History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

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Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall, as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university'', 1816, pen-and-ink and watercolor, 12 1/2 x 18 1/2 in. (31.75 x 47 cm). Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

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John Notman, ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846, ink and wash on paper, 24 1/2 x 37 in. (62.2 x 93.9 cm). Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution Archives, Image #2002-10685.

Inscription: No. 1 Ground Plan / Smithsonian Institute

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Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute's plot for a botanical garden on the Mall, 1820. Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution Archives, Image #88-12681.

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Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute's plot for a botanical garden on the Mall, 1820. Smithsonian Institution Archives, Image #88-12681.

File:1254.jpg

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John Notman, ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846, ink and wash on paper, 24 1/2 x 37 in. (62.2 x 93.9 cm). Smithsonian Institution Archives, Image #2002-10685.

Inscription: No. 1 Ground Plan / Smithsonian Institute

Temple

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C-cole: /* Usage */

See also: [[Hermitage]], [[Icehouse]], [[Pavilion]], [[Summerhouse]].

==History==
[[File:1711.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William and John Halfpenny, "The Plan and Elivation of a Temple, or Summer House, on a Tarras, In the Chinese Taste," in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 44.]]
[[File:1736.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Batty and Thomas Langley, "Gothick [''sic''] Temple," in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 57.]]
In architectural history, the term temple was derived from at least two design traditions—the classical and the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]]. The temple in the American garden was a structure that could assume many stylistic variants and could adapt to a range of scales and locations. To illustrate this point, consider the temple that was dressed in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese style]] at [[Belfield]] in Germantown, Pennsylvania, the Gothic at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in Cambridge, and the Grecian at [[Monticello]]. [[Charles Willson Peale]]'s Chinese temple at [[Belfield]] was intended for meditation and reflection because, he claimed, the Chinese were great philosophers. <ref>Therese O'Malley, “Charles Willson Peale's Belfield, Its Place in American Garden History,” in ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'', ed. Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press for the Smithsonian Institution, 1991), 272, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E69HMAT6 view on Zotero.]</ref> In the treatise ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), William and John Halfpenny illustrated an elaborate temple, replete with Chinese statuary [Fig. 1]. On a more practical level, [[A. J. Downing]] showed in his treatise how the application of zigzag wooden latticework could transform a simple temple structure into one "in Chinese taste." [[James Gibbs]]'s ''Book of Architecture'' (1728) provided [[Thomas Jefferson]] with classical models of temples, while [[Batty Langley|Batty]] and Thomas Langley's ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747) offered a range of designs in the "Gothick" mode [Fig. 2].

[[File:0075.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a garden temple and dovecote at Monticello, c. 1778.]]
The temple in its classical form became an icon of the American republic. The association of Roman virtue with agriculture resulted from the eighteenth-century rediscovery of ancient texts by Virgil and Pliny the Younger, who had written about husbandry, villas, and [[plantation]]s. Early Americans embraced classical republican imagery in the design of their gardens, which reaffirmed the agrarian ideal through the use of ornament and inscription, as well as through the celebration of the farm and garden. At [[Gray's Garden]] in Philadelphia, a “federal” temple was built to celebrate the ratification of the Constitution. The structure was composed of a rotunda in which the interior space was defined by thirteen [[column]]s representing the thirteen original colonies. Patriotic interpretations of the classical temple form were also to be found in private gardens. For example, [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale's]] [[Belfield]] also had a classical temple with thirteen [[column]]s, which was surmounted by a bust of [[George Washington]] in place of a traditional Roman one.

[[File:1229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Garden temple elevations and floor plan, c. 1795–99.]]
At Grants Hill in Pittsburgh, small temples were built, each in a different order of architecture. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] likewise planned several temples for his [[plantation]] at [[Monticello]] of varying stylistic forms—Chinese, Gothic, and classical. Some of these designs exemplify [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] interest in archaeology while others illustrate his highly imaginative recreations of historical styles. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] relied upon his excellent library of architectural treatises for models, and for some projects he copied elements from the Lantern of Demosthenes, the temple at Chiswick by Lord Burlington, and the Chinese pagoda at Kew Gardens. In another instance, he invented a Gothic variant for a design.<ref>William L. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden: Thomas Jefferson’s Vision of the Monticello Landscape,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (January 1983): 170–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/849ZBZWI view on Zotero.]</ref>

Temples also varied widely in scale. The Temple of Solitude at the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, Pennsylvania, was intended, presumably, for one person to occupy alone. [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York, on the other hand, featured another nationally inspired temple, the Grand Temple of Independence, which was an impressive twenty feet in diameter, the same in height, and was crowned by a bust of [[George Washington]]. The temple type was at times used either to decorate or to disguise utilitarian structures; examples include the [[icehouse]] at [[Montpelier]], the [[dovecote]] [Fig. 3] and out-chamber at [[Monticello]] [<span id="Fig_6_cite"></span>[[#Fig_6|See Fig. 6]]], and [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe's]] garden temple [Fig. 4]. As [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] instructed, temples often were isolated in the garden, placed on top of [[mount]]s, or in [[wood]]s that were gloomy and evergreen. One such example is an 1804 sketch by [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] for the location at [[Monticello]] of a temple (or a [[seat]]) at the center of a spiral [[labyrinth]] [<span id="Fig_7_cite"></span>[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. Another example, a "rustic temple," published in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1847, is shown at the edge of the [[lake]] at [[Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, New York [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|see Fig. 10]]]. With this type of siting, temples provided a retreat for meditation. In the novel ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (1798), the temple was placed at the top of a rock, far from the house. It was a place of resort and instruction and held a harpsichord and a piece of sculpture.

The term "temple" was often used interchangeably with “[[pavilion]],” “pleasure” or “garden house,” and “[[summerhouse]],” all referring to lightweight structures within the garden or landscape (see [[Pavilion]], [[Pleasure ground]], and [[Summerhouse]]). Like them, the temple served as a viewing platform, as a visual punctuation in the garden scene, and as a shelter and resting place within the landscape.

—''Therese O'Malley''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* [[Hannah Callender Sansom]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', eds. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . . . we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto's]], in the midst a chinese '''temple''' for a [[summer house|summer house]]. . . .”

