears much less so than it really is, when viewed at a distance; therefore '''parterres''' were generally made twice as long a broad.
:"These were bounded by a long [[bed]], or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were edged with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.
:"The partitions or [[bed]]s were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of flowers was past.
:"Though '''parterres''' in general are now become rather unfashionable, a little of that kind of work, might still be permitted for variety sake, though not immediately in front of the house as heretofore. A spacious [[lawn]], bounded with rural [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], is the most eligible situation for such; but a plain '''parterre''' of a moderate extent, either formed with lines of box, or with turf, might be introduced in some of the more internal parts, and distributed either into plain or complex departments, or [[bed]]s of earth for flowers, so as to answer the purpose of a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], for the most curious sorts; it will have an agreeable effect in forming a contrast with the more rural scenes."

[[File:1796.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.]]
[[File:1351.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 375, 796–97)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1924. ''Intricate and fanciful figures of '''parterres''''' are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with [[square]]s . . . formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar [[square]]s, but much larger, according to the scale .... [Fig. 11]
:"6106. ''In extensive and irregular '''parterres''''', one gravel-[[walk]], accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as [[walk]]s by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting [[walk]]s of the same width, of gravel and smaller [[walk]]s for displaying particular details. The main [[walk]], however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the [[walk]]; but in that sort of French '''parterre'''s which they call '''parterres''' of embroidery . . . the breadth of the gravelled part (''a'') varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers; and whoever wishes to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris; and consult the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau, Le Blond, &c." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (pp. 11–12),<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Buist_cite|back up to history]]

:"But, in commencing these operations, a design [for the [[flower garden]]] should be kept in [[view]] that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the '''parterre''' and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. . . . The outer margin of the [[[flower] garden]] should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and '''parterres'''."

*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (pp. 309–11),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [ttps://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''PARTERRE'''.—The French term for what in England is called a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but which in France in former times, when the word was originated, was most frequently a figure formed on the surface of the ground by turf, box, and gravel or sand, with occasional flowers or low [[shrub]]s. In these '''parterres''' flowers and shrubs were altogether secondary objects, the main features being the compartments of turf and the curious scroll-work of box. . . . '''Parterres''' of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England. . . . '''Parterres''' of compartments . . . are at present common both in France and England. '''''Parterres''' anglaises'' may now be considered as included in the '''parterres''' of compartments; because the French do not now cut up the ground into so many [[bed]]s as formerly, and plant a great many more flowers than they did in the time of Le Nôtre. . . . In a word, '''parterres''' are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel; in the former case the [[bed]]s are dug out of the [[lawn]], and in the latter they are separated from the gravel by [[edging]]s of box or stone, or of some plant, or durable material. The shape of the [[bed]]s in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the '''parterre''' belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of [[bed]]s ceases to be a '''parterre''', or a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], and can only be designated as a group or collection of groups on a [[lawn]]. Hence it is that all '''parterres''' and regular flower-gardens ought to be separated from the scenery by which they are surrounded by a line of demarcation, such as a low architectural [[wall]] with a balustrade and piers, and [[vase]]s; a low evergreen [[hedge]], a [[canal]], a ridge of [[rockwork]], a [[sunk fence]] with the sides of turf or of stone, a raised [[fence]] with the ridges and top of turf, or a raised [[terrace]]-[[walk]] of grass or gravel. . . .
:"In planting '''parterres''' there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in a [[bed]] so as that each [[bed]] shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same [[bed]]. It is almost needless to state that the former system is by far the best for general and striking effect; but as a '''parterre''' is frequently a kind of [[botanic garden]], and as in this case it is desirable to keep all the species of a genus together, flowers of all colours must occasionally occur in the same [[bed]]. In general, botanic '''parterres''' should not be mixed with '''parterres''' for effect, because the one kind never fails greatly to injure the other.
:"In planting '''parterres''' for general effect, the colours should be arranged so that those which are adjoining each other should be contrasts; and those which occupy corresponding parts of the same figure should be the same. . . .
:"The laying out and planting of '''parterres''' should always be attended to by the ladies of the place, because it requires a degree of taste and artistical feeling which is very seldom to be found among some gardeners to a sufficient extent; and which, indeed, can hardly be expected in many of them."

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[FLOWER GARDEN]], is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in '''parterres''' and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. . . .
:"No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his '''parterres''' should not be large, though his villa be small. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name ''[[Flower Garden]]''."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.
:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French '''parterre''', or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers." [Fig. 13]

[[File:0777.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21–25, 430)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th edn (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials. . . .
:"'The gardens of Versailles,' says a tasteful English reviewer, 'may indeed be taken as the great exemplar of this style. . . . Every tree was planted with [[geometric style|geometrical]] exactness, and '''parterre''' answered to '''parterre''' across a half a mile of gravel. . . . It takes the middle line between the two other [[geometric style|geometrical]] schools . . . the Italian [and] . . . the Dutch. There is more of [[promenade]], less of '''parterre'''; more of gravel than turf. . . .'
:"The ''French'' [[flower garden|flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area [attached directly to the house] devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of flower-garden [[French style|[French style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or '''''parterres''' of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height."

*<div id="Breck"></div>[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (p. 19),<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck's Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Breck_cite|back up to history]]

:"The form of the ground [for a [[flower garden]]] may be either [[square]] or oblong, somewhat circular or irregular. The interior part may be divided into oblong four-feet [[bed]]s, or in the manner of a '''parterre''', in some fanciful style; the former being more convenient, particularly for most of what are called florist’s flowers, but the latter more pleasing to the eye."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 10)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Ground [[plot]] of 4 1-4 acres of ground on Staten Island, the front on the Clove road, and rear on a brook of cold spring water. . . . The lawn is on the north of the house and filled with the choicest fruit trees, the vegetable garden on the south-west, and [[flower garden]]s and parterre's on the south and east, with borders on the north side." [Fig. 14]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1414.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.

Image:1415.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.

Image:1413.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.

Image:1425.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper" and "The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 124.

Image:1426.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The Parterre C drawn & Squar'd over upon Paper," "The same Parterre C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground," and "The Grove V & ye Bowling-green X design'd upon paper," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 130.

Image:1412.jpg|Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. "Plate. III is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, where the front of the House opens upon a ''large plain Parterre''...."

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "In Plate X, the House opens. . .to the ''South'' upon the ''Parterre of Grass and Water'' C . . . ."

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. House opens "to the ''North'' upon a ''plain Parterre of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a ''Parterre of Grass and Water''. . . ."

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. House opens "to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'' . . . ."

Image:1338.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-lines of gardens and parterres, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 361 and 362.

Image:1796.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.

Image:1374.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The house and French parterre," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1026, fig. 730.

Image:1765.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "D has a circle in the centre 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers...."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "...the parterre, or flower beds cut into the turf on the lawn, at ''k''"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67.

Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0250.jpg|Anonymous, The Castello Plan of New York ("Afbeeldinge Van de Stadt Amsterdam in Nieuw Neederlandt"), 1660.

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769. See detail.

Image:0248_detail.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', detail of Governor's Palace, 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794–95.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:1977.jpg|Charles Varlé (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 794, fig. 545.

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 796, fig. 549.

image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>

</references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Parterre

2017-08-30T20:45:25Z

Chelsdyl: /* Associated */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Flower garden]], [[Pleasure ground]]

==History==
[[File:1413.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.]]
The form, materials, and associated meanings of parterre all changed markedly between 1650 and 1850. <span id="Switzer_cite"></span>Stephen Switzer's ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718) provides a clear introduction to the etymology of the word, establishing that in England it referred to a sharply demarcated, level division of ground that was devoted to [[green]]s, flowers, and other vegetation ([[#Switzer|view citation]]). The feature generally was located near the house, where its design could be appreciated from elevated viewpoints, as well as from [[terrace]] [[walk]]s surrounding them. <span id="Argenville_cite"></span>Alluding to [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s earlier classification (1712) of parterres into four types (embroidery, "compartiment," English, and cut-work) ([[#Argenville|view citation]]), Switzer announced that the English mode, characterized by "large Grass-[[Plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and . . . encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers," was the prevailing style in England. Although he preferred more plain designs, Switzer also provided illustrations for rectangular parterres with shell and scroll work that bore a strong resemblance to the designs for embroidery, compartiment, and cut-work parterres noted in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s text [Fig. 1].

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The patterns described in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s and Switzer's treatises were achieved primarily with grass or turf, iron filings, smith's dust, black earth, red sand, brick dust, gravel, and cockleshells, <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>despite Jean de La Quintinie's assertion in 1693 that parterres were [[flower garden]]s or flower [[plot]]s ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]). In [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]'s designs, flowers, yews, and other shrubs generally were relegated to the [[border]]. Only two of his designs—a parterre of cutwork for flowers and a parterre of orange trees—were devoted to flowers, [[shrub]]s, or trees. Although such parterres were not common in the North American context, prominent examples exist, such as the garden at the [[Governor's House]] in New Bern, N.C., which bears a striking resemblance to plans found in British treatises [Fig. 2]. There are many reasons for their rarity. First, the cost was prohibitive for all but the most wealthy. Second, the formality and scale of parterre designs were often regarded as appropriate only to large houses, which were uncommon in the colonial world. Third, the shift away from the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], in which parterres were featured prominently, began in British and colonial landscape aesthetics in the early eighteenth century (see [[Ancient style]] and [[Geometric style]]).

<span id="Langley_cite"></span>In 1728, English writer [[Batty Langley]] discouraged the use of embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres by proclaiming that the house should open onto a "plain" parterre—a bordered [[square]] of grass, perhaps with a [[basin]] in the center ([[#Langley|view citation]]) [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] continued this trend in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1733) ([[#Miller|view citation]]). This mode of parterre design was an important antecedent to the practice of placing the house within a [[lawn]] setting (see [[Lawn]]).

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. The notation at "D" indicates a parterre for annual flowers.]]
<span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>The marked disfavor in which elaborate parterres were held in England by the end of the eighteenth century influenced the reception of them in America. English-born architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) disapproved of [[George Washington]]'s inclusion of a parterre in the form of a "richly flourishing Fleur de Lis" in the midst of his [[flower garden]], which was otherwise arranged in "[[square]]s, and boxed with great precision" ([[#Latrobe|view citation]]). [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] complained that the parterre was old-fashioned, an opinion upheld by leading garden treatise writers. <span id="Marshall_cite"></span>British author [[Charles Marshall]] (1799) claimed that scrolls and flourishes typical of the embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterre "have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed." He recommended instead that parterres be made up of regularized [[bed]]s, neatly edged with box, and set within a squared [[plot]] ([[#Marshall|view citation]]).

In the nineteenth century, as the function of the so-called "plain," or unembellished, parterre was replaced slowly by the [[lawn]], the term began to refer exclusively to densely planted [[bed]]s. These patterns were achieved through an extensive use of plants and [[shrub]]s as opposed to the inorganic materials that had been featured in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>Moreover, [[Bernard M'Mahon]] (1806) argued that the parterre, displaced by the [[lawn]] from its position adjacent to the house, could be "introduced in some of the more internal parts" of the [[pleasure ground]], where it could serve as a [[flower garden]] and be divided into flower [[bed]]s edged with box or turf ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

[[File:1765.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.]]
In general, "[[flower garden]]," as opposed to "parterre," became the preferred term to denote a garden space devoted to the display of flowers. For example, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), [[J. C. Loudon]] described the parterre in just a few paragraphs, in contrast to the chapters he devoted to the [[flower garden]]. Nevertheless, the term was used by British travelers in America, chiefly to refer to gardens situated near the entrance to the house. Their descriptions, as well as planting advice published in horticulture magazines, reveal that parterres employed a wide variety of vegetation, ranging from herbaceous flowers to flowering [[shrub]]s and ornamental or fruit trees, and the use of these plant types depended upon local climate.

The general trend toward the parterre as a planting feature continued into the mid-century. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>[[Robert Buist]]'s 1841 recommendation that the [[flower garden]] be composed of scattered groupings of parterres and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], suggests that parterres were considered more like flower [[bed]]s than the earlier intricately patterned spaces ([[#Buist|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., used the term "parterre" in 1847 to refer to flower [[bed]]s crowned by [[vase]]s, while he used the term "[[flower garden]]" to refer to the entire ornamental area in front of the [[greenhouse]] ([[#Downing|view citation]]). The parterre thus denoted a space within the [[pleasure ground]] that was densely or intricately planted. <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>As [[Jane Loudon]] succinctly stated in 1845, "in a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel" ([[#JaneLoudon|view citation]]). These mid-nineteenth century parterres might range from the very simple (such as the circular [[bed]] of annuals at "D" set within a [[square]] of dahlias, which was proposed by the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841) [Fig. 3], to the more elaborate (such as the curvilinear design of symmetrical [[bed]]s divided by [[walk]]s, as proposed in 1848 by Dr. William W. Valk in the ''Horticulturist'') [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]]. In these designs, color contrast was an important consideration, as noted in [[Jane Loudon]]'s 1845 treatise.