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.]]
<div id="Fig_6"></div>[[File:0076.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778. [[#Fig_6_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 25–26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', annotated by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“choose out for a Burying place some unfrequented vale in the [[park]], where is, ‘no sound to break the stillness but a brook, that bubbling winds among the weeds; no mark of any human shape that had been there, unless the skeleton of some poor wretch, Who sought that place out to despair and die in.' let it be among antient [''sic''] and venerable oaks; intersperse some gloomy evergreens. the area circular, abt. 60 f. diameter, encircled with an untrimmed [[hedge]] of cedar, or of stone [[wall]] with a holly [[hedge]] on it in the form below in the center of it erect a small Gothic '''temple''' of antique appearance. appropriate one half to the use of my own family, the other of strangers, servants, etc. erect pedestals with [[urn]]s, etc., and proper inscriptions. the passage between the [[wall]]s, 4 f. wide. on the grave of a favorite and faithful servant might be a pyramid erected of the rough rock-stone; the pedestal made plain to receive an inscription. let the exit of the spiral at (a) look on a small and distant part of the blue mountains. in the middle of the '''temple''' an altar, the sides of turf, the top of plain stone. very little light, perhaps none at all, save only the feeble ray of an half extinguished lamp. . . .
<p></p>
:“a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the water fall from the spring in the upper level over a [[terrace]] in the form of a [[cascade]]. then conduct it along the foot of the [[terrace]] to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a '''temple''', from which it may go off by the western border till it falls over another [[terrace]] at the Northern or lower side. let the '''temple''' be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a [[bath]] or anything else. the 1st story arches on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be Chinese, Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens.” [Fig. 5 and 6]

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray's Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)

:“At every turn shaded [[seat]]s are artfully contrived,and the ground abounds with [[arbor|arbours]], [[alcove]]s, and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal '''temple''' claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity,upon the summit of a green [[mound]] in fixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen [[pillar]]s handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this '''Temple''' is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the [[view]] therefrom is truly interesting.”

* Anonymous, August 27, 1795, describing in the ''Alexandria Gazette'' a tavern property in Annapolis, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“Indian Queen. FOR SALE, THAT well known Tavern and Stage House. . . . The out-buildings are, a coach house, a wash-house, billiard-house, a small office and an excellent '''temple'''.” [Fig. #]

* Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 9, 24–25) <ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“At the distance of three hundred [[yard]]s from his house, on the top of a rock whose sides were steep, rugged, and encumbered with dwarf cedars and stony asperities, he built what to a common eye would have seemed a [[summerhouse|summer-house]]. The eastern verge of this precipice was sixty feet above the river which flowed at its foot. The [[view]] before it consisted of a transparent current, fluctuating and rippling in a rocky channel, and bounded by a rising scene of cornfields and [[orchard]]s. The edifice was slight and airy. It was no more than a circular area, twelve feet in diameter, whose flooring was the rock, cleared of moss and shrubs, and exactly levelled, edged by twelve Tuscan [[column]]s, and covered by an undulating dome. My father furnished the dimensions and outlines, but allowed the artist whom he employed to complete the structure on his own plan. It was without [[seat]], table, or ornament of any kind.
<p></p>
:“This was the '''temple''' of his Deity. . . .
<p></p>
:“[years later] The '''temple''' was no longer assigned to its ancient use. From an Italian adventurer, who erroneously imagined that he could find employment for his skill, and sale for his sculptures in America, my brother had purchased a bust of Cicero. He professed to have copied this piece from an antique dug up with his own hands in the environs of Modena. Of the truth of his assertions we were not qualified to judge; but the marble was pure and polished, and we were contented to admire the performance, without waiting for the sanction of connoisseurs. We hired the same artist to hew a suitable pedestal from a neighbouring quarry. This was placed in the '''temple''',and the bust rested upon it. Opposite to this was a harpsichord, sheltered by a temporary roof from the weather. This was the place of resort in the evenings of summer. Here we sung, and talked, and read, and occasionally banqueted. Every joyous and tender scene most dear to my memory, is connected with this edifice. Here the performances of our musical and poetical ancestor were rehearsed. Here my brother’s children received the rudiments of their education; here a thousand conversations, pregnant with delight and improvement, took place; and here the social affections were accustomed to expand, and the tear of delicious sympathy to be shed.”

* Anonymous, July 6, 1799, describing in the ''Spectator'' [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Eberlein and Hubbard 1944: 171)<ref>Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Cortlandt Van Dyke Hubbard, “The American ‘Vauxhall’ of the Federal Era Article Stable,” ''The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' (April 1944): 68, 150–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RVGSTS36 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“His beautiful garden was opened at 6 o'clock in the morning, and the colours were hoisted under a discharge of 16 guns. The 16 [[summerhouse|summer houses]] being the names of the Sixteen United States, each were decorated with the Emblematical Colours belonging to each State, and ornamented with Flowers and Garlands. At 5 o'clock in the evening, the sixteen colours of each [[summerhouse|Summer-house]] were carried,at the sound of the music, to the Grand '''Temple''' of Independence, which is 20 feet diameter, and 20feet high . . . in the middle of which was presented,the Bust of the great Washington as large as life, and near him a Grand Gold [[Column]], representing the Constitution, and below the said [[Column]] the Figure of Fame, 6 feet high, presenting to him with one hand a Crown of Laurel, and with the other holding a Trumpet, announcing to the public that she crowns Real Merit. Round the Pedestal were seen Military Trophies. The sixteen colours above mentioned were placed round the Pedestal, at the sound of Martial Music—and at each colour being placed round the Bust it was announced by the firing of cannon.”

<div id="Fig_7"></div>[[File:0090b.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. [[#Fig_7_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection, manuscript N171; K162)

:“at the Rocks build a turning Tuscan '''temple''' 10 f. diam. 6 [[column]]s proportions of Pantheon. . . .
<p></p>
:“at the Point build Demosthenes’s lantern. . . .
<p></p>
:“The best way of forming [[thicket]] will be to plant it in [[labyrinth]] spirally, putting the tallest plants in the center and lowering gradation to the external termination. a [''sic''] '''temple''' or [[seat]] may be in the center, thus leaving space enough between the rows to [[walk]] & to trim up, replant [a three pronged diagram of] the shrubs. . . . [Fig. 7]
<p></p>
:“'''Temples''' or [[seat]]s at those spots on the [[walk]]s most interesting either for [[prospect]], or the immediate scenery.
<p></p>
:“The Broom [[wilderness]] on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, &spread before the sun. a '''temple''' with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

[[File:0587.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.]]
* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], June 12, 1804, describing the [[Carroll Garden]], Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1988: 2:704)<ref name="Miller et al">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735–1791,'' vol. 2, pts. 1–2 ''The Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791–1810'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“at each end of the [[wall]] is an octagon Building projecting beyond it, one is a [[summerhouse|''Summer'' House]] & probably the other is a '''Temple''', it is locked up, &at first sight they might be thought to be intended for such purposes but on finding that one has no holes, People are naturally led to believe that the internal structure is similar, since the outsides are perfectly so.” [Fig. 8]

* Cuming, Fortescue, 1810, describing Grants Hill, property of Col. James O'Hara, Pittsburgh, PA (1810: 226)<ref>Fortescue Cuming, ''Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country'' (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Eichbaum, 1810), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFUIGI3M view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Was the general to fence it in, [[terrace]] it, which could be done at a small expense, ornament it with [[clump]]s of evergreens and flowering shrubs,and erect a few banqueting houses in the forms of small '''temples''' according to the different orders of architecture, it would be one of the most beautiful spots, which not only America, but perhaps any town in the universe could boast of.”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 232–33)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia," ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A shaded, serpentine [[walk]], now skirting the edge of the [[wood]], now plunging into its dark and dependent foliage, and embracing, in its windings, more than a mile, leads over a neat and lightly constructed [[bridge]], to a pleasure-house, which might justly be termed the '''Temple''' of Solitude. It is securely founded on a rock, which juts abruptly forth from the declivity of a steep hill, three sides of which are almost perpendicular, and of considerable height. . . . The straight and towering tulip-tree, the sturdy oak, the chestnut, and the beech, cast their cool shadows around this wood-embossed abode of contemplation. . . . The light and airy fabric, perched on the brow of the rock, could alone betray to the enchanted visiter [''sic''], that this sweet, lonely, and romantic retreat, had ever before been explored by man.”

* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing New York, N.Y. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 2000: 5:248)<ref name="Miller et al"></ref>

:“Walking with Mrs. Peale one evening to take the fresh air at the Battery, in those pleasant gravelly [[walk]]s skirted with Trees. Adjoining to these [[pleasure ground]]s they observed places of entertainment brilliantly lighted up with lamps and to regaile the Ear a variety of Musick—they are called Gardens, small but neatly fitted up with boxes and [[seat]]s, [[walk]]s divided by small [[bed]]s of flowers. In the center of that they visited was a circular sort of '''Temple''' with an ornamented [[vase]] in the center, round the cornich [cornice] of this '''temple''' a considerable number of lamps, the light of which shew a number of small [[jet]]s from the [[vase]]of waters thrown as high as the cornish. perhaps this [[fountain]] gets its supply of water from some resevoir in the adjacent building, and by pipes beneath the [[walk]]s conveyed to the [[Vase]]. They paid 1/4$ for each ticket, which purchases Ice creams, Cakes or other refreshments as may be choosen to the value. There was another Garden near this where the company are regailled with vocal musick.”

* Anonymous, April 26, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)

:“Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and [[picturesque]] gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, Chinese, Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, '''Temples''', [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to.”

* Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1831: 29)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Whenever the funds of the corporation shall justify the expense, it is proposed that a small Grecian or Gothic '''Temple''' shall be erected on a conspicuous eastern [[eminence]], which in reference to this allotment has received the prospective name of '''Temple''' Hill.”

[[File:1475.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard (photographer), The Billiard Room, State Road vicinity, Andalusia, Bucks County, Penn., spring 1968.]]
* Biddle, Jane, September 14, 1835 or 1836, describing [[Andalusia]], seat of Nicholas and Jane Biddle, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Wainwright 1976: 24)<ref>Nicholas B. Wainwright, ''Andalusia: Countryseat of the Craig Family and of Nicholas Biddle and His Descendants'' (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7P57ZBW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The carpenters have begun upon the Billiard Room, & we find that one part of the plan cannot be accomplished, that of raising the little '''temple''' in proportion to what is taken off it by the slanting roof. It has therefore at present so clumsy an appearance that I have stopped them from going on till you can see it. . .. They hung a pair of shutters between the [[pillar]]s, which improved the appearance of it, but does not destroy the bad effect of concealing parts of the [[pillar]].” [Fig. 9]

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, September 1845, describing its annual exhibition in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 99)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “John Maguire, gardener to Joshua Longstreth, exhibited ‘a large round '''temple''' about sixteen feet in height terminating with a cone-shaped spire of one-third its altitude, enveloped with green and flowers in profusion.’”

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:0359.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, "The Lake," Montgomery Place, in A. J. Downing, ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 158)

: “we suddenly behold, with a feeling of delight, THE [[LAKE]].
<p></p>
: “Nothing can have a more charming effect than this natural mirror in the bosom of the valley. It is a fine expansion of the same stream, which farther down forms the large [[cataract]]. Here it sleeps, as lazily and glassily as if quite incapable of aught but reflecting the beauty of the blue sky, and the snowy clouds, that float over it. On two sides, it is overhung and deeply shaded by the bowery [[thicket]]s of the surrounding [[wilderness]]; on the third is a peninsula, fringed with the graceful willow, and rendered more attractive by a ''rustic'' '''''temple'''''; while the fourth side is more sunny and open, and permits a peep at the distant azure mountain tops.
<p></p>
:“This part of the grounds is seen to the most advantage, either toward evening, or in moonlight. Then the effect of contrast in light and shadow is most striking, and the seclusion and beauty of the spot are more fully enjoyed than at any hour. Then you will most certainly be tempted to leave the curious rustic [[seat]], with its roof wrapped round with a rude entablature like Pluto's crown; and you will take a seat in ''Psyche's boat'', on whose prow is poised a giant butterfly, that looks so mysteriously down into the depths below.” [Fig. 10]
{{break}}

===Citations===

[[File:1715.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[James Gibbs]], “The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in the form of a Temple,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 67.]]
* [[James Gibbs|Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii, xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'', 2nd ed. (London: W. Innys and R. Manby, 1739), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a '''Temple''', made for a Person of Quality, and propos'd to have been placed in the Center of four [[Walk]]s; so that a [[Portico]] might front each [[Walk]]. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn'd with Niches and crown'd with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone. . . . [Fig. 11]

:“A circular Building in form of a '''Temple''', 20 feet in Diameter, having a Peristylium round it of the Dorick Order, and adorn'd with a Cupola; erected in his Grace the Duke of ''Bolton's'' Garden at ''Hackwood'', upon the upper ground of an Amphitheatre, back'd with high Trees that render the [[Prospect]] of the Building very agreeable.”

* [[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''TEMPLE''', in architecture.—The ancient '''''temples''''' were distinguished, with regard to their construction, into various kinds; as,

:“'''TEMPLE''' ''in antae''. . . .

:“''Tetrastyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . . .

:“''Prostyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . . .

:“''Amphiprostyle, or double prostyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . . .

:“''Periptere''-'''TEMPLE'''. . . .

:“''Diptere''-'''TEMPLE'''.”

* Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 636, 641, 650)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The first principle is here that there be space to walk, and [[seat]]s to rest. These must be proportioned also to one another: it would be absurd to terminate a vast [[walk]] with a plain bench; nor less ridiculous to erect a pompous '''temple''' where there was not the extent of a hundred [[yard]]s from the building. . . .

:“He who would know where to place his [[pavilion]], [[seat]], or '''temple''', in a garden, must first understand what the purpose of it is, and what the true beauty and excellence of the garden itself. . . .

:“Thus may the [[grove]]s be constructed ornamentally to the other parts of the garden, elegant and pleasing in themselves, and fit to form recesses in which to place [[statue]]s, '''temples''', and other structures.”

* [[Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 128–29)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The choice of situations is also very free; circumstances which are requisite to particular structures, may often be combined happily with others, and enter into a variety of compositions. . . . A Grecian '''temple''', from its peculiar grace and dignity, deserves every distinction; it may, however, in the depth of a [[wood]], be so circumstanced, that the want of those advantages to which it seems entitled, will not be regretted.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''TEMPLE''', tem’pl. s. . . . an ornamental building in a garden.”

* Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1:265)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“THERE is another species of useless ornament, still more offensive, because more costly, than those comparatively innocent eye-traps; we mean '''TEMPLES'''. Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Priapus, or any other god or goddess of debauchery, they are, in this age, enlightened with regard to theological andscientific knowledge, equally absurd.”

* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 58, 64)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“In various parts of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]], leave recesses and other places surrounded with [[clump]]s of trees and shrubs, for the erection of garden edifices, such as '''temples''', [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, [[statue]]s, &c. . . .

:“In some spacious [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as '''temples''', [[bower]]s, banquetting houses, [[alcove]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, [[obelisk]]s, [[statue]]s, and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk]]s, &c.

:“Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced; sometimes a '''temple''' is presented at the termination of a grand [[walk]] or opening, or sometimes a '''temple''', banqueting-house, or [[bower]] is erected in the centre of some spacious opening or grass-ground in the internal divisions."

[[File:1355.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Grecian temple," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 809, fig. 562.]]
* [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 356, 809)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>“1808. '''''Temples''''', either models or imitations of the religious buildings of the Greeks and heathen Romans, are sometimes introduced in garden-scenery to give dignity and beauty. In residences of a certain extent and character, they may be admissible as imitations, as resting-places, and as repositories of sculptures or antiquities. Though their introduction had been brought into contempt by its frequency, and by bad imitations in perishable materials, yet they are not for that reason to be rejected by good taste. They may often add dignity and a classic air to a scene; and when erected of durable materials, and copied from good models, will, like their originals, please as independent objects. . . .</p>
:“6156. ''Decorations in [[shrubbery|shrubberoes]]''. Those of the [[shrubbery]] should in general be of a more useful and imposing character than such as are adopted in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]]. . . .Open and covered [[seat]]s are necessary, or, at least, useful decorations, and may occur here and there in the course of the [[walk]], in various styles of decoration, from the rough bench to the [[rustic style|rustic]] hut . . . and Grecian '''temple'''. (''fig''. 52)" [Fig. 12]

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“TEM'PLE, ''n''. [Fr.; L. ''templum''; It. ''tempio''; Sp. ''templo''; W. ''temyl'', '''temple''', that is extended, a [[seat]]; ''temlu'', for form a [[seat]], expanse or '''temple'''; Gaelic, ''teampul''.]
<p></p>
:“1. A public edifice erected in honor of some deity. Among pagans, a building erected to some pretended deity, and in which the people assembled to worship.”

* [[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 581)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''TEMPLES''' dedicated to some deity of the heathen mythology, as to Pan in a [[grove]], or to Flora among bright sunny [[parterre]]s, are not inappropriate, if the extent of the grounds and the expenditure on their management allow them to be of that size, and of that correctness of style, which can alone give the classic air and dignity which are their only sources of pleasure.”

[[File:1418.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[J. C. Loudon]], “View from the Chinese Temple,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 651, fig. 162.]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363)

:“It must be a very highly finished scene, and a garden where all the details are in a very decided and ornate style of art, in which marble '''temples''', [[statue]]s, or even highly finished [[pavilion]]s and [[summerhouse|summer-houses]], may be introduced with harmony and propriety.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: repr., 1991: 382–83, 456, 507)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America, 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Grecian architecture in its pure form, viz. the '''''temple''''', when applied to the purposes of domestic life, makes a sad blow at both these established rules [of fitness and expression of purpose]. . . .

:“The '''temple''' and the [[pavilion]] are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classical architecture prevails. . . .

:“86, The [[Chinese style|Chinese]] '''temple''', on the highest part of the [[mount]] formed of the soil taken from the excavation now constituting the [[pond]]. The [[view]] from the interior of this '''temple''' is shown in Fig. 9, p. 504. [Fig. 13]

:“87, Rustic steps descending from the Chinese '''temple''' to the [[walk]] which borders the [[pond]].”
<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady Walks, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady walks with Temples of Trellis work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An Avenue in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

Image:1715.jpg|James Gibbs, “The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in the form of a Temple,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 67.

Image:1718.jpg|James Gibbs, “A Circular Building in the Form of a Temple,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.

Image:1744.jpg|James Gibbs, “Four Summer-houses in form of Temples,” in ''A Book of Architecture, containing designs of buildings and ornaments'' (1728), pl. 79.

Image:1736.jpg|Batty and Thomas Langley, “Gothick [''sic''] Temple,” in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 57.

Image:1711.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “The Plan and Elivation of a Temple, or Summer House, on a Tarras, In the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 44.

Image:0429.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, A temple for a garden at Monticello (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, “Master Plan for Yale College,” 1792. “The Temples of Cloacina . . . I would wish to have concealed as much as possible. . . .”

Image:0090b.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. “The best way of forming thicket will be to plant it in labyrinth spirally . . . a temple . . . may be in the center”

Image:1355.jpg|J. C. Loudon, “Grecian temple,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 809, fig. 562.

Image:1418.jpg|J. C. Loudon, “View from the Chinese Temple,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 651, fig. 162.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.

Image:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

Image:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1475.jpg|Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard (photographer), The Billiard Room, State Road vicinity, Andalusia, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, Spring 1968.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0076.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0075.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Design for a garden temple and dovecote at Monticello, c. 1778.

Image:0430.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, A garden temple at Monticello (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:0059.jpg|Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Houses and a church. Spring house—elevation and plan, 1795–99.

Image:1229.jpg|Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Houses and a church. Garden temple elevations and floor plan, c. 1795–99.

Image:1230.jpg|Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Houses and a church. Side elevation and basement floor plan, c. 1795–99.

Image:1231.jpg|Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Houses and a church. Lodge—Sections showing interior elevation, c. 1795–99.

Image:0009_detail2.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at Belfield [detail], November 22, 1815.

Image:0044.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''View of the garden at Belfield'', 1816.

Image:0646.jpg|Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the Seat of the late James Madison,” 1835.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 5 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0853.jpg|c. 1850, Historic Hudson Valley

Image:0843.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, Montgomery Place, n.d.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Terrace/Slope

2018-05-07T12:21:08Z

C-cole: /* Usage */

==History==

[[File:0766.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''The Battery New York, By Moonlight'', 1849.]]

[[File:1048.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Vassall-Carigie-Longfellow House, 1844. A “turf terrace” is noted to the left of the main house.]]

The term terrace, used to describe both natural and artificial landscape features, denoted a level area or platform, often slightly raised and of varying dimensions and materials. Although Stephen Switzer (1718) made subtle distinctions between kinds of terraces (terrace walks, great terraces, middle terraces, etc.), those distinctions were not generally followed in American usage. In practice, however, a variety of terrace types were incorporated into landscape designs throughout 18th- and 19th-century America. These included long narrow terraces that formed raised [[walk]]s, platforms of earthen and architectural materials adjacent to buildings, and earthen terraces between slopes in [[falling garden]]s.

[[File:0896.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Anson G. Phelps’ Villa, North Tarrytown, New York, 1851.]]

[[File:1686.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, James Smillie after a sketch by A. O. Moore, “Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.]]

Native American platform mounds, such as the one described as a terrace by <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>[[William Bartram]] in 1791, served as stages for the religious and ruling elite of the southeast before European contact ([[#Bartram|view text]]). Visible for miles, these mounds are remarkable not only as architectural monuments but also as testimonies to the leadership that mobilized a massive labor force needed to move such a vast quantity of earth.