Although by 1850 the parterre had changed dramatically since the early eighteenth century, the term still retained some of its associations of intricacy and elaboration, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>as suggested by [[Joseph Breck]]'s incorporation of fanciful style with parterre ([[#Breck|view citation]]). The term also developed an additional connotation of Frenchness, despite both French and British seventeenth-century treatise writers having traced the word back to a common Latin root. The association with France (particularly of flower [[bed]]s executed in "regular and intricate figures") can be attributed to the eighteenth-century division between "plain" British parterres and so-called "French" embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres. This connection may also be linked to the important role that French treatise writers played in establishing the eighteenth-century typology of the parterre [Fig. 4].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (Colden 1920: 4:472)<ref>Cadwallader Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918-37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AWRMN2FD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an [[arbor|Arbour]], Every run of water, a [[Canal]], & every small level Spot a '''Parterre'''." [Fig. 5]

*Bentley, William, October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, Mass. (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[58] 4. . . . I visited Mr. Brattle's Gardens, &c. at Cambridge. . . . The garden is laid out upon a very considerable descent & formed with [[terrace]] [[walk]]s, abounding with Trees, fruits, & the whole luxury of vegetation, & is unrivaled [''sic''] by any thing I have seen of the kind. The poultry was excellent & numerous. The '''parterres''' in fine order in the Garden."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 165),<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]]. . . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precision. Along the North [[Wall]] of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a '''parterre''', chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourishing Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 4, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M'Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 456) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"My old friend Thouin, Director of the National garden of France has just sent me a fresh parcel of seeds which he thus describes. 'They consist of about 200. species, foreign to N. American, selected from among 1. the large trees, the word of which is useful in the arts. 2. small trees & [[shrub]]s, ornamental for [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. 3. plants vivacious & [[picturesque]]. 4. flowers for '''parterres'''. 5. plants of use in medicine & all the branches of rural & domestic economy.'"

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, "An American Wedding Journey in 1825" (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"From the top of [[Mount Holyoke]], which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive [[view]]s in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into '''parterres'''."

*Ferrall, S. A., 1832, describing New Orleans, La. (p. 206)<ref>S. A. Ferrall, ''A Ramble of Six Thousand Miles through the United States of America'' (London: Effingham Wilson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA3ZUPRN/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The planters' and merchants' villas immediately in the vicinity are extremely tasteful, and are surrounded by large '''parterres''' filled with plantain, banana, palm, orange, and rose trees."

*Kennedy, John Pendleton, 1833, in an address to the Horticultural Society of Maryland, describing the flower hall of the First Annual Exhibition (p. 25)<ref>John Pendleton Kennedy, ''Address Delivered before the Horticultural Society of Maryland at Its First Annual Exhibition, June 12, 1833'' (Baltimore, Md.: John D. Toy, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RK9Q8MT2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A garden is a theme of pleasant recollections to us in every stage of life. We remember, with a peculiar fondness, those days of infancy which were spent in playing through the [[labyrinth]]s of the trimmed [[hedge]]s of box, and where the althea, the lilac and the hawthorn, bounded the '''parterre'''."

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:81)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Situated about two hundred yards back from the river, the approach to it [the house] was by a lofty massive [[gateway]] which entered upon a wide gravelled [[walk]], bordered by dark foliaged orange trees, loaded with their golden fruit. Pomegranate, fig, and lemon trees, shrubs, plants and exotics of every clime and variety, were dispersed in profusion over this charming '''''parterre'''''. Double palisades of lemon and orange trees surrounded the spot, forming one of the loveliest and most elegant rural retirements, that imagination could create or romantic ambition desire."

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, describing the vicinity of Boston, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409-12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s; [[walk]]s now winding through the small adjacent [[copse]] filled with wild flowers assembled from every location where they are found, gradually ascending an elevated spot where the beauty of the [[prospect]] bursts upon the astonished eye, then leading into the cultivated [[flower garden]], with its [[basin]]s or [[pond]]s of water for aquatics, its [[rock work]], the [[trellis]] covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium, the '''parterres''' for collections of herbaceous perennials, the damp and protected spots for the rhododendron, azalea and other peat earth plants, the [[rustic style|rustic]] moss house, and the collections of flowers in masses."

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52), <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:"THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright '''parterres''' of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of '''parterres''' in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summerhouse|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On either front is an ample [[lawn]] with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, '''parterres''', [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation."

*Committee on the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing [[John Notman]]'s plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], '''parterres''', and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort."

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the Charles Norris House, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"It [the garden] was laid out in [[square]] '''parterres''' and [[bed]]s, regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.),<ref>Jean de la Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterres''''', are ''[[Flower Gardens]]'', or ''Flower'' [[plot]]s in such ''Gardens''."

*<div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine Joseph Dézallier d'Argenville|[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 17–18, 32–33),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:"A '''PARTERRE''' is the first Thing that should present itself to Sight, and possess the Ground next the Fabrick, whether in Front, or on the Sides; as well on Account of the Opening it affords the Building, as for the Beauty and Splendor wherewith it constantly entertains the Eye, when seen from every Window of the House. The Sides of a '''Parterre''' should be furnished with such Works as may improve and set it off; for this being low, and flat, necessarily requires something raised, as [[Grove]]s and Palisades are. But, herein, Regard should be had to the Situation of the Place; and it should be observ’d, before you plant, whether the [[Prospect]] that way be agreeable; for then the Sides of the '''Parterre''' should be kept entirely open, making use of [[Quarter]]s of Grass, and other flat Works, to make the best of the [[View]], and taking Care not to shut it up with [[Grove]]s, unless they are planted in Quincunce, or opened with low [[Hedge]]-Rows, which hinder not the Eye from piercing through the Trees, and discovering the Beauties of the [[Prospect]] on every side. . . .
:"THE Name of '''''Parterre''''' has its Original from the ''Latin'' word ''Partiri'', to ''divide''; and according to some, a '''Parterre''' denotes a flat and eaven [''sic''] Surface.

[[File:1414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.]]

:"The Compartiments and [[Border]]s of '''Parterres''' are taken from [[geometric style|Geometrical]] Figures, as well right-lined, as circular, mix'd, ''&c''. They take various Designs into their Composition, as branch’d and flourish’d Work, Palms, Foliage, Hawks-Bills, Sprigs, Tendrells, Volutes, Knots, Stalks, Ties, Chaplets, Beads, Husks, Cartoozes, Plumes, Compartiments, Frets or Interlacings, Wreaths, and Shell-works of Grass, Paths, [[Border]]s, ''&c''. And sometimes to these are added the Designs of Flowers, as Roses, Pinks, Tulips, and the like. . . .
:"There are divers Sorts of '''Parterres''', which may be all reduced to these Four that follow; namely, '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, '''Parterres''' of Compartiment, '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Manner, and '''Parterres''' of Cut-Work. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery are so called, because the Box wherewith they are planted, imitates Embroidery upon the Ground. These are the finest and most magnificent of all, and are sometimes accompanied with Knots and Scrolls of Grass-work. Their Bottom should be sanded, the better to distinguish the Foliage and Flourish'dwork of the Embroidery, which is usually filled with * Smiths-Dust, or black Earth. [Fig. 7]

[[File:1415.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.]]

:"'''PARTERRES''' of Compartiment differ from those of Embroidery, in that the same Symmetry of Design is repeated, as well in respect of the Ends, as of the Sides. These '''Parterres''' are made up of Scrolls and other Grass-works, Knots, and [[Border]]s for Flowers, with a little well-disposed Embroidery, which Mixture produces an Effect very agreeable to the Eye. The Ground of these should be very well made, and filled with Sand between the Leaves; the narrow Paths that separate the Compartiments, we usually distinguish with † Tile-shards powdered, or Brick-dust. [Fig. 8]
:"'''PARTERRES''' after the ''English'' Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-[[plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a § Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Cut-work, tho' not so fashionable at present, are however not unworthy of our Regard. They differ from the others, in that all the Parts which compose them should be cut with Symmetry, and that they admit neither of Grass nor Embroidery, but only [[Border]]s edged with Box, that serve to raise Flowers in; and by means of a Path of convenient Breadth that runs round each Piece, you may [[walk]] through the whole '''Parterre''' without hurting any Thing: All these Paths should be sanded.
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery, being the finest, should possess the principal Place, and lie next the Building: Those of Compartiment should accompany them; and the '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Fashion may serve to fill up the greater Spaces and in the [[orangery|Orangeries]], and then we call it '''''Parterre''' d’Orangerie''. Those of Cut-work are proper for small Places where you would raise Flowers, and then 'tis called, likewise, '''''Parterre''' Fleuriste''....
:"You may dispose '''Parterres''' several ways, as the Place shall require; either by cutting them into two long [[Quarter]]s repeated with an [[Alley]] between them, or making only one [[Square]] of Embroidered-work, with [[Walk]]s upon the Sides; or cutting it by Diagonal [[Walk]]s, in Form of S. ''Andrew''s Cross; and sometimes into [[Quarter]]s arched at one End; of all which you have Examples in the following Plates."

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Macheser'', i.e. ''Dross, or Scales of Iron. Smiths-Dust is either the Scales beaten off at the Anvil, or Iron Fillings.''
:† Fr. Ciment, ''i.e. Powdered Tile, or Brick, mix’d with Lime, which makes excellent Mortar, and is used by the'' French ''in Works under Water.''
:§ Sentier ratissé, ''by which the French understand a Path raked over only, and not rolled, as ‘tis generally translated, to comply with our Custom of Rolling, which is not so much used by the'' French, ''their Gravel rarely binding, as ours does.''

[[File:1412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.]]
*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:183–84),<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....'', 1st edn, 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Switzer_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterre''''' (says the Author of ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', as he has it from the ''Royal Dictionary'') is deriv'd from the ''Latin'' Word ''partiri''. I shall not absolutely determine against so great Authority; but it seems to have a nearer Relation to ''Pars'', or rather the ''Latin'' Compound, ''par'' and ''Terra'', a level, even Piece of Land; neither does it seem to imply any particular Decoration or Embellishment with which it is furnish’d, and is therefore, by Mistake, suppos’d purely to imply, in a limited Sense only, that Division of [[Plat]] of Ground, which with us (as well as in other Countries where Gardening is in Esteem) is call’d the '''''Parterre''''', or ''[[flower garden|Flower-Garden]]''; since the ''French'' have their '''''Parterre''' d’Eau'' or '''Parterre''' of Water, ''&c''. And '''Parterres''' themselves are divided into several Kinds, and have an Epithet join’d to them, to express more fully their proper Distinction. But however general the Word is in its Construction, 'tis what we understand here in ''England'', by that level Division of Ground that, generally speaking, faces the South and best Front of an House, furnish'd, as it has always been with us, with [[Green]]s, Flowers, ''&c''. These the ''French'' (as already hinted) divide into several Kinds, as they are more or less, and according to the Manner they are set off and adorn’d, ''viz''. [[bowling green|Bowling-green]] or plain '''Parterres''', the Method of which they own to have receiv’d from ''England'', and '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, ''&c''. The first of these Kinds is of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in ''England'', on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. Of these Kinds I have given some Designs, as also of others cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-Alleys between them. And these are the finest Kinds of '''''Parterre''''' Works in Esteem with us." [Fig. 9]

*Bradley, Richard, 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1.2:62)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"every one of the ''Flowering [[Shrub]]s'' I have mentioned, may be cultivated in Garden-[[Pot]]s, and so placed from time to time as they ''blossom'', in the [[Border]]s; by which Method a Gardener may change the Face of his '''''Parterre''''' every Week, and supply it constantly with fresh Beauties."

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:1384.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*<div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: x, vi),<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"And the plainer '''''Parterres''''' are, the more Grandeur, for when they are stuff'd up with so many ''small Ornaments'', they ''break the Rays of Sight'', and the whole appears a Confusion. . . . [Fig. 10]
:"And since '''''Parterres''''' are most beautiful when ''entirely plain'', I therefore recommend the removal of all Kinds of Ever-Greens from thence, and to have no more ''Gravel [[Walk]]s'' about them than are necessary for Use. . . .
:"Plate X and XI, are Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens . . . to the ''South'' upon the '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water'' C....
:"Plate XI hath its House opening to the ''North'' upon a ''plain '''Parterre''' of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water''....
:"Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House . . . to the ''South'', [opens] on a ''grand '''Parterre''' of Grass'', from which over the ''[[Canal]]'' you have a boundless [[View]] into the country."