In Anglo-American gardens, long, narrow terraces provided raised [[walk]]s that offered excellent viewing platforms, formed circulation routes through the landscape, and made ideal venues for social promenade, as depicted at the [[Battery Park]] in New York by the ''Illustrated London News'' in 1849 [Fig. 1]. In 1718,<span id="Switzer_cite"></span> Switzer declared that gardens without these elevated [[walk]]s “must be esteem'd very deficient.”([[#Switzer|view text]]) Waterside terraces were particularly common in America, because they were created with the fill dredged from rivers and [[canal]]s. Such terraces were built in residential settings, such as the gardens at Maycox Plantation in Virginia, which were described c. 1780–82 by François Jean Chastellux and at the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House in Cambridge [Fig. 2]. In public areas, terraces were found at the [[Battery Park]], described in 1793 by [[John Drayton]], and at the waterfront of Alexandria, Virginia, visited in 1830 by [[Frances Milton Trollope]].

Terraces were also built adjacent to buildings, and were often created from the earth excavated from cellar construction. The term “terrace” referred to raised earthen platforms and to flat roofed structures, both of which were used as balconies, [[promenade]]s, and viewing platforms. These terraces (paved, turfed, graveled, or covered in metal compounds, as advertised in the ''Federal Gazette'' in 1816) were occasionally also ornamented with [[statue|statuary]], vases, urns, and plantings such as flower beds or, more rarely, topiary. Charles Lyell recorded his observations of a highly ornamented terrace in Natchez, Mississippi, in 1846. A paved or turfed terrace extending from the house and often bounded by a balustrade was particularly popular in Italianate architecture of the 1830s and 1840s and was promoted by [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) and [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] (1849). These terraces required substantial investment to construct and, when planted intensively, to maintain [Figs. 3 and 4]. As <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>[[Jane Loudon]] observed in 1845, “[T]hey are chiefly adapted for mansions and places of considerable extent.” ([[#Loudon|view text]]) <span id="Downing_cite"></span> [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] suggested that the function of the English paved terrace was often accommodated in America by the [[veranda]] ([[#Downing|view text]]).

[[File:2006.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Joseph Drayton, ''View near Bordenton, from the Gardens of the Count de Survilliers'', c. 1820.]]

[[File:1477.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.]]

Broad terraces located adjacent to a building provided a transition between the built architecture and the grounds, as [[Batty Langley]], [[Bernard M'Mahon]], [[John Abercrombie]], and [[A. J. Downing]] all noted. The terrace also provided a vantage point from which to admire [[view]]s and [[vista]]s. Both [[John Abercrombie|Abercrombie]] (1817) and [[J. C. Loudon]]'s (1850) discussions of terraces emphasize the importance of selecting sight lines and of building proportionally in order to create an appropriate visual setting for a house, as well as to establish a viewing platform for looking outward. For example, the terrace at [[Point Breeze]], which was described by [[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope]] and depicted in an anonymous engraving after [[Thomas Birch]] [Fig. 5], was placed to take advantage of striking [[vista]]s. Similarly, flat roofs of buildings (such as those at [[Monticello]]; the Waterworks at [[Fairmount Park]] in Philadelphia; and the [[White House]] in Washington, DC) served as elevated terrace walkways with views of distant scenery. A certificate for the Horticultural Association of the Hudson [Fig. 6] depicts an idealized garden (possibly based on [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing's]] [[Highland Place]]) that includes a terrace, seen at right, framing an extended view of the Newburgh Basin.<ref>For a discussion of this image, see Walter L. Creese, ''The Crowning of the American Landscape: Eight Great Spaces and Their Buildings'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 75–78, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FX78IBSV/q/Creese| view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Charles Bulfinch, Ground plan of the two wings added to the Pleasant Hill, 1818. The “upper terrace” and “lower terrace” link all the buildings.]]

[[File:1042.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Michael van der Gucht, Illustration for chapter entitled: “Of different Terrasses and Stairs, with their most exact Proportions,” 1712.]]

Terraces of varying widths were also employed in sites with a steep grade in order to make for arable and easily navigated level areas, to control erosion, and to create the visual effects made possible by a series of slopes and flats (see [[Fall]]). These terraces were supported by earthen slopes or masonry [[wall]]s, supports which were referred to variously as banks, slopes, and terrace walls. They were also sometimes simply called by the more general term, “terrace,” as in William Dickinson Martin's 1808 description of a “perpendicular terrace” at Salem, North Carolina. Designs for public institutions, such as Charles Bulfinch's 1818 design for two wings to be added to the seat of Joseph Barrell in order to create the McLean Asylum [Fig. 7], used terraces to frame views of the buildings’ façdes while accommodating the slope of the land. The terraces of a [[falling garden]] were generally separated by turfed slopes or, less commonly, masonry [[wall]]s. As <span id="Argenville_cite"></span> [[Anotine-Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville]] (1712) noted, gardens were less susceptible to erosion if their terraces were created by cutting into an existing hillside rather than constructed out of fill ([[#Argenville|view text]]) [Fig. 8].The planting schemes of [[falling garden]] terraces varied from simple turf to kitchen and flower beds, although images of terraces rarely showed plantings in detail. Among the few surviving examples is [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] diagram (c. 1804) for a garden olitory, in which he specified a hedge at the “foot of the terras” designed to accommodate differing heights of the [[lawn]] and [[kitchen garden]]. In 1840, <span id="Hovey_cite"></span>[[C. M. Hovey]] referred to the efforts of the Messrs. Winship of Brighton, Massachusetts, to transform the embankment of a railroad right-of-way on [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey's]] land into an attractive terraced garden ([[#Hovey|view text]]). While the use of terraces and slopes to create [[falling garden]]s seems to have declined in popularity after the early 19th century, its use continued through mid-century in large formal landscapes of public gardens, such as the University of Virginia, and anywhere uneven or steep topography offered a challenge.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* [[William Byrd II|Byrd, William II]], September 18, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1910; repr., 1970: 357–58)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. John Spencer Bassett (1910; repr., New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 '''Terrace''' Walks that fall in '''Slopes''' one below another.”

* Grigg, William, October 4, 1736, describing the residence of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:32)<ref> Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner's for the Garden Club of America, 1931),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T/q/lockwood| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “I the Subscriber oblidge myself for Consideration of forty pounds to be well & truly paid me by Thos. Hancock Doe undertake to layout the upper garden [[alley|allys]]. Trim the Beds & fill up all the [[alley|allies]] with such Stuff as Sd Hancock shall order and Gravel the [[walk|Walks]] & prepare and Sodd ye '''Terras''' adjoining with the '''Slope''' on the side next to Mr. Yoemans land, Likewise I oblidge myself to layout the next garden or flatt from the '''Terras''' below and carry on the mold thereto belonging and fill up all the [[walk]]s with Gravel & finish all off Compleat workman like this fall to the satisfaction of said Hancock.”

* Hamilton, Alexander, June 17, 1744, describing New York, NY (1948: 46)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “The Leutenant Governor had here a house and a chapell, and there are fine gardens and '''terrass''' walks from which one has a very pritty [[view]] of the city.”