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.),<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 2nd edn (London: Philip Miller, 1733), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3GIUJC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Miller_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENS. . . . In a fine ''Garden'', the first thing that should present itself to the Sight, should be an open level Piece of Grass, full as broad as the Length of the Building, which may be surrounded by a Gravel-[[Walk]], for the Conveniency of walking in wet Weather.
:"The Pieces of Grass should not be divided in the Middle with a Gravel-[[Walk]] (as is too frequently seen), for it is much more agreeable to [[view]] an intire [''sic''] Carpet of Grass from the House, than to have it intersected by [[Walk]]s. On the opposite Side of the Gravel-[[walk]]s may be [[Border]]s four Feet wide fon [''sic''] Flowers; which will sufficiently answer the purpose of '''Parterres'''; and if from the Back of these [[Border]]s there are Evergreens planted theatrically; it will bound the [[Prospect]] very agreeably; and where there are any objects worthy the Sight, or distant [[Prospect]]s to be obtain’d, there should be [[vista]]'s left. . . .
:"In ''Gardens'' which have [[terrace|Terrasses]] either in the Side or Front of the House, where there is a delightful [[Prospect]], so that you cannot shut up the '''''Parterre''''' by a circular Pallisade; in order to continue the new [[View]], you should lay several Compartiments of a '''''Parterre''''' together, such as plain Green-[[plot]]s, after the modern Fashion, or Cut-work; which ought to be divided at convenient Distances by Cross-[[walk]]s: But the '''''Parterre''''' or ''plain Green-[[plot]]'', must always be next to the House, because it is very agreeable to the Eye. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', is a level Division of Ground, which, for the most part, faces the South and best Front of an House, and is generally furnish'd with ''[[Green]]s, Flowers, &c''.
:"There are several Sorts of '''''Parterres''''', and ''[[Bowling-green]]'', or ''Plain'', '''''Parterres''' of Embroidery, &c''.
:"''Plain '''Parterres''''' are more beautiful in ''England'' than in any other Countries, by reason of the Excellency of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity that it affords to the Eye of the Spectator.
:"Others are cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-[[Alley]]s between them, which are the finest '''''Parterre''''' Works esteemed in ''England''.
:"As to the general Proportion of '''''Parterres''''' an Oblong or Long [[Square]] is accounted the most proper Figure for a '''''Parterre'''''; because by the Rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural Declension of the visual Rays in ''Opticks'', a long [[Square]] sinks almost to a [[Square]], and an exact [[Square]] appears much less than it really is; therefore a '''''Parterre''''' should not be less than twice as long as it is broad; twice and a half is accounted a very good Proportion, and it is very rare that three times is exceeded.
:"As to the Breadth of a '''''Parterre''''', it is to take its Dimensions from the Breadth of the Front of the House: If it be not above an hundred Feet, ’twill be too narrow; and if the Front be two hundred Feet, the '''''Parterre''''' must be of the same Breadth.
:"Some do not approve of making '''''Parterres''''' very broad, because it makes 'em appear too short; when nothing is more pleasing to the Eye, than a contracted, regular, Conduct and [[View]], as soon as a Person goes out of an House or Building: And a forward, direct [[View]] is the best, whether it be either '''''Parterre''''' or ''[[Lawn]]'', or any other open Space, either two, three, or four-fold to the Width: And for that Reason, those Designs may justly be disapprov'd by which the Nobleness of the [[View]] is marred at the immediate Entrance into the Garden, the Angle of Light being broken and confused.
:"The making of '''''Parterres''''' too large, causes a great Expence, and at the same time occasions a Diminution of [[Wood]], which is consequently the most valuable Part of a Garden.
:"There should be a [[terrace|Terrass]] [[walk]] on each Side the '''''Parterre''''', for an Elevation proper for [[View]]; and therefore there should never be the Flat of a '''''Parterre''''' between [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] and [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] above three hundred Feet; nor can it well be made less then an hundred and forty; and then the Length, at twice and a half the Breadth, would be three hundred and fifty Feet, which some account a handsome Proportion.
:"As to the Adorning and Furnishing these '''''Parterres''''', whether it be Plain, or with Embroidery, that depends much upon the Form of them, and therefore must be left to the Judgment and Fancy of the Designer."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.)<ref> Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PARTERRE''', in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into [[bed]]s, encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN.
:"The '''''Parterre''''' is a level division of ground, which, for the most part, faces the south and best front of a house, and is generally furnished with [[green]]s, flowers, ''&c''.
:"There are divers kinds of '''''parterres''''', as [[bowling green|bowling-green]] or plain '''''parterres'''''; '''''parterres''''' of embroidery; '''''parterres''''' cut in shell-work, in scroll-work, ''&c''. with sand allies between.
:"An oblong, or long [[square]] is accounted the most proper figure for a '''parterre'''; the sides whereof to be as two, or two and a half to one."

*<div id="Marshall"></div>Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Marshall_cite|back up to history]]

:"''Figured'' '''''parterres''''' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the [[bed]]s are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet [[square]], is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserve to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these [[bed]]s, or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (pp. 58, 66–67),<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower garden|flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the '''parterre''' way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . . .
:"Grand '''parterres''' were commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing '''parterre''' ground into two divisions.
:"A '''parterre''', is a spacious level [[plot]] of ground, divided into many partitions, of different figures and dimensions; by means of [[edging]]s or lines of dwarf-box, &c. or by verges of grass-turf, and tracks of sand, fine gravel, shell, and scroll-work, &c. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in ancient gardening, and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more.
:"The general figure of a '''parterre''', is an oblong or long [[square]]; because by the rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural declension of the visual rays in ''opticks'', a long [[square]] sinks almost to a [[square]], and an exact [[square]] appears much less so than it really is, when viewed at a distance; therefore '''parterres''' were generally made twice as long a broad.
:"These were bounded by a long [[bed]], or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were edged with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.
:"The partitions or [[bed]]s were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of flowers was past.
:"Though '''parterres''' in general are now become rather unfashionable, a little of that kind of work, might still be permitted for variety sake, though not immediately in front of the house as heretofore. A spacious [[lawn]], bounded with rural [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], is the most eligible situation for such; but a plain '''parterre''' of a moderate extent, either formed with lines of box, or with turf, might be introduced in some of the more internal parts, and distributed either into plain or complex departments, or [[bed]]s of earth for flowers, so as to answer the purpose of a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], for the most curious sorts; it will have an agreeable effect in forming a contrast with the more rural scenes."

[[File:1796.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.]]
[[File:1351.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 375, 796–97)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1924. ''Intricate and fanciful figures of '''parterres''''' are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with [[square]]s . . . formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar [[square]]s, but much larger, according to the scale .... [Fig. 11]
:"6106. ''In extensive and irregular '''parterres''''', one gravel-[[walk]], accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as [[walk]]s by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting [[walk]]s of the same width, of gravel and smaller [[walk]]s for displaying particular details. The main [[walk]], however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the [[walk]]; but in that sort of French '''parterre'''s which they call '''parterres''' of embroidery . . . the breadth of the gravelled part (''a'') varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers; and whoever wishes to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris; and consult the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau, Le Blond, &c." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (pp. 11–12),<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Buist_cite|back up to history]]

:"But, in commencing these operations, a design [for the [[flower garden]]] should be kept in [[view]] that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the '''parterre''' and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. . . . The outer margin of the [[[flower] garden]] should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and '''parterres'''."

*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (pp. 309–11),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [ttps://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''PARTERRE'''.—The French term for what in England is called a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but which in France in former times, when the word was originated, was most frequently a figure formed on the surface of the ground by turf, box, and gravel or sand, with occasional flowers or low [[shrub]]s. In these '''parterres''' flowers and shrubs were altogether secondary objects, the main features being the compartments of turf and the curious scroll-work of box. . . . '''Parterres''' of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England. . . . '''Parterres''' of compartments . . . are at present common both in France and England. '''''Parterres''' anglaises'' may now be considered as included in the '''parterres''' of compartments; because the French do not now cut up the ground into so many [[bed]]s as formerly, and plant a great many more flowers than they did in the time of Le Nôtre. . . . In a word, '''parterres''' are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel; in the former case the [[bed]]s are dug out of the [[lawn]], and in the latter they are separated from the gravel by [[edging]]s of box or stone, or of some plant, or durable material. The shape of the [[bed]]s in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the '''parterre''' belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of [[bed]]s ceases to be a '''parterre''', or a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], and can only be designated as a group or collection of groups on a [[lawn]]. Hence it is that all '''parterres''' and regular flower-gardens ought to be separated from the scenery by which they are surrounded by a line of demarcation, such as a low architectural [[wall]] with a balustrade and piers, and [[vase]]s; a low evergreen [[hedge]], a [[canal]], a ridge of [[rockwork]], a [[sunk fence]] with the sides of turf or of stone, a raised [[fence]] with the ridges and top of turf, or a raised [[terrace]]-[[walk]] of grass or gravel. . . .
:"In planting '''parterres''' there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in a [[bed]] so as that each [[bed]] shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same [[bed]]. It is almost needless to state that the former system is by far the best for general and striking effect; but as a '''parterre''' is frequently a kind of [[botanic garden]], and as in this case it is desirable to keep all the species of a genus together, flowers of all colours must occasionally occur in the same [[bed]]. In general, botanic '''parterres''' should not be mixed with '''parterres''' for effect, because the one kind never fails greatly to injure the other.
:"In planting '''parterres''' for general effect, the colours should be arranged so that those which are adjoining each other should be contrasts; and those which occupy corresponding parts of the same figure should be the same. . . .
:"The laying out and planting of '''parterres''' should always be attended to by the ladies of the place, because it requires a degree of taste and artistical feeling which is very seldom to be found among some gardeners to a sufficient extent; and which, indeed, can hardly be expected in many of them."

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[FLOWER GARDEN]], is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in '''parterres''' and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. . . .
:"No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his '''parterres''' should not be large, though his villa be small. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name ''[[Flower Garden]]''."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.
:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French '''parterre''', or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers." [Fig. 13]

[[File:0777.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21–25, 430)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th edn (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials. . . .
:"'The gardens of Versailles,' says a tasteful English reviewer, 'may indeed be taken as the great exemplar of this style. . . . Every tree was planted with [[geometric style|geometrical]] exactness, and '''parterre''' answered to '''parterre''' across a half a mile of gravel. . . . It takes the middle line between the two other [[geometric style|geometrical]] schools . . . the Italian [and] . . . the Dutch. There is more of [[promenade]], less of '''parterre'''; more of gravel than turf. . . .'
:"The ''French'' [[flower garden|flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area [attached directly to the house] devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of flower-garden [[French style|[French style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or '''''parterres''' of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height."

*<div id="Breck"></div>[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (p. 19),<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck's Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Breck_cite|back up to history]]

:"The form of the ground [for a [[flower garden]]] may be either [[square]] or oblong, somewhat circular or irregular. The interior part may be divided into oblong four-feet [[bed]]s, or in the manner of a '''parterre''', in some fanciful style; the former being more convenient, particularly for most of what are called florist’s flowers, but the latter more pleasing to the eye."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 10)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Ground [[plot]] of 4 1-4 acres of ground on Staten Island, the front on the Clove road, and rear on a brook of cold spring water. . . . The lawn is on the north of the house and filled with the choicest fruit trees, the vegetable garden on the south-west, and [[flower garden]]s and parterre's on the south and east, with borders on the north side." [Fig. 14]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1414.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.

Image:1415.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.

Image:1413.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.

Image:1425.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper" and "The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 124.

Image:1426.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The Parterre C drawn & Squar'd over upon Paper," "The same Parterre C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground," and "The Grove V & ye Bowling-green X design'd upon paper," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 130.

Image:1412.jpg|Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. "Plate. III is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, where the front of the House opens upon a ''large plain Parterre''...."

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "In Plate X, the House opens. . .to the ''South'' upon the ''Parterre of Grass and Water'' C . . . ."

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. House opens "to the ''North'' upon a ''plain Parterre of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a ''Parterre of Grass and Water''. . . ."

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. House opens "to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'' . . . ."

Image:1338.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-lines of gardens and parterres, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 361 and 362.

Image:1796.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.

Image:1374.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The house and French parterre," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1026, fig. 730.

Image:1765.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "D has a circle in the centre 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers...."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "...the parterre, or flower beds cut into the turf on the lawn, at ''k''"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67.

Image:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0250.jpg|Anonymous, The Castello Plan of New York ("Afbeeldinge Van de Stadt Amsterdam in Nieuw Neederlandt"), 1660.

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769. See detail.

Image:0248_detail.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', detail of Governor's Palace, 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|[[Claude Joseph Sautier]], John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794-95.

Image:0280.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:1977.jpg|[[Charles Varlé]] (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

Image:0195.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0102.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 794, fig. 545.

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 796, fig. 549.

image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>

</references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Parterre

2017-08-30T20:44:56Z

Chelsdyl: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Flower garden]], [[Pleasure ground]]

==History==
[[File:1413.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.]]
The form, materials, and associated meanings of parterre all changed markedly between 1650 and 1850. <span id="Switzer_cite"></span>Stephen Switzer's ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718) provides a clear introduction to the etymology of the word, establishing that in England it referred to a sharply demarcated, level division of ground that was devoted to [[green]]s, flowers, and other vegetation ([[#Switzer|view citation]]). The feature generally was located near the house, where its design could be appreciated from elevated viewpoints, as well as from [[terrace]] [[walk]]s surrounding them. <span id="Argenville_cite"></span>Alluding to [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s earlier classification (1712) of parterres into four types (embroidery, "compartiment," English, and cut-work) ([[#Argenville|view citation]]), Switzer announced that the English mode, characterized by "large Grass-[[Plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and . . . encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers," was the prevailing style in England. Although he preferred more plain designs, Switzer also provided illustrations for rectangular parterres with shell and scroll work that bore a strong resemblance to the designs for embroidery, compartiment, and cut-work parterres noted in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s text [Fig. 1].

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The patterns described in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s and Switzer's treatises were achieved primarily with grass or turf, iron filings, smith's dust, black earth, red sand, brick dust, gravel, and cockleshells, <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>despite Jean de La Quintinie's assertion in 1693 that parterres were [[flower garden]]s or flower [[plot]]s ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]). In [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]'s designs, flowers, yews, and other shrubs generally were relegated to the [[border]]. Only two of his designs—a parterre of cutwork for flowers and a parterre of orange trees—were devoted to flowers, [[shrub]]s, or trees. Although such parterres were not common in the North American context, prominent examples exist, such as the garden at the [[Governor's House]] in New Bern, N.C., which bears a striking resemblance to plans found in British treatises [Fig. 2]. There are many reasons for their rarity. First, the cost was prohibitive for all but the most wealthy. Second, the formality and scale of parterre designs were often regarded as appropriate only to large houses, which were uncommon in the colonial world. Third, the shift away from the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], in which parterres were featured prominently, began in British and colonial landscape aesthetics in the early eighteenth century (see [[Ancient style]] and [[Geometric style]]).

<span id="Langley_cite"></span>In 1728, English writer [[Batty Langley]] discouraged the use of embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres by proclaiming that the house should open onto a "plain" parterre—a bordered [[square]] of grass, perhaps with a [[basin]] in the center ([[#Langley|view citation]]) [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] continued this trend in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1733) ([[#Miller|view citation]]). This mode of parterre design was an important antecedent to the practice of placing the house within a [[lawn]] setting (see [[Lawn]]).

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. The notation at "D" indicates a parterre for annual flowers.]]
<span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>The marked disfavor in which elaborate parterres were held in England by the end of the eighteenth century influenced the reception of them in America. English-born architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) disapproved of [[George Washington]]'s inclusion of a parterre in the form of a "richly flourishing Fleur de Lis" in the midst of his [[flower garden]], which was otherwise arranged in "[[square]]s, and boxed with great precision" ([[#Latrobe|view citation]]). [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] complained that the parterre was old-fashioned, an opinion upheld by leading garden treatise writers. <span id="Marshall_cite"></span>British author [[Charles Marshall]] (1799) claimed that scrolls and flourishes typical of the embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterre "have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed." He recommended instead that parterres be made up of regularized [[bed]]s, neatly edged with box, and set within a squared [[plot]] ([[#Marshall|view citation]]).

In the nineteenth century, as the function of the so-called "plain," or unembellished, parterre was replaced slowly by the [[lawn]], the term began to refer exclusively to densely planted [[bed]]s. These patterns were achieved through an extensive use of plants and [[shrub]]s as opposed to the inorganic materials that had been featured in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>Moreover, [[Bernard M'Mahon]] (1806) argued that the parterre, displaced by the [[lawn]] from its position adjacent to the house, could be "introduced in some of the more internal parts" of the [[pleasure ground]], where it could serve as a [[flower garden]] and be divided into flower [[bed]]s edged with box or turf ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

[[File:1765.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.]]
In general, "[[flower garden]]," as opposed to "parterre," became the preferred term to denote a garden space devoted to the display of flowers. For example, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), [[J. C. Loudon]] described the parterre in just a few paragraphs, in contrast to the chapters he devoted to the [[flower garden]]. Nevertheless, the term was used by British travelers in America, chiefly to refer to gardens situated near the entrance to the house. Their descriptions, as well as planting advice published in horticulture magazines, reveal that parterres employed a wide variety of vegetation, ranging from herbaceous flowers to flowering [[shrub]]s and ornamental or fruit trees, and the use of these plant types depended upon local climate.

The general trend toward the parterre as a planting feature continued into the mid-century. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>[[Robert Buist]]'s 1841 recommendation that the [[flower garden]] be composed of scattered groupings of parterres and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], suggests that parterres were considered more like flower [[bed]]s than the earlier intricately patterned spaces ([[#Buist|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., used the term "parterre" in 1847 to refer to flower [[bed]]s crowned by [[vase]]s, while he used the term "[[flower garden]]" to refer to the entire ornamental area in front of the [[greenhouse]] ([[#Downing|view citation]]). The parterre thus denoted a space within the [[pleasure ground]] that was densely or intricately planted. <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>As [[Jane Loudon]] succinctly stated in 1845, "in a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel" ([[#JaneLoudon|view citation]]). These mid-nineteenth century parterres might range from the very simple (such as the circular [[bed]] of annuals at "D" set within a [[square]] of dahlias, which was proposed by the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841) [Fig. 3], to the more elaborate (such as the curvilinear design of symmetrical [[bed]]s divided by [[walk]]s, as proposed in 1848 by Dr. William W. Valk in the ''Horticulturist'') [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]]. In these designs, color contrast was an important consideration, as noted in [[Jane Loudon]]'s 1845 treatise.

Although by 1850 the parterre had changed dramatically since the early eighteenth century, the term still retained some of its associations of intricacy and elaboration, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>as suggested by [[Joseph Breck]]'s incorporation of fanciful style with parterre ([[#Breck|view citation]]). The term also developed an additional connotation of Frenchness, despite both French and British seventeenth-century treatise writers having traced the word back to a common Latin root. The association with France (particularly of flower [[bed]]s executed in "regular and intricate figures") can be attributed to the eighteenth-century division between "plain" British parterres and so-called "French" embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres. This connection may also be linked to the important role that French treatise writers played in establishing the eighteenth-century typology of the parterre [Fig. 4].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (Colden 1920: 4:472)<ref>Cadwallader Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918-37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AWRMN2FD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an [[arbor|Arbour]], Every run of water, a [[Canal]], & every small level Spot a '''Parterre'''." [Fig. 5]

*Bentley, William, October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, Mass. (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[58] 4. . . . I visited Mr. Brattle's Gardens, &c. at Cambridge. . . . The garden is laid out upon a very considerable descent & formed with [[terrace]] [[walk]]s, abounding with Trees, fruits, & the whole luxury of vegetation, & is unrivaled [''sic''] by any thing I have seen of the kind. The poultry was excellent & numerous. The '''parterres''' in fine order in the Garden."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 165),<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]]. . . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precision. Along the North [[Wall]] of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a '''parterre''', chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourishing Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 4, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M'Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 456) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"My old friend Thouin, Director of the National garden of France has just sent me a fresh parcel of seeds which he thus describes. 'They consist of about 200. species, foreign to N. American, selected from among 1. the large trees, the word of which is useful in the arts. 2. small trees & [[shrub]]s, ornamental for [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. 3. plants vivacious & [[picturesque]]. 4. flowers for '''parterres'''. 5. plants of use in medicine & all the branches of rural & domestic economy.'"

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, "An American Wedding Journey in 1825" (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"From the top of [[Mount Holyoke]], which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive [[view]]s in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into '''parterres'''."

*Ferrall, S. A., 1832, describing New Orleans, La. (p. 206)<ref>S. A. Ferrall, ''A Ramble of Six Thousand Miles through the United States of America'' (London: Effingham Wilson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA3ZUPRN/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The planters' and merchants' villas immediately in the vicinity are extremely tasteful, and are surrounded by large '''parterres''' filled with plantain, banana, palm, orange, and rose trees."

*Kennedy, John Pendleton, 1833, in an address to the Horticultural Society of Maryland, describing the flower hall of the First Annual Exhibition (p. 25)<ref>John Pendleton Kennedy, ''Address Delivered before the Horticultural Society of Maryland at Its First Annual Exhibition, June 12, 1833'' (Baltimore, Md.: John D. Toy, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RK9Q8MT2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A garden is a theme of pleasant recollections to us in every stage of life. We remember, with a peculiar fondness, those days of infancy which were spent in playing through the [[labyrinth]]s of the trimmed [[hedge]]s of box, and where the althea, the lilac and the hawthorn, bounded the '''parterre'''."

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:81)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Situated about two hundred yards back from the river, the approach to it [the house] was by a lofty massive [[gateway]] which entered upon a wide gravelled [[walk]], bordered by dark foliaged orange trees, loaded with their golden fruit. Pomegranate, fig, and lemon trees, shrubs, plants and exotics of every clime and variety, were dispersed in profusion over this charming '''''parterre'''''. Double palisades of lemon and orange trees surrounded the spot, forming one of the loveliest and most elegant rural retirements, that imagination could create or romantic ambition desire."

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, describing the vicinity of Boston, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409-12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s; [[walk]]s now winding through the small adjacent [[copse]] filled with wild flowers assembled from every location where they are found, gradually ascending an elevated spot where the beauty of the [[prospect]] bursts upon the astonished eye, then leading into the cultivated [[flower garden]], with its [[basin]]s or [[pond]]s of water for aquatics, its [[rock work]], the [[trellis]] covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium, the '''parterres''' for collections of herbaceous perennials, the damp and protected spots for the rhododendron, azalea and other peat earth plants, the [[rustic style|rustic]] moss house, and the collections of flowers in masses."

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52), <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:"THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright '''parterres''' of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of '''parterres''' in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summerhouse|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On either front is an ample [[lawn]] with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, '''parterres''', [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation."

*Committee on the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing [[John Notman]]'s plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], '''parterres''', and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort."

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the Charles Norris House, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"It [the garden] was laid out in [[square]] '''parterres''' and [[bed]]s, regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.),<ref>Jean de la Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterres''''', are ''[[Flower Gardens]]'', or ''Flower'' [[plot]]s in such ''Gardens''."

*<div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine Joseph Dézallier d'Argenville|[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 17–18, 32–33),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:"A '''PARTERRE''' is the first Thing that should present itself to Sight, and possess the Ground next the Fabrick, whether in Front, or on the Sides; as well on Account of the Opening it affords the Building, as for the Beauty and Splendor wherewith it constantly entertains the Eye, when seen from every Window of the House. The Sides of a '''Parterre''' should be furnished with such Works as may improve and set it off; for this being low, and flat, necessarily requires something raised, as [[Grove]]s and Palisades are. But, herein, Regard should be had to the Situation of the Place; and it should be observ’d, before you plant, whether the [[Prospect]] that way be agreeable; for then the Sides of the '''Parterre''' should be kept entirely open, making use of [[Quarter]]s of Grass, and other flat Works, to make the best of the [[View]], and taking Care not to shut it up with [[Grove]]s, unless they are planted in Quincunce, or opened with low [[Hedge]]-Rows, which hinder not the Eye from piercing through the Trees, and discovering the Beauties of the [[Prospect]] on every side. . . .
:"THE Name of '''''Parterre''''' has its Original from the ''Latin'' word ''Partiri'', to ''divide''; and according to some, a '''Parterre''' denotes a flat and eaven [''sic''] Surface.

[[File:1414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.]]

:"The Compartiments and [[Border]]s of '''Parterres''' are taken from [[geometric style|Geometrical]] Figures, as well right-lined, as circular, mix'd, ''&c''. They take various Designs into their Composition, as branch’d and flourish’d Work, Palms, Foliage, Hawks-Bills, Sprigs, Tendrells, Volutes, Knots, Stalks, Ties, Chaplets, Beads, Husks, Cartoozes, Plumes, Compartiments, Frets or Interlacings, Wreaths, and Shell-works of Grass, Paths, [[Border]]s, ''&c''. And sometimes to these are added the Designs of Flowers, as Roses, Pinks, Tulips, and the like. . . .
:"There are divers Sorts of '''Parterres''', which may be all reduced to these Four that follow; namely, '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, '''Parterres''' of Compartiment, '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Manner, and '''Parterres''' of Cut-Work. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery are so called, because the Box wherewith they are planted, imitates Embroidery upon the Ground. These are the finest and most magnificent of all, and are sometimes accompanied with Knots and Scrolls of Grass-work. Their Bottom should be sanded, the better to distinguish the Foliage and Flourish'dwork of the Embroidery, which is usually filled with * Smiths-Dust, or black Earth. [Fig. 7]

[[File:1415.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.]]

:"'''PARTERRES''' of Compartiment differ from those of Embroidery, in that the same Symmetry of Design is repeated, as well in respect of the Ends, as of the Sides. These '''Parterres''' are made up of Scrolls and other Grass-works, Knots, and [[Border]]s for Flowers, with a little well-disposed Embroidery, which Mixture produces an Effect very agreeable to the Eye. The Ground of these should be very well made, and filled with Sand between the Leaves; the narrow Paths that separate the Compartiments, we usually distinguish with † Tile-shards powdered, or Brick-dust. [Fig. 8]
:"'''PARTERRES''' after the ''English'' Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-[[plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a § Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Cut-work, tho' not so fashionable at present, are however not unworthy of our Regard. They differ from the others, in that all the Parts which compose them should be cut with Symmetry, and that they admit neither of Grass nor Embroidery, but only [[Border]]s edged with Box, that serve to raise Flowers in; and by means of a Path of convenient Breadth that runs round each Piece, you may [[walk]] through the whole '''Parterre''' without hurting any Thing: All these Paths should be sanded.
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery, being the finest, should possess the principal Place, and lie next the Building: Those of Compartiment should accompany them; and the '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Fashion may serve to fill up the greater Spaces and in the [[orangery|Orangeries]], and then we call it '''''Parterre''' d’Orangerie''. Those of Cut-work are proper for small Places where you would raise Flowers, and then 'tis called, likewise, '''''Parterre''' Fleuriste''....
:"You may dispose '''Parterres''' several ways, as the Place shall require; either by cutting them into two long [[Quarter]]s repeated with an [[Alley]] between them, or making only one [[Square]] of Embroidered-work, with [[Walk]]s upon the Sides; or cutting it by Diagonal [[Walk]]s, in Form of S. ''Andrew''s Cross; and sometimes into [[Quarter]]s arched at one End; of all which you have Examples in the following Plates."