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.]]
* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', annotated by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the water fall from the spring in the upper level over a '''terrace''' in the form of a [[cascade]]. then conduct it along the foot of the '''terrace''' to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a [[temple]], from which it may go off by the western [[border]] till it falls over another '''terrace''' at the Northern or lower side. let the [[temple]] be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a bath or anything else. the 1st story [[arch]]es on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be Chinese, Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens.” [Fig. 9]

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “From the front yard of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious '''''Terrace''''', covered finely with Green turf, & about five foot high with a '''slope''' of eight feet, which appears exceeding well to persons coming to the front of the House—
<p> </p>
: "This '''''Terrace''''' is produced along the Front of the House, and ends by the Kitchen; but before the Front-Doors is a broad flight of steps of the same Height, & slope of the '''''Terrace'''''.”

* Chastellux, François Jean Marquis de, 1780–82, describing Maycox Plantation, estate of David Meade, Prince George County, VA (1787: 2:166–67)<ref> François Jean Chastellux, Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782,'' 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UXHRGXKX/q/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Jean| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “Mr. Mead's house is by no means so handsome as that of [[Westover]]. . . . Mr. Mead's garden, like that of Westover, is in the nature of a '''terrace''' on the bank of the river.”

* [[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789 and 1790, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A6, A7)<ref> Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items#items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN/q/madsen?&_suid=1340895272014046677169243049543 view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “[September 27, 1789] . . . The first moment after Hilton has finished weeding in the Garden as I directed he should set about weeding the '''terrace''' walk as I will endeavour to have it gravelld during the winter. . .
<p> </p>
: “[October 12, 1789] . . . When the '''terrace''' is weeded, the two [[Border]]s leading from the House to the [[Ice House]] Hill should be cleaned. . .
<p> </p>
: “[June 12, 1790] . . . The newly planted trees & shrubs along the '''terrace''' respecting which you know me to be so anxious, may be alive or dead for ought I know."

* <div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing the area north of Wrightsborough, GA (1928: 56–57)<ref> William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bartram_cite|back up to history]]

: “many very magnificent monuments of the power and industry of the ancient inhabitants of these lands are visible. I observed a stupendous conical pyramid, or artificial mount of earth, vast tetragon '''terraces''', and a large sunken area, of a cubical form, encompassed with banks of earth; and certain traces of a larger Indian town, the work of a powerful nation, whose period of grandeur perhaps long preceded the discovery of this continent. . . .
<p> </p>
: “old Indian settlements, now deserted and overgrown with forests. These are always on or near the banks of rivers, or great swamps, the artificial mounts and terraces elevating them above the surrounding [[grove]]s.”

* Smith, William Loughton, 1791, describing [[Gunston Hall]], seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (1917: 64)<ref> William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'' ed. Albert Matthews, (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5/q/Loughton| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “The house is rather an ancient brick building, with a neat garden, at the end of which is a high natural '''terrace''' which commands the Potomac.”

* [[John Drayton|Drayton, John]], 1793, describing the [[Battery Park]], New York, NY (quoted in Deák, 1988: 1:130)<ref> Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “The flag staff rises from the midst of a stone tower, and is decorated on the top with a golden ball: and the back part of the ground is laid out in smaller [[walks]], '''terraces''', and a [[bowling green]].— Immediately behind this, and overlooking it, is the government house; built at the expence of the state.”

* Twining, Thomas, May 1, 1795, describing Georgetown, VA (1894: 110)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP/| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “As we stood one evening on the bank of the river before his door, he said, ‘Here I will make a terrace, and we will sit and smoke our hookahs.’”

[[File:0090a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Thomas Jefferson]], “Terras” in a letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” at [[Monticello]] c. 1804. ]]

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)

: “Garden Olitory. Make the upper '''slope''' [diagram] at a plant a [[hedge]] of hedgethorn & at ''b'' one of privet or Gleditria, or cedar to be trimmed down to 3 ft. high, the whole appearance thus taking a [[border]] of 8 ft. at the foot of the '''terras''' for forward production, the main beds must be reduced from 50 f. to 42 f.” [Fig. 9]

* [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], May 11, 1805, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: “The obstructions to the colonnade from the stables, may be prevented by giving them a North door, as horses will easily ascend or descend the '''terras''' on the North side. But the most difficult of all is the adjustment of the new connecting building to the different levels of the three existing buildings. Nothing can be admitted short of the '''terras''' of the offices from the [[White House|Pres's House]] to the [[pavilion]]s each way being absolutely in the level of the floor of the house.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 57–58<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
: “From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding '''slope''', which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, 1808, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s at [[Salem Academy]], Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum, 1979">Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide,'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>
: “Next, I visited a [[flower garden]] belonging to the female department. . . . it is situated on a hill, the East end of which is high & abrupt; some distance down this, they had dug down right in the earth, & drawing the dirt forward threw it on rock, etc., thereby forming a horizontal plane of about thirty feet in circumference; & on the back, rose a perpendicular terrace of some height, which was entirely covered over with a grass peculiar to that vicinage. At the bottom of this '''terrace''' were arranged circular [[seat]]s, which, from the height of the hill in the rear were protected from the sun in an early hour in the afternoon”

* [[Margaret Bayard Smith|Smith, Margaret Bayard]], August 1, 1809, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1906: 68)<ref name="Bayard 1906"> Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
: “He [[Thomas Jefferson|[Thomas Jefferson]]] took us first to the garden he has commenced since his retirement. It is on the south side of the mountain and commands a most noble view. Little is as yet done. A '''terrace''' of 70 or 80 feet long and about 40 wide is already made and in cultivation. A broad grass [[walk]] leads along the outer edge; the inner part is laid off in beds for vegetables. This '''terrace''' is to be extended in length and another to be made below it. The [[view]] it commands, is at present its greatest beauty.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 180–82)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A door opens at each end, one into the hall, and opposite, one into the '''terrace''', from whence you have an elegant [[view]] of all the rivers &c. . . . Lengthways of the house, and thro' the hall, is a walk, which extends on a '''terrace''' at each end for some way. . . .
<p></p>
: “The grounds are surrounded by a high stone [[wall]], and on each side, at the distance of 1 or 300 yards is a large brick building, one for the Sec. of War and the other of the Navy. The '''terrace''' was to communicate to each building connecting the three.”

* Anonymous, 1816, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' & ''Baltimore Daily Advertiser'' construction items for sale (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 371)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Zinc] can be made use of in cases where lead, tin or copper are employed; such as covering '''terraces'''.”

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 16, 1817, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (CWF)

: “I shall certainly want a very great quantity [of paint] in the course of the present year, as I have to renew the whole outer painting of this house and the '''terraces''', and to paint that in Bedford which has never been done.”

* Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, July 17, 1819, describing the effects of a hailstorm at Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, VA (quoted in Chambers 1993: 121)<ref> William Chambers, ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'', (Forest, Va.: Corporation for Jefferson's Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9/q/Chambers| view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “the planks of the '''terrace''' torn up in places by the violence of the winds.”

* Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at [[Salem Academy]], Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref name="Bynum, 1979"/>

: “A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . . .
<p> </p>
: “The hill-side was laid off in '''terraces''' and winding [[walk]]s.”