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Macheser'', i.e. ''Dross, or Scales of Iron. Smiths-Dust is either the Scales beaten off at the Anvil, or Iron Fillings.''
:† Fr. Ciment, ''i.e. Powdered Tile, or Brick, mix’d with Lime, which makes excellent Mortar, and is used by the'' French ''in Works under Water.''
:§ Sentier ratissé, ''by which the French understand a Path raked over only, and not rolled, as ‘tis generally translated, to comply with our Custom of Rolling, which is not so much used by the'' French, ''their Gravel rarely binding, as ours does.''

[[File:1412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.]]
*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:183–84),<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....'', 1st edn, 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Switzer_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterre''''' (says the Author of ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', as he has it from the ''Royal Dictionary'') is deriv'd from the ''Latin'' Word ''partiri''. I shall not absolutely determine against so great Authority; but it seems to have a nearer Relation to ''Pars'', or rather the ''Latin'' Compound, ''par'' and ''Terra'', a level, even Piece of Land; neither does it seem to imply any particular Decoration or Embellishment with which it is furnish’d, and is therefore, by Mistake, suppos’d purely to imply, in a limited Sense only, that Division of [[Plat]] of Ground, which with us (as well as in other Countries where Gardening is in Esteem) is call’d the '''''Parterre''''', or ''[[flower garden|Flower-Garden]]''; since the ''French'' have their '''''Parterre''' d’Eau'' or '''Parterre''' of Water, ''&c''. And '''Parterres''' themselves are divided into several Kinds, and have an Epithet join’d to them, to express more fully their proper Distinction. But however general the Word is in its Construction, 'tis what we understand here in ''England'', by that level Division of Ground that, generally speaking, faces the South and best Front of an House, furnish'd, as it has always been with us, with [[Green]]s, Flowers, ''&c''. These the ''French'' (as already hinted) divide into several Kinds, as they are more or less, and according to the Manner they are set off and adorn’d, ''viz''. [[bowling green|Bowling-green]] or plain '''Parterres''', the Method of which they own to have receiv’d from ''England'', and '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, ''&c''. The first of these Kinds is of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in ''England'', on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. Of these Kinds I have given some Designs, as also of others cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-Alleys between them. And these are the finest Kinds of '''''Parterre''''' Works in Esteem with us." [Fig. 9]

*Bradley, Richard, 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1.2:62)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"every one of the ''Flowering [[Shrub]]s'' I have mentioned, may be cultivated in Garden-[[Pot]]s, and so placed from time to time as they ''blossom'', in the [[Border]]s; by which Method a Gardener may change the Face of his '''''Parterre''''' every Week, and supply it constantly with fresh Beauties."

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:1384.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*<div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: x, vi),<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"And the plainer '''''Parterres''''' are, the more Grandeur, for when they are stuff'd up with so many ''small Ornaments'', they ''break the Rays of Sight'', and the whole appears a Confusion. . . . [Fig. 10]
:"And since '''''Parterres''''' are most beautiful when ''entirely plain'', I therefore recommend the removal of all Kinds of Ever-Greens from thence, and to have no more ''Gravel [[Walk]]s'' about them than are necessary for Use. . . .
:"Plate X and XI, are Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens . . . to the ''South'' upon the '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water'' C....
:"Plate XI hath its House opening to the ''North'' upon a ''plain '''Parterre''' of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water''....
:"Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House . . . to the ''South'', [opens] on a ''grand '''Parterre''' of Grass'', from which over the ''[[Canal]]'' you have a boundless [[View]] into the country."

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.),<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 2nd edn (London: Philip Miller, 1733), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3GIUJC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Miller_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENS. . . . In a fine ''Garden'', the first thing that should present itself to the Sight, should be an open level Piece of Grass, full as broad as the Length of the Building, which may be surrounded by a Gravel-[[Walk]], for the Conveniency of walking in wet Weather.
:"The Pieces of Grass should not be divided in the Middle with a Gravel-[[Walk]] (as is too frequently seen), for it is much more agreeable to [[view]] an intire [''sic''] Carpet of Grass from the House, than to have it intersected by [[Walk]]s. On the opposite Side of the Gravel-[[walk]]s may be [[Border]]s four Feet wide fon [''sic''] Flowers; which will sufficiently answer the purpose of '''Parterres'''; and if from the Back of these [[Border]]s there are Evergreens planted theatrically; it will bound the [[Prospect]] very agreeably; and where there are any objects worthy the Sight, or distant [[Prospect]]s to be obtain’d, there should be [[vista]]'s left. . . .
:"In ''Gardens'' which have [[terrace|Terrasses]] either in the Side or Front of the House, where there is a delightful [[Prospect]], so that you cannot shut up the '''''Parterre''''' by a circular Pallisade; in order to continue the new [[View]], you should lay several Compartiments of a '''''Parterre''''' together, such as plain Green-[[plot]]s, after the modern Fashion, or Cut-work; which ought to be divided at convenient Distances by Cross-[[walk]]s: But the '''''Parterre''''' or ''plain Green-[[plot]]'', must always be next to the House, because it is very agreeable to the Eye. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', is a level Division of Ground, which, for the most part, faces the South and best Front of an House, and is generally furnish'd with ''[[Green]]s, Flowers, &c''.
:"There are several Sorts of '''''Parterres''''', and ''[[Bowling-green]]'', or ''Plain'', '''''Parterres''' of Embroidery, &c''.
:"''Plain '''Parterres''''' are more beautiful in ''England'' than in any other Countries, by reason of the Excellency of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity that it affords to the Eye of the Spectator.
:"Others are cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-[[Alley]]s between them, which are the finest '''''Parterre''''' Works esteemed in ''England''.
:"As to the general Proportion of '''''Parterres''''' an Oblong or Long [[Square]] is accounted the most proper Figure for a '''''Parterre'''''; because by the Rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural Declension of the visual Rays in ''Opticks'', a long [[Square]] sinks almost to a [[Square]], and an exact [[Square]] appears much less than it really is; therefore a '''''Parterre''''' should not be less than twice as long as it is broad; twice and a half is accounted a very good Proportion, and it is very rare that three times is exceeded.
:"As to the Breadth of a '''''Parterre''''', it is to take its Dimensions from the Breadth of the Front of the House: If it be not above an hundred Feet, ’twill be too narrow; and if the Front be two hundred Feet, the '''''Parterre''''' must be of the same Breadth.
:"Some do not approve of making '''''Parterres''''' very broad, because it makes 'em appear too short; when nothing is more pleasing to the Eye, than a contracted, regular, Conduct and [[View]], as soon as a Person goes out of an House or Building: And a forward, direct [[View]] is the best, whether it be either '''''Parterre''''' or ''[[Lawn]]'', or any other open Space, either two, three, or four-fold to the Width: And for that Reason, those Designs may justly be disapprov'd by which the Nobleness of the [[View]] is marred at the immediate Entrance into the Garden, the Angle of Light being broken and confused.
:"The making of '''''Parterres''''' too large, causes a great Expence, and at the same time occasions a Diminution of [[Wood]], which is consequently the most valuable Part of a Garden.
:"There should be a [[terrace|Terrass]] [[walk]] on each Side the '''''Parterre''''', for an Elevation proper for [[View]]; and therefore there should never be the Flat of a '''''Parterre''''' between [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] and [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] above three hundred Feet; nor can it well be made less then an hundred and forty; and then the Length, at twice and a half the Breadth, would be three hundred and fifty Feet, which some account a handsome Proportion.
:"As to the Adorning and Furnishing these '''''Parterres''''', whether it be Plain, or with Embroidery, that depends much upon the Form of them, and therefore must be left to the Judgment and Fancy of the Designer."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.)<ref> Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PARTERRE''', in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into [[bed]]s, encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN.
:"The '''''Parterre''''' is a level division of ground, which, for the most part, faces the south and best front of a house, and is generally furnished with [[green]]s, flowers, ''&c''.
:"There are divers kinds of '''''parterres''''', as [[bowling green|bowling-green]] or plain '''''parterres'''''; '''''parterres''''' of embroidery; '''''parterres''''' cut in shell-work, in scroll-work, ''&c''. with sand allies between.
:"An oblong, or long [[square]] is accounted the most proper figure for a '''parterre'''; the sides whereof to be as two, or two and a half to one."

*<div id="Marshall"></div>Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Marshall_cite|back up to history]]

:"''Figured'' '''''parterres''''' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the [[bed]]s are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet [[square]], is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserve to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these [[bed]]s, or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (pp. 58, 66–67),<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower garden|flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the '''parterre''' way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . . .
:"Grand '''parterres''' were commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing '''parterre''' ground into two divisions.
:"A '''parterre''', is a spacious level [[plot]] of ground, divided into many partitions, of different figures and dimensions; by means of [[edging]]s or lines of dwarf-box, &c. or by verges of grass-turf, and tracks of sand, fine gravel, shell, and scroll-work, &c. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in ancient gardening, and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more.
:"The general figure of a '''parterre''', is an oblong or long [[square]]; because by the rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural declension of the visual rays in ''opticks'', a long [[square]] sinks almost to a [[square]], and an exact [[square]] appears much less so than it really is, when viewed at a distance; therefore '''parterres''' were generally made twice as long a broad.
:"These were bounded by a long [[bed]], or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were edged with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.
:"The partitions or [[bed]]s were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of flowers was past.
:"Though '''parterres''' in general are now become rather unfashionable, a little of that kind of work, might still be permitted for variety sake, though not immediately in front of the house as heretofore. A spacious [[lawn]], bounded with rural [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], is the most eligible situation for such; but a plain '''parterre''' of a moderate extent, either formed with lines of box, or with turf, might be introduced in some of the more internal parts, and distributed either into plain or complex departments, or [[bed]]s of earth for flowers, so as to answer the purpose of a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], for the most curious sorts; it will have an agreeable effect in forming a contrast with the more rural scenes."

[[File:1796.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.]]
[[File:1351.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 375, 796–97)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1924. ''Intricate and fanciful figures of '''parterres''''' are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with [[square]]s . . . formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar [[square]]s, but much larger, according to the scale .... [Fig. 11]
:"6106. ''In extensive and irregular '''parterres''''', one gravel-[[walk]], accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as [[walk]]s by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting [[walk]]s of the same width, of gravel and smaller [[walk]]s for displaying particular details. The main [[walk]], however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the [[walk]]; but in that sort of French '''parterre'''s which they call '''parterres''' of embroidery . . . the breadth of the gravelled part (''a'') varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers; and whoever wishes to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris; and consult the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau, Le Blond, &c." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (pp. 11–12),<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Buist_cite|back up to history]]

:"But, in commencing these operations, a design [for the [[flower garden]]] should be kept in [[view]] that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the '''parterre''' and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. . . . The outer margin of the [[[flower] garden]] should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and '''parterres'''."

*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (pp. 309–11),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [ttps://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''PARTERRE'''.—The French term for what in England is called a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but which in France in former times, when the word was originated, was most frequently a figure formed on the surface of the ground by turf, box, and gravel or sand, with occasional flowers or low [[shrub]]s. In these '''parterres''' flowers and shrubs were altogether secondary objects, the main features being the compartments of turf and the curious scroll-work of box. . . . '''Parterres''' of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England. . . . '''Parterres''' of compartments . . . are at present common both in France and England. '''''Parterres''' anglaises'' may now be considered as included in the '''parterres''' of compartments; because the French do not now cut up the ground into so many [[bed]]s as formerly, and plant a great many more flowers than they did in the time of Le Nôtre. . . . In a word, '''parterres''' are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel; in the former case the [[bed]]s are dug out of the [[lawn]], and in the latter they are separated from the gravel by [[edging]]s of box or stone, or of some plant, or durable material. The shape of the [[bed]]s in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the '''parterre''' belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of [[bed]]s ceases to be a '''parterre''', or a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], and can only be designated as a group or collection of groups on a [[lawn]]. Hence it is that all '''parterres''' and regular flower-gardens ought to be separated from the scenery by which they are surrounded by a line of demarcation, such as a low architectural [[wall]] with a balustrade and piers, and [[vase]]s; a low evergreen [[hedge]], a [[canal]], a ridge of [[rockwork]], a [[sunk fence]] with the sides of turf or of stone, a raised [[fence]] with the ridges and top of turf, or a raised [[terrace]]-[[walk]] of grass or gravel. . . .
:"In planting '''parterres''' there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in a [[bed]] so as that each [[bed]] shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same [[bed]]. It is almost needless to state that the former system is by far the best for general and striking effect; but as a '''parterre''' is frequently a kind of [[botanic garden]], and as in this case it is desirable to keep all the species of a genus together, flowers of all colours must occasionally occur in the same [[bed]]. In general, botanic '''parterres''' should not be mixed with '''parterres''' for effect, because the one kind never fails greatly to injure the other.
:"In planting '''parterres''' for general effect, the colours should be arranged so that those which are adjoining each other should be contrasts; and those which occupy corresponding parts of the same figure should be the same. . . .
:"The laying out and planting of '''parterres''' should always be attended to by the ladies of the place, because it requires a degree of taste and artistical feeling which is very seldom to be found among some gardeners to a sufficient extent; and which, indeed, can hardly be expected in many of them."

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[FLOWER GARDEN]], is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in '''parterres''' and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. . . .
:"No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his '''parterres''' should not be large, though his villa be small. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name ''[[Flower Garden]]''."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.
:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French '''parterre''', or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers." [Fig. 13]

[[File:0777.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21–25, 430)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th edn (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials. . . .
:"'The gardens of Versailles,' says a tasteful English reviewer, 'may indeed be taken as the great exemplar of this style. . . . Every tree was planted with [[geometric style|geometrical]] exactness, and '''parterre''' answered to '''parterre''' across a half a mile of gravel. . . . It takes the middle line between the two other [[geometric style|geometrical]] schools . . . the Italian [and] . . . the Dutch. There is more of [[promenade]], less of '''parterre'''; more of gravel than turf. . . .'
:"The ''French'' [[flower garden|flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area [attached directly to the house] devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of flower-garden [[French style|[French style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or '''''parterres''' of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height."

*<div id="Breck"></div>[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (p. 19),<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck's Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Breck_cite|back up to history]]

:"The form of the ground [for a [[flower garden]]] may be either [[square]] or oblong, somewhat circular or irregular. The interior part may be divided into oblong four-feet [[bed]]s, or in the manner of a '''parterre''', in some fanciful style; the former being more convenient, particularly for most of what are called florist’s flowers, but the latter more pleasing to the eye."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 10)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Ground [[plot]] of 4 1-4 acres of ground on Staten Island, the front on the Clove road, and rear on a brook of cold spring water. . . . The lawn is on the north of the house and filled with the choicest fruit trees, the vegetable garden on the south-west, and [[flower garden]]s and parterre's on the south and east, with borders on the north side." [Fig. 14]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1414.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.

Image:1415.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.

Image:1413.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.

Image:1425.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper" and "The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 124.

Image:1426.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "The Parterre C drawn & Squar'd over upon Paper," "The same Parterre C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground," and "The Grove V & ye Bowling-green X design'd upon paper," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 130.

Image:1412.jpg|Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. "Plate. III is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, where the front of the House opens upon a ''large plain Parterre''...."

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "In Plate X, the House opens. . .to the ''South'' upon the ''Parterre of Grass and Water'' C . . . ."

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. House opens "to the ''North'' upon a ''plain Parterre of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a ''Parterre of Grass and Water''. . . ."

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. House opens "to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'' . . . ."

Image:1338.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-lines of gardens and parterres, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 361 and 362.

Image:1796.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.

Image:1374.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The house and French parterre," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1026, fig. 730.

Image:1765.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "D has a circle in the centre 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers...."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "...the parterre, or flower beds cut into the turf on the lawn, at ''k''"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67.

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0250.jpg|Anonymous, The Castello Plan of New York ("Afbeeldinge Van de Stadt Amsterdam in Nieuw Neederlandt"), 1660.

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769. See detail.

Image:0248_detail.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', detail of Governor's Palace, 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|[[Claude Joseph Sautier]], John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794-95.

Image:0280.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:1977.jpg|[[Charles Varlé]] (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

Image:0195.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0102.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 794, fig. 545.

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 796, fig. 549.

image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>

</references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Parterre

2017-08-30T20:43:27Z

Chelsdyl: /* Citations */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Flower garden]], [[Pleasure ground]]

==History==
[[File:1413.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.]]
The form, materials, and associated meanings of parterre all changed markedly between 1650 and 1850. <span id="Switzer_cite"></span>Stephen Switzer's ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718) provides a clear introduction to the etymology of the word, establishing that in England it referred to a sharply demarcated, level division of ground that was devoted to [[green]]s, flowers, and other vegetation ([[#Switzer|view citation]]). The feature generally was located near the house, where its design could be appreciated from elevated viewpoints, as well as from [[terrace]] [[walk]]s surrounding them. <span id="Argenville_cite"></span>Alluding to [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s earlier classification (1712) of parterres into four types (embroidery, "compartiment," English, and cut-work) ([[#Argenville|view citation]]), Switzer announced that the English mode, characterized by "large Grass-[[Plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and . . . encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers," was the prevailing style in England. Although he preferred more plain designs, Switzer also provided illustrations for rectangular parterres with shell and scroll work that bore a strong resemblance to the designs for embroidery, compartiment, and cut-work parterres noted in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s text [Fig. 1].

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Claude Joseph Sautier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.]]
The patterns described in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d'Argenville]]'s and Switzer's treatises were achieved primarily with grass or turf, iron filings, smith's dust, black earth, red sand, brick dust, gravel, and cockleshells, <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>despite Jean de La Quintinie's assertion in 1693 that parterres were [[flower garden]]s or flower [[plot]]s ([[#Quintinie|view citation]]). In [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]'s designs, flowers, yews, and other shrubs generally were relegated to the [[border]]. Only two of his designs—a parterre of cutwork for flowers and a parterre of orange trees—were devoted to flowers, [[shrub]]s, or trees. Although such parterres were not common in the North American context, prominent examples exist, such as the garden at the [[Governor's House]] in New Bern, N.C., which bears a striking resemblance to plans found in British treatises [Fig. 2]. There are many reasons for their rarity. First, the cost was prohibitive for all but the most wealthy. Second, the formality and scale of parterre designs were often regarded as appropriate only to large houses, which were uncommon in the colonial world. Third, the shift away from the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], in which parterres were featured prominently, began in British and colonial landscape aesthetics in the early eighteenth century (see [[Ancient style]] and [[Geometric style]]).

<span id="Langley_cite"></span>In 1728, English writer [[Batty Langley]] discouraged the use of embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres by proclaiming that the house should open onto a "plain" parterre—a bordered [[square]] of grass, perhaps with a [[basin]] in the center ([[#Langley|view citation]]) [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. <span id="Miller_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] continued this trend in ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1733) ([[#Miller|view citation]]). This mode of parterre design was an important antecedent to the practice of placing the house within a [[lawn]] setting (see [[Lawn]]).

[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. The notation at "D" indicates a parterre for annual flowers.]]
<span id="Latrobe_cite"></span>The marked disfavor in which elaborate parterres were held in England by the end of the eighteenth century influenced the reception of them in America. English-born architect [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] (1796) disapproved of [[George Washington]]'s inclusion of a parterre in the form of a "richly flourishing Fleur de Lis" in the midst of his [[flower garden]], which was otherwise arranged in "[[square]]s, and boxed with great precision" ([[#Latrobe|view citation]]). [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] complained that the parterre was old-fashioned, an opinion upheld by leading garden treatise writers. <span id="Marshall_cite"></span>British author [[Charles Marshall]] (1799) claimed that scrolls and flourishes typical of the embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterre "have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed." He recommended instead that parterres be made up of regularized [[bed]]s, neatly edged with box, and set within a squared [[plot]] ([[#Marshall|view citation]]).

In the nineteenth century, as the function of the so-called "plain," or unembellished, parterre was replaced slowly by the [[lawn]], the term began to refer exclusively to densely planted [[bed]]s. These patterns were achieved through an extensive use of plants and [[shrub]]s as opposed to the inorganic materials that had been featured in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>Moreover, [[Bernard M'Mahon]] (1806) argued that the parterre, displaced by the [[lawn]] from its position adjacent to the house, could be "introduced in some of the more internal parts" of the [[pleasure ground]], where it could serve as a [[flower garden]] and be divided into flower [[bed]]s edged with box or turf ([[#MMahon|view citation]]).

[[File:1765.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.]]
In general, "[[flower garden]]," as opposed to "parterre," became the preferred term to denote a garden space devoted to the display of flowers. For example, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), [[J. C. Loudon]] described the parterre in just a few paragraphs, in contrast to the chapters he devoted to the [[flower garden]]. Nevertheless, the term was used by British travelers in America, chiefly to refer to gardens situated near the entrance to the house. Their descriptions, as well as planting advice published in horticulture magazines, reveal that parterres employed a wide variety of vegetation, ranging from herbaceous flowers to flowering [[shrub]]s and ornamental or fruit trees, and the use of these plant types depended upon local climate.

The general trend toward the parterre as a planting feature continued into the mid-century. <span id="Buist_cite"></span>[[Robert Buist]]'s 1841 recommendation that the [[flower garden]] be composed of scattered groupings of parterres and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], suggests that parterres were considered more like flower [[bed]]s than the earlier intricately patterned spaces ([[#Buist|view citation]]). <span id="Downing_cite"></span>Indeed, [[A. J. Downing]], at [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, N.Y., used the term "parterre" in 1847 to refer to flower [[bed]]s crowned by [[vase]]s, while he used the term "[[flower garden]]" to refer to the entire ornamental area in front of the [[greenhouse]] ([[#Downing|view citation]]). The parterre thus denoted a space within the [[pleasure ground]] that was densely or intricately planted. <span id="JaneLoudon_cite"></span>As [[Jane Loudon]] succinctly stated in 1845, "in a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel" ([[#JaneLoudon|view citation]]). These mid-nineteenth century parterres might range from the very simple (such as the circular [[bed]] of annuals at "D" set within a [[square]] of dahlias, which was proposed by the ''New England Farmer'' in 1841) [Fig. 3], to the more elaborate (such as the curvilinear design of symmetrical [[bed]]s divided by [[walk]]s, as proposed in 1848 by Dr. William W. Valk in the ''Horticulturist'') [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]]. In these designs, color contrast was an important consideration, as noted in [[Jane Loudon]]'s 1845 treatise.

Although by 1850 the parterre had changed dramatically since the early eighteenth century, the term still retained some of its associations of intricacy and elaboration, <span id="Breck_cite"></span>as suggested by [[Joseph Breck]]'s incorporation of fanciful style with parterre ([[#Breck|view citation]]). The term also developed an additional connotation of Frenchness, despite both French and British seventeenth-century treatise writers having traced the word back to a common Latin root. The association with France (particularly of flower [[bed]]s executed in "regular and intricate figures") can be attributed to the eighteenth-century division between "plain" British parterres and so-called "French" embroidery, compartiment, or cut-work parterres. This connection may also be linked to the important role that French treatise writers played in establishing the eighteenth-century typology of the parterre [Fig. 4].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (Colden 1920: 4:472)<ref>Cadwallader Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918-37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AWRMN2FD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an [[arbor|Arbour]], Every run of water, a [[Canal]], & every small level Spot a '''Parterre'''." [Fig. 5]

*Bentley, William, October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, Mass. (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[58] 4. . . . I visited Mr. Brattle's Gardens, &c. at Cambridge. . . . The garden is laid out upon a very considerable descent & formed with [[terrace]] [[walk]]s, abounding with Trees, fruits, & the whole luxury of vegetation, & is unrivaled [''sic''] by any thing I have seen of the kind. The poultry was excellent & numerous. The '''parterres''' in fine order in the Garden."

*<div id="Latrobe"></div>[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (1977: 165),<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Latrobe_cite|back up to history]]

:"The ground on the West front of the house is laid out in a level [[lawn]]. . . . On one side of this [[lawn]] is a plain [[Kitchen garden]], on the other a neat [[flower garden]] laid out in [[square]]s, and boxed with great precision. Along the North [[Wall]] of this Garden is a plain [[Greenhouse]]. The Plants were arranged in front, and contained nothing very rare, nor were they numerous. For the first time since I left Germany, I saw here a '''parterre''', chipped and trimmed with infinite care into the form of a richly flourishing Fleur de Lis: The expiring groans I hope of our Grandfather's pedantry."

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 4, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M'Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 456) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"My old friend Thouin, Director of the National garden of France has just sent me a fresh parcel of seeds which he thus describes. 'They consist of about 200. species, foreign to N. American, selected from among 1. the large trees, the word of which is useful in the arts. 2. small trees & [[shrub]]s, ornamental for [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. 3. plants vivacious & [[picturesque]]. 4. flowers for '''parterres'''. 5. plants of use in medicine & all the branches of rural & domestic economy.'"

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, "An American Wedding Journey in 1825" (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"From the top of [[Mount Holyoke]], which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive [[view]]s in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into '''parterres'''."

*Ferrall, S. A., 1832, describing New Orleans, La. (p. 206)<ref>S. A. Ferrall, ''A Ramble of Six Thousand Miles through the United States of America'' (London: Effingham Wilson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA3ZUPRN/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The planters' and merchants' villas immediately in the vicinity are extremely tasteful, and are surrounded by large '''parterres''' filled with plantain, banana, palm, orange, and rose trees."