*[[Margaret Bayard Smith|Smith, Margaret Bayard]], August 2, 1828, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (1906: 225)<ref name="Bayard 1906"/>

: “on two other sides running from north to south are the [[Pavillion]]s, or Professor's houses, at about 60 or 70 feet apart, connected by '''terraces''', beneath which are the dormitories, or lodging sleeping rooms of the students. The '''terrace''' projects about 8 feet beyond the rooms and is supported on brick [[arch]]es, forming beneath the arches a paved [[walk]], sheltered from the heat of summer and the storms of winter.”

* [[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing Alexandria, VA (1832: 2:93)<ref name="Trollope, 1832"> Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “a few weeks’ residence in Alexandria restored my strength sufficiently to enable me to walk to a beautiful little grassy '''terrace''', perfectly out of the town, but very near it, from whence we could watch the various craft that peopled the Potomac between Alexandria and Washington.”

* [[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing [[Point Breeze]], estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (1832: 2:153)<ref name="Trollope, 1832"/>

: “The country is very flat, but a '''terrace''' of two sides has been raised, commanding a fine reach of the Delaware River; at the point where this '''terrace''' forms a right angle, a lofty chapel has been erected, which looks very much like an observatory.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1838: 1:54)<ref name= "Martineau, 1838"> Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero.]</ref>
: “The aspect of [[Hyde Park]] from the river had disappointed me, after all I had heard of it. It looks little more than a white house upon a ridge. I was therefore doubly delighted when I found what this ridge really was. It is a natural '''terrace''', overhanging one of the sweetest reaches of the river; and, though broad and straight at the top, not square and formal, like an artificial embankment, but undulating, sloping, and sweeping between the ridge and the river, and dropped with trees; the whole carpeted with turf, tempting grown people, who happen to have the spirits of children, to run up and down the '''slopes''', and play hide-and-seek in the hollows.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Cincinnati, OH (1838: 2:51)<ref name= "Martineau, 1838"/>

: “The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a '''terrace''' which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most parklike eminences form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)

: “The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a '''terrace''', neatly gravelled.”
[[File:0536.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, George Lehman, “Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay,” 1833.]]

* Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref> Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “Steps and '''terraces''' conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:0877.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, Section of a terrace of the Messrs. Winship, 1840.]]

* <div id="Hovey"></div>[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1840, “Notes on Gardening and Horticulture in Worcester, Mass.,” describing the grounds of Messrs. Winship, Brighton, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 402) [[#Hovey_cite|back up to history]]

:“We recollect of reading, in the last volume of the ''Gardener's Magazine'', some remarks on treating the ground on the margins of rail-roads, where there were embankments of any extent. These remarks we had marked for insertion in our pages, but had forgotten them until the present moment, when called to our mind as we passed the grounds of the Messrs. Winship, in Brighton. The road passes immediately through the nursery, dividing it in two parts; but these gentlemen have so arranged the sandy embankments with '''terraces''', planted with shrubs, &c., as to render them very ornamental. We only wish that other gentlemen who are able, would take the same pride in improving the embankments where they pass through their lands.
<p></p>
: “The '''terraces''' of the Messrs. Winship are made in the following manner: the distance is from ten to fifteen feet. A [[wall]] is laid of about four feet; then a grass banking of some three to five more, at an angle of forty-five or fifty degrees; this is the first '''terrace''', and the surface, (about five feet wide,) is filled with fine flowering shrubs and herbaceous plants; another grass banking of from five feet more, at the same angle, is thrown up, and the surface prepared and planted out with shrubs and plants. When in the vigor of growth and flowering, these '''terraces''' have a fine effect, contrasted with the barren sand, which happens wherever there is a cut of ordinary depth. We have annexed the following engraving, representing the same.” [Fig. 11]

* Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Red Sulphur Springs, VA (CWF)

: “Behind the ‘Bachelor's Row,’ and on the upper part of the hill is an imposing edifice of brick, called ‘Society Hall.’ It is built of two stories, with a fine [[portico]] of twelve feet wide, running the whole length of the front, and a '''terrace''' of twenty feet wide beyond this.”

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)

: “The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania Avenue, where the grounds form a semi-circle, of which the [[avenue]] is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular '''terrace''': two other entrances of this part of the grounds are placed at the angles or sides of this semi-circle, which also, by a straight [[walk]], lead up to the broad '''terrace'''. From this lower '''terrace''', a long flight of steps leads to the upper one, upon which the building of the Capitol is placed: on the turf between the [[walk]]s, are oval and circular [[bed]]s, planted with shrubs and roses, and filled with dahlias and other annual flowers.”

* Lyell, Sir. Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>
: “Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the [[English Style|English]], others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen '''terraces''', with statues and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by views into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

* [[William Ranlett|Ranlett, William]], 1849, describing a proposed villa in Oswego, NY ([1849] 1976: 2:14)<ref> William A. Ranlett, ''The Architect,'' 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/q/ranlett view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “The design given in this part of the Architect, number XXVI, is the plan of a Villa in the Anglo-Italian style, now in process of erection on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the city of Oswego. . . . On the north side which commands a full view of the lake, a balustrade gallery, or '''terrace''', extends the entire front.” [Fig. 12]

[[File:0778.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Frances Palmer, Italian Bracketed Villa at Oswego, New York, 1851.]]

* Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia, PA (''Horticulturist'' 3: 413)

: "The [[kitchen garden]] is separated from the [lawn]] and [[flower garden]] by the Cactus and Orchid-houses. It covers 1 1/2 acres, is well arranged in [[bed]]s and '''terraces''', with a large open cistern of water in its centre—all in excellent order. The quarters are interspersed with dwarf fruit trees, variously pruned and trained, and all in a young bearing state."

* [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1850, describing Kalorama (Kaleirama), estate of Joel Barlow, Washington, DC (1850: 331)<ref name= "Loudon, 1850"> J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., corr. and improved (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero]</ref>

: “851. ''Kaleirama'' is about a mile from Washington, on high '''terrace''' ground, and is a very pretty place. . . . (''Dom. Man.'', &c., vol. ii. p. 330.)”

* [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1850, describing the public gardens in Hoboken, NJ (1850: 332–33)<ref name= "Loudon, 1850"/>

: “856. ''Public Gardens''. . . .
<p></p>
: “''Hoboken'', on the North River, about three miles from New York, is a public [[walk]] of great beauty and attraction. . . . Through this beautiful little [[wood]], a broad well-gravelled '''terrace''' is led by every point which can exhibit the scenery to advantage; narrower and wilder paths diverge at intervals, some into the deeper shadow of the [[wood]]s, and some shelving gradually to the pretty coves below. . . . (''D. M., &c.'', vol. ii. p. 170)”

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], September 1851, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Rose Hill, residence of George Leland, Waltham, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 411)

: “Descending the steps we reach the garden, which covers and extent of two or more acres in the form of a parallelogram, the end next Newton street. The '''slope''' is laid out in '''terraces''' on the right of the steps, and on the left is located the range of forcing houses, which is 104 feet long, comprising a centre and two wings, the former the [[greenhouse]], twenty-five feet, and the latter vineries, forty feet each.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, "Dictionary," ''The Compleat Gard'ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref> Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard'ner, or Directions for cultivating and right ordering of fruit-gardens and kitchen gardens'', trans. by John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “A '''''Terrass''''', is an artificial bank or mount of Earth, commonly supported with a fronting or facing of stone, and raised like a kind of ''Bulwark'' for the ornament of a ''Garden''.”