*Kennedy, John Pendleton, 1833, in an address to the Horticultural Society of Maryland, describing the flower hall of the First Annual Exhibition (p. 25)<ref>John Pendleton Kennedy, ''Address Delivered before the Horticultural Society of Maryland at Its First Annual Exhibition, June 12, 1833'' (Baltimore, Md.: John D. Toy, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RK9Q8MT2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A garden is a theme of pleasant recollections to us in every stage of life. We remember, with a peculiar fondness, those days of infancy which were spent in playing through the [[labyrinth]]s of the trimmed [[hedge]]s of box, and where the althea, the lilac and the hawthorn, bounded the '''parterre'''."

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, La. (1:81)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Situated about two hundred yards back from the river, the approach to it [the house] was by a lofty massive [[gateway]] which entered upon a wide gravelled [[walk]], bordered by dark foliaged orange trees, loaded with their golden fruit. Pomegranate, fig, and lemon trees, shrubs, plants and exotics of every clime and variety, were dispersed in profusion over this charming '''''parterre'''''. Double palisades of lemon and orange trees surrounded the spot, forming one of the loveliest and most elegant rural retirements, that imagination could create or romantic ambition desire."

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, describing the vicinity of Boston, Mass. (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, "On Horticultural Architecture," ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409-12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s; [[walk]]s now winding through the small adjacent [[copse]] filled with wild flowers assembled from every location where they are found, gradually ascending an elevated spot where the beauty of the [[prospect]] bursts upon the astonished eye, then leading into the cultivated [[flower garden]], with its [[basin]]s or [[pond]]s of water for aquatics, its [[rock work]], the [[trellis]] covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium, the '''parterres''' for collections of herbaceous perennials, the damp and protected spots for the rhododendron, azalea and other peat earth plants, the [[rustic style|rustic]] moss house, and the collections of flowers in masses."

[[File:0394.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, N.Y. (quoted in Haley 1988: 52), <ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

:"Passing under neat and tasteful [[arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:"THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
:"How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright '''parterres''' of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the [[bed]]s are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery. In the centre of the garden stands a large [[vase]] of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of '''parterres''' in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summerhouse|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character." [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George's County, Md. (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, "Visit to Riversdale," ''The American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4, no. 2 (August 1848): 52-55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On either front is an ample [[lawn]] with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, '''parterres''', [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation."

*Committee on the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing [[John Notman]]'s plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], '''parterres''', and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort."

*[[Deborah Norris Logan|Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the Charles Norris House, Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"It [the garden] was laid out in [[square]] '''parterres''' and [[bed]]s, regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s."

{{break}}

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' ([1693] 1982: n.p.),<ref>Jean de la Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterres''''', are ''[[Flower Gardens]]'', or ''Flower'' [[plot]]s in such ''Gardens''."

*<div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine Joseph Dézallier d'Argenville|[Dézallier d'Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969: 17–18, 32–33),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:"A '''PARTERRE''' is the first Thing that should present itself to Sight, and possess the Ground next the Fabrick, whether in Front, or on the Sides; as well on Account of the Opening it affords the Building, as for the Beauty and Splendor wherewith it constantly entertains the Eye, when seen from every Window of the House. The Sides of a '''Parterre''' should be furnished with such Works as may improve and set it off; for this being low, and flat, necessarily requires something raised, as [[Grove]]s and Palisades are. But, herein, Regard should be had to the Situation of the Place; and it should be observ’d, before you plant, whether the [[Prospect]] that way be agreeable; for then the Sides of the '''Parterre''' should be kept entirely open, making use of [[Quarter]]s of Grass, and other flat Works, to make the best of the [[View]], and taking Care not to shut it up with [[Grove]]s, unless they are planted in Quincunce, or opened with low [[Hedge]]-Rows, which hinder not the Eye from piercing through the Trees, and discovering the Beauties of the [[Prospect]] on every side. . . .
:"THE Name of '''''Parterre''''' has its Original from the ''Latin'' word ''Partiri'', to ''divide''; and according to some, a '''Parterre''' denotes a flat and eaven [''sic''] Surface.

[[File:1414.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.]]

:"The Compartiments and [[Border]]s of '''Parterres''' are taken from [[geometric style|Geometrical]] Figures, as well right-lined, as circular, mix'd, ''&c''. They take various Designs into their Composition, as branch’d and flourish’d Work, Palms, Foliage, Hawks-Bills, Sprigs, Tendrells, Volutes, Knots, Stalks, Ties, Chaplets, Beads, Husks, Cartoozes, Plumes, Compartiments, Frets or Interlacings, Wreaths, and Shell-works of Grass, Paths, [[Border]]s, ''&c''. And sometimes to these are added the Designs of Flowers, as Roses, Pinks, Tulips, and the like. . . .
:"There are divers Sorts of '''Parterres''', which may be all reduced to these Four that follow; namely, '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, '''Parterres''' of Compartiment, '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Manner, and '''Parterres''' of Cut-Work. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery are so called, because the Box wherewith they are planted, imitates Embroidery upon the Ground. These are the finest and most magnificent of all, and are sometimes accompanied with Knots and Scrolls of Grass-work. Their Bottom should be sanded, the better to distinguish the Foliage and Flourish'dwork of the Embroidery, which is usually filled with * Smiths-Dust, or black Earth. [Fig. 7]

[[File:1415.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, "A Parterre of Compartiments," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.]]

:"'''PARTERRES''' of Compartiment differ from those of Embroidery, in that the same Symmetry of Design is repeated, as well in respect of the Ends, as of the Sides. These '''Parterres''' are made up of Scrolls and other Grass-works, Knots, and [[Border]]s for Flowers, with a little well-disposed Embroidery, which Mixture produces an Effect very agreeable to the Eye. The Ground of these should be very well made, and filled with Sand between the Leaves; the narrow Paths that separate the Compartiments, we usually distinguish with † Tile-shards powdered, or Brick-dust. [Fig. 8]
:"'''PARTERRES''' after the ''English'' Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-[[plot]]s all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a [[Border]] of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a § Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction. . . .
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Cut-work, tho' not so fashionable at present, are however not unworthy of our Regard. They differ from the others, in that all the Parts which compose them should be cut with Symmetry, and that they admit neither of Grass nor Embroidery, but only [[Border]]s edged with Box, that serve to raise Flowers in; and by means of a Path of convenient Breadth that runs round each Piece, you may [[walk]] through the whole '''Parterre''' without hurting any Thing: All these Paths should be sanded.
:"'''PARTERRES''' of Embroidery, being the finest, should possess the principal Place, and lie next the Building: Those of Compartiment should accompany them; and the '''Parterres''' after the ''English'' Fashion may serve to fill up the greater Spaces and in the [[orangery|Orangeries]], and then we call it '''''Parterre''' d’Orangerie''. Those of Cut-work are proper for small Places where you would raise Flowers, and then 'tis called, likewise, '''''Parterre''' Fleuriste''....
:"You may dispose '''Parterres''' several ways, as the Place shall require; either by cutting them into two long [[Quarter]]s repeated with an [[Alley]] between them, or making only one [[Square]] of Embroidered-work, with [[Walk]]s upon the Sides; or cutting it by Diagonal [[Walk]]s, in Form of S. ''Andrew''s Cross; and sometimes into [[Quarter]]s arched at one End; of all which you have Examples in the following Plates."

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Macheser'', i.e. ''Dross, or Scales of Iron. Smiths-Dust is either the Scales beaten off at the Anvil, or Iron Fillings.''
:† Fr. Ciment, ''i.e. Powdered Tile, or Brick, mix’d with Lime, which makes excellent Mortar, and is used by the'' French ''in Works under Water.''
:§ Sentier ratissé, ''by which the French understand a Path raked over only, and not rolled, as ‘tis generally translated, to comply with our Custom of Rolling, which is not so much used by the'' French, ''their Gravel rarely binding, as ours does.''

[[File:1412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Stephen Switzer, "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.]]
*<div id="Switzer"></div>Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia rustica'' ([1718] 1982: 2:183–84),<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation....'', 1st edn, 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Switzer_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''''Parterre''''' (says the Author of ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', as he has it from the ''Royal Dictionary'') is deriv'd from the ''Latin'' Word ''partiri''. I shall not absolutely determine against so great Authority; but it seems to have a nearer Relation to ''Pars'', or rather the ''Latin'' Compound, ''par'' and ''Terra'', a level, even Piece of Land; neither does it seem to imply any particular Decoration or Embellishment with which it is furnish’d, and is therefore, by Mistake, suppos’d purely to imply, in a limited Sense only, that Division of [[Plat]] of Ground, which with us (as well as in other Countries where Gardening is in Esteem) is call’d the '''''Parterre''''', or ''[[flower garden|Flower-Garden]]''; since the ''French'' have their '''''Parterre''' d’Eau'' or '''Parterre''' of Water, ''&c''. And '''Parterres''' themselves are divided into several Kinds, and have an Epithet join’d to them, to express more fully their proper Distinction. But however general the Word is in its Construction, 'tis what we understand here in ''England'', by that level Division of Ground that, generally speaking, faces the South and best Front of an House, furnish'd, as it has always been with us, with [[Green]]s, Flowers, ''&c''. These the ''French'' (as already hinted) divide into several Kinds, as they are more or less, and according to the Manner they are set off and adorn’d, ''viz''. [[bowling green|Bowling-green]] or plain '''Parterres''', the Method of which they own to have receiv’d from ''England'', and '''Parterres''' of Embroidery, ''&c''. The first of these Kinds is of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in ''England'', on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. Of these Kinds I have given some Designs, as also of others cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-Alleys between them. And these are the finest Kinds of '''''Parterre''''' Works in Esteem with us." [Fig. 9]

*Bradley, Richard, 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1.2:62)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"every one of the ''Flowering [[Shrub]]s'' I have mentioned, may be cultivated in Garden-[[Pot]]s, and so placed from time to time as they ''blossom'', in the [[Border]]s; by which Method a Gardener may change the Face of his '''''Parterre''''' every Week, and supply it constantly with fresh Beauties."

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:1384.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*<div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: x, vi),<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"And the plainer '''''Parterres''''' are, the more Grandeur, for when they are stuff'd up with so many ''small Ornaments'', they ''break the Rays of Sight'', and the whole appears a Confusion. . . . [Fig. 10]
:"And since '''''Parterres''''' are most beautiful when ''entirely plain'', I therefore recommend the removal of all Kinds of Ever-Greens from thence, and to have no more ''Gravel [[Walk]]s'' about them than are necessary for Use. . . .
:"Plate X and XI, are Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens . . . to the ''South'' upon the '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water'' C....
:"Plate XI hath its House opening to the ''North'' upon a ''plain '''Parterre''' of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a '''''Parterre''' of Grass and Water''....
:"Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House . . . to the ''South'', [opens] on a ''grand '''Parterre''' of Grass'', from which over the ''[[Canal]]'' you have a boundless [[View]] into the country."

*<div id="Miller"></div>[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (n.p.),<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard... Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 2nd edn (London: Philip Miller, 1733), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3GIUJC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Miller_cite|back up to history]]

:"GARDENS. . . . In a fine ''Garden'', the first thing that should present itself to the Sight, should be an open level Piece of Grass, full as broad as the Length of the Building, which may be surrounded by a Gravel-[[Walk]], for the Conveniency of walking in wet Weather.
:"The Pieces of Grass should not be divided in the Middle with a Gravel-[[Walk]] (as is too frequently seen), for it is much more agreeable to [[view]] an intire [''sic''] Carpet of Grass from the House, than to have it intersected by [[Walk]]s. On the opposite Side of the Gravel-[[walk]]s may be [[Border]]s four Feet wide fon [''sic''] Flowers; which will sufficiently answer the purpose of '''Parterres'''; and if from the Back of these [[Border]]s there are Evergreens planted theatrically; it will bound the [[Prospect]] very agreeably; and where there are any objects worthy the Sight, or distant [[Prospect]]s to be obtain’d, there should be [[vista]]'s left. . . .
:"In ''Gardens'' which have [[terrace|Terrasses]] either in the Side or Front of the House, where there is a delightful [[Prospect]], so that you cannot shut up the '''''Parterre''''' by a circular Pallisade; in order to continue the new [[View]], you should lay several Compartiments of a '''''Parterre''''' together, such as plain Green-[[plot]]s, after the modern Fashion, or Cut-work; which ought to be divided at convenient Distances by Cross-[[walk]]s: But the '''''Parterre''''' or ''plain Green-[[plot]]'', must always be next to the House, because it is very agreeable to the Eye. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', is a level Division of Ground, which, for the most part, faces the South and best Front of an House, and is generally furnish'd with ''[[Green]]s, Flowers, &c''.
:"There are several Sorts of '''''Parterres''''', and ''[[Bowling-green]]'', or ''Plain'', '''''Parterres''' of Embroidery, &c''.
:"''Plain '''Parterres''''' are more beautiful in ''England'' than in any other Countries, by reason of the Excellency of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity that it affords to the Eye of the Spectator.
:"Others are cut into Shell and Scroll-work, with Sand-[[Alley]]s between them, which are the finest '''''Parterre''''' Works esteemed in ''England''.
:"As to the general Proportion of '''''Parterres''''' an Oblong or Long [[Square]] is accounted the most proper Figure for a '''''Parterre'''''; because by the Rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural Declension of the visual Rays in ''Opticks'', a long [[Square]] sinks almost to a [[Square]], and an exact [[Square]] appears much less than it really is; therefore a '''''Parterre''''' should not be less than twice as long as it is broad; twice and a half is accounted a very good Proportion, and it is very rare that three times is exceeded.
:"As to the Breadth of a '''''Parterre''''', it is to take its Dimensions from the Breadth of the Front of the House: If it be not above an hundred Feet, ’twill be too narrow; and if the Front be two hundred Feet, the '''''Parterre''''' must be of the same Breadth.
:"Some do not approve of making '''''Parterres''''' very broad, because it makes 'em appear too short; when nothing is more pleasing to the Eye, than a contracted, regular, Conduct and [[View]], as soon as a Person goes out of an House or Building: And a forward, direct [[View]] is the best, whether it be either '''''Parterre''''' or ''[[Lawn]]'', or any other open Space, either two, three, or four-fold to the Width: And for that Reason, those Designs may justly be disapprov'd by which the Nobleness of the [[View]] is marred at the immediate Entrance into the Garden, the Angle of Light being broken and confused.
:"The making of '''''Parterres''''' too large, causes a great Expence, and at the same time occasions a Diminution of [[Wood]], which is consequently the most valuable Part of a Garden.
:"There should be a [[terrace|Terrass]] [[walk]] on each Side the '''''Parterre''''', for an Elevation proper for [[View]]; and therefore there should never be the Flat of a '''''Parterre''''' between [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] and [[terrace|Terrass]] [[Walk]] above three hundred Feet; nor can it well be made less then an hundred and forty; and then the Length, at twice and a half the Breadth, would be three hundred and fifty Feet, which some account a handsome Proportion.
:"As to the Adorning and Furnishing these '''''Parterres''''', whether it be Plain, or with Embroidery, that depends much upon the Form of them, and therefore must be left to the Judgment and Fancy of the Designer."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1:n.p.)<ref> Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''PARTERRE''', in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into [[bed]]s, encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN.
:"The '''''Parterre''''' is a level division of ground, which, for the most part, faces the south and best front of a house, and is generally furnished with [[green]]s, flowers, ''&c''.
:"There are divers kinds of '''''parterres''''', as [[bowling green|bowling-green]] or plain '''''parterres'''''; '''''parterres''''' of embroidery; '''''parterres''''' cut in shell-work, in scroll-work, ''&c''. with sand allies between.
:"An oblong, or long [[square]] is accounted the most proper figure for a '''parterre'''; the sides whereof to be as two, or two and a half to one."

*<div id="Marshall"></div>Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Marshall_cite|back up to history]]

:"''Figured'' '''''parterres''''' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the [[bed]]s are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[Chinese manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet [[square]], is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserve to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these [[bed]]s, or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould."

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (pp. 58, 66–67),<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]

:"Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower garden|flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the '''parterre''' way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various [[clump]]s, of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each [[clump]] also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe. . . .
:"Grand '''parterres''' were commonly presented immediately on the front of the main house, having a grand [[walk]] of grass or gravel directly from the house through the middle, or dividing '''parterre''' ground into two divisions.
:"A '''parterre''', is a spacious level [[plot]] of ground, divided into many partitions, of different figures and dimensions; by means of [[edging]]s or lines of dwarf-box, &c. or by verges of grass-turf, and tracks of sand, fine gravel, shell, and scroll-work, &c. . . .
:"These works were in great estimation in ancient gardening, and were commonly situated, directly in front of the house, generally the whole width of the front, or sometimes more.
:"The general figure of a '''parterre''', is an oblong or long [[square]]; because by the rules of ''Perspective'', or the natural declension of the visual rays in ''opticks'', a long [[square]] sinks almost to a [[square]], and an exact [[square]] appears much less so than it really is, when viewed at a distance; therefore '''parterres''' were generally made twice as long a broad.
:"These were bounded by a long [[bed]], or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were edged with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.
:"The partitions or [[bed]]s were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of flowers was past.
:"Though '''parterres''' in general are now become rather unfashionable, a little of that kind of work, might still be permitted for variety sake, though not immediately in front of the house as heretofore. A spacious [[lawn]], bounded with rural [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], is the most eligible situation for such; but a plain '''parterre''' of a moderate extent, either formed with lines of box, or with turf, might be introduced in some of the more internal parts, and distributed either into plain or complex departments, or [[bed]]s of earth for flowers, so as to answer the purpose of a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], for the most curious sorts; it will have an agreeable effect in forming a contrast with the more rural scenes."

[[File:1796.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.]]
[[File:1351.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 375, 796–97)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1924. ''Intricate and fanciful figures of '''parterres''''' are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with [[square]]s . . . formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar [[square]]s, but much larger, according to the scale .... [Fig. 11]
:"6106. ''In extensive and irregular '''parterres''''', one gravel-[[walk]], accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as [[walk]]s by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting [[walk]]s of the same width, of gravel and smaller [[walk]]s for displaying particular details. The main [[walk]], however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the [[walk]]; but in that sort of French '''parterre'''s which they call '''parterres''' of embroidery . . . the breadth of the gravelled part (''a'') varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers; and whoever wishes to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris; and consult the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau, Le Blond, &c." [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Buist"></div>[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (pp. 11–12),<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Buist_cite|back up to history]]

:"But, in commencing these operations, a design [for the [[flower garden]]] should be kept in [[view]] that will tend to expand, improve, and beautify the situation; not, as we too frequently see it, the '''parterre''' and [[border]]s with narrow [[walk]]s up to the very household entrance: such is decidedly bad taste, unless compelled for want of room. . . . The outer margin of the [[[flower] garden]] should be planted with the largest trees and [[shrub]]s: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of [[shrubbery]] and '''parterres'''."

*<div id="JaneLoudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (pp. 309–11),<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [ttps://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#JaneLoudon_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''PARTERRE'''.—The French term for what in England is called a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but which in France in former times, when the word was originated, was most frequently a figure formed on the surface of the ground by turf, box, and gravel or sand, with occasional flowers or low [[shrub]]s. In these '''parterres''' flowers and shrubs were altogether secondary objects, the main features being the compartments of turf and the curious scroll-work of box. . . . '''Parterres''' of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England. . . . '''Parterres''' of compartments . . . are at present common both in France and England. '''''Parterres''' anglaises'' may now be considered as included in the '''parterres''' of compartments; because the French do not now cut up the ground into so many [[bed]]s as formerly, and plant a great many more flowers than they did in the time of Le Nôtre. . . . In a word, '''parterres''' are now assemblages of flowers in [[bed]]s or groups, either on a ground of [[lawn]] or gravel; in the former case the [[bed]]s are dug out of the [[lawn]], and in the latter they are separated from the gravel by [[edging]]s of box or stone, or of some plant, or durable material. The shape of the [[bed]]s in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the '''parterre''' belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of [[bed]]s ceases to be a '''parterre''', or a [[flower garden|flower-garden]], and can only be designated as a group or collection of groups on a [[lawn]]. Hence it is that all '''parterres''' and regular flower-gardens ought to be separated from the scenery by which they are surrounded by a line of demarcation, such as a low architectural [[wall]] with a balustrade and piers, and [[vase]]s; a low evergreen [[hedge]], a [[canal]], a ridge of [[rockwork]], a [[sunk fence]] with the sides of turf or of stone, a raised [[fence]] with the ridges and top of turf, or a raised [[terrace]]-[[walk]] of grass or gravel. . . .
:"In planting '''parterres''' there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in a [[bed]] so as that each [[bed]] shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same [[bed]]. It is almost needless to state that the former system is by far the best for general and striking effect; but as a '''parterre''' is frequently a kind of [[botanic garden]], and as in this case it is desirable to keep all the species of a genus together, flowers of all colours must occasionally occur in the same [[bed]]. In general, botanic '''parterres''' should not be mixed with '''parterres''' for effect, because the one kind never fails greatly to injure the other.
:"In planting '''parterres''' for general effect, the colours should be arranged so that those which are adjoining each other should be contrasts; and those which occupy corresponding parts of the same figure should be the same. . . .
:"The laying out and planting of '''parterres''' should always be attended to by the ladies of the place, because it requires a degree of taste and artistical feeling which is very seldom to be found among some gardeners to a sufficient extent; and which, indeed, can hardly be expected in many of them."

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (pp. 228, 420)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[FLOWER GARDEN]], is that portion of the ground in the vicinity of the residence, disposed in '''parterres''' and [[border]]s, tenanted by flowers and flowering [[shrub]]s, and among [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s, so that the occupiers of the house may have ready access to what is so beautiful in form, colour, and fragrance. . . .
:"No directions can be given as to the appropriate size, for, if the proprietor delights in flowers, there is no reason why his '''parterres''' should not be large, though his villa be small. . . .
:"'''PARTERRE''', a French word pronounced with the final e silent, is synonymous with our English name ''[[Flower Garden]]''."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0997.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*Valk, Dr. William W., June 1848, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden" (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557-59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"I send you a plan for a [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.
:"When the nature of the ground will admit, the French '''parterre''', or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers." [Fig. 13]

[[File:0777.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, Frances Palmer, "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21–25, 430)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th edn (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[ANCIENT STYLE]]. A predominance of regular forms and right lines is the characteristic feature of the [[ancient style]] of gardening. The value of art, of power, and of wealth, were at once easily and strongly shown by an artificial arrangement of all the materials. . . .
:"'The gardens of Versailles,' says a tasteful English reviewer, 'may indeed be taken as the great exemplar of this style. . . . Every tree was planted with [[geometric style|geometrical]] exactness, and '''parterre''' answered to '''parterre''' across a half a mile of gravel. . . . It takes the middle line between the two other [[geometric style|geometrical]] schools . . . the Italian [and] . . . the Dutch. There is more of [[promenade]], less of '''parterre'''; more of gravel than turf. . . .'
:"The ''French'' [[flower garden|flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area [attached directly to the house] devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the [[bed]]s are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of flower-garden [[French style|[French style]]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the [[bed]]s, or '''''parterres''' of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height."

*<div id="Breck"></div>[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (p. 19),<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck's Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Breck_cite|back up to history]]

:"The form of the ground [for a [[flower garden]]] may be either [[square]] or oblong, somewhat circular or irregular. The interior part may be divided into oblong four-feet [[bed]]s, or in the manner of a '''parterre''', in some fanciful style; the former being more convenient, particularly for most of what are called florist’s flowers, but the latter more pleasing to the eye."

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, ''The Architect'' ([1851] 1976: 10)<ref name="Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Ground [[plot]] of 4 1-4 acres of ground on Staten Island, the front on the Clove road, and rear on a brook of cold spring water. . . . The lawn is on the north of the house and filled with the choicest fruit trees, the vegetable garden on the south-west, and [[flower garden]]s and parterre's on the south and east, with borders on the north side." [Fig. 14]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1414.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], "A Parterre of Imbroidered Work mixt wth Knots of Grass," in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 37.

Image:1415.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], "A Parterre of Compartiments," in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 38.

Image:1413.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], "A Parterre after ye English Manner," "A Parterre of Cutwork for Flowers" and "A Parterre of Orange Trees," in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 42.

Image:1425.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], "The general Plan of a Garden drawn upon Paper" and "The same Plan of Garden mark'd out upon ye Ground," in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 124.

Image:1426.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], "The Parterre C drawn & Squar'd over upon Paper," "The same Parterre C Squared out & traced upon ye Ground," and "The Grove V & ye Bowling-green X design'd upon paper," in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), p. 130.

Image:1412.jpg|[[Stephen Switzer]], "Designs for Parterre Quarters," in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), vol. 2, pl. 29.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. "Plate. III is the Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner, where the front of the House opens upon a ''large plain Parterre''...."

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "In Plate X, the House opens. . .to the ''South'' upon the ''Parterre of Grass and Water'' C . . . ."

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. House opens "to the ''North'' upon a ''plain Parterre of Grass'', and to the ''South'', upon a ''Parterre of Grass and Water''. . . ."

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. House opens "to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'' . . . ."

Image:1338.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-lines of gardens and parterres, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 361 and 362.

Image:1796.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 375, figs. 363a, 363b and 364.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of French parterre of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 797, fig. 550.

Image:1374.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The house and French parterre," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1026, fig. 730.

Image:1765.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "View of the French parterre," in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 586, fig. 240.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "D has a circle in the centre 26 feet in diameter, a parterre for annual flowers...."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, "Plan of a Garden," in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. "...the parterre, or flower beds cut into the turf on the lawn, at ''k''"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): p. 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Geometric Flower Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): p. 558, fig. 67.

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], "Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres," in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0250.jpg|Anonymous, The Castello Plan of New York ("Afbeeldinge Van de Stadt Amsterdam in Nieuw Neederlandt"), 1660.

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''"The Duke's Plan," A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren's Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769. See detail.

Image:0248_detail.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', detail of Governor's Palace, 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|[[Claude Joseph Sautier]], John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, N.C., 1783.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794-95.

Image:0280.jpg|[[Ralph Earl]], ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:1977.jpg|[[Charles Varlé]] (artist), Francis Shallus (engraver), ''Warner & Hanna's Plan of the City and Environs of Baltimore'', 1801.

Image:0195.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0102.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1349.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden in the old French style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 794, fig. 545.

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 796, fig. 549.

image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. p. 70.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references>

</references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]