* <div id="Argenville"></div>[[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville | Dezallier d'Argenville, Antoine-Joseph]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 75, 116–18)<ref>A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', trans. John James (1712; repr., Farnborough, England: Gregg International, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/q/The%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20of%20Gardening| view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Argenville_cite|back up to history]]

:“'''TERRASSES''', when rightly situated, are likewise of great Ornament in Gardens, for their Regularity and Opening; especially when they are well built, and beautified with handsome Stairs, and fine Ascents. Sometimes there are made under them, Vaults, Grots, [[Cascade]]s, and Buffets of Water, with an Order of Architecture, and a great many [[Statue]]s in Niches; and, on the Coping above, are set Vases and Flower-pots, orderly ranged and disposed. . . .

: “WHEN you meet with a Piece of Ground whose Shelving is very steep, as perhaps of the Hill ''A'', which you would make practicable for a Garden, it may be order'd three several Ways.

: “''First'', By making '''Terrasses''' one above another, at several Heights, and supporting the Earth with sufficient [[Wall]]s of Masonry.

: “''Secondly'', By making such '''Terrasses''', as will support themselves without a [[Wall]], by Means of Banks and '''Slopes''' cut at the Extremity of every '''Terrass'''.

: “THE ''Third Way'' is, to make no '''Terrasses''' in strait Lines, nor long Flats between; but only to contrive Landing-Places, or Rests, at several Heights, and easy Ascents and Flights of Steps for Communication, with Foot-Paces, Counter-Terrasses, Volutes, Rolls, Banks, and '''Slopes''' of Grass, placed and disposed with Symmetry, which are called Amphitheatres. . . .

: “OF these three Manners, that with the '''Slopes''' is the least Expence, and that of the Ampitheatre the most magnificent; so that '''Terrass'''-Walls may be reckon'd to hold a Medium between the other two. . . .

: “THE Architect, or he that is to give the Design of a Garden, should carefully consider the '''Slope''' and Winding of the Hill, and raise and describe the Profil of it very correctly; that by making the best Advantage of the Situation, and distributing its '''Terrasses''' with Husbandry and Discretion, there may not be a great deal of Earth to remove, but that what is taken from Places that are too high, may serve to raise and make good those that are too low, which should be done with such Prudence and Circumspection, that you should neither be obliged to bring in Earth, nor have any to carry away, when your '''Terrasses''' are finished. . . .

: “'''TERRASSES''' should not be made too frequent, nor too near one another, that is, you should always make as few of them as possible; and by means of Levels, or Flats, continued as long as the Ground will permit, endeavour to avoid the Defect of heaping '''Terrass''' upon '''Terrass''', it being very disagreeable in a Garden to be constantly going Up-hill, or Down-hill, without finding scarce any Resting-Place.

: “WHAT we call the Level, or Flat, is the Space of Ground contained between the '''Slopes''' of two '''Terrasses''', that is to say, the Platform sustained by the [[Wall]]s or Banks of the '''Terrasses''', which, in Fortification, is call'd the ''Terra-plain''.”

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718: 150–52)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . .'', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “The '''Terrace''' seems to have been us'd a considerable Time since . . . But the nearest of our Derivations in ''English'', is from the ''French'', '''Terrace''', or '''Terrasse'''; and they from the ''Italians'', (from whom they, and almost all Europe, derive their Terms of Art relating to Building, Gardening, ''&c.'') ''Terraza'', ''Terrazare'', signifying with them the removing and banking up of Earth, from one Place into another.

: “But be the Derivations as it will, it is very well known in these ''European'' Countries, and particularly with us, to be a small Bank of Earth, laid out and trimm'd according to Line and Level, being necessary for the proper Elevation of any Person that walks round his Garden, to view all that lyes round him. And this Elevation is so necessary, that all Gardens must be esteem'd very deficient, that have them not . . . that I dare pronounce a Seat of no Value without them; and, besides, where-ever the House is to be new built, there is no Possibility of disposing of the Earth, Clay, Rubbish, ''&c''. that necessarily comes out of Cellars and Foundation thereof, but this; which we must otherwise suppose (amidst a thousand needless Works) is to be carted away, to fill up some Hollow or other, which had been better left undone perhaps likewise.

: “Of '''Terrace'''-Walks there are several Kinds, as they are particularly us'd.

: “The 1st, is that great Terrace that lies next the House.

: “The 2d, Side, or Middle '''Terrace''', that is commonly rais'd or cut out above the Level of the [[Parterre]], [[Lawn]], ''&c''.

: “The 3d, Those that encompass a Garden; and

: “The 4th, Many that lye under one another, as being cut out of a large high Hill; these are differing, in some Respect or other, from one another.”

* [[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: vi–vii)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref>
: “When the Situation of Gardens such, that the making of '''''Slopes''''' and '''''Terraces''''' are necessary, or cannot be avoided, they not only leave them ''naked of Shade'' as aforesaid, but ''break their'' '''''Slopes''''' into so many Angles, that their ''native Beauty'' is thereby destroy'd. Thus if by waste Earth a ''Mount'' be ''raised ten or twelve Feet high'', you shall have its '''Slope''', that should be entire from top to bottom, broken into three, if not four small ''trifling ones'', and those mixt with [[Arch]]s of Circles, ''&c''. that still adds to their ill Effects: So that instead of having one ''grand'' '''''Slope''''' only with an easy Ascent, you have three or four small ones, that are ''poor and trifling''.

: “And the only reason why they are made in this Stair or Step-like manner, is first to shew their Dexterity of Hand, without considering the ill Effect; and lastly to imitate those ''grand Amphitheatrical Buildings'', used by the ''Ancients'', of which they had no more Judgement, than of the excellent Proportions of Architecture that was used therein, when those noble Structures were first erected. . . .

: “When very large Hills of great perpendicular Heights are to be cut into '''''Slopes''''' and '''''Terraces''''', then we may justly endeavour to imitate those grand Structures, (whereon their Gladiators exercis'd) by cutting them Concave, Convex, &c. as those looking towards ''Fair-Mile Heath'', in the Gardens of his ''Grace'' the DUKE of NEWCASTLE ''at his Grand Seat of Claremont''; but in small Elevations they are poor and trifling, and therefore not to be used.”

* [[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1367)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (London: printed for the author, 1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “'''TERRACES''':A '''Terrace''' is a small Bank of Earth, rais'd and trimm'd according to Line and Level, for the proper Elevation of any Person that walks round a Garden, that he may have a better [[Prospect]] of all that lies around him; and these Elevations are so necessary, that those Gardens that have them not, are deficient.

: “When '''Terraces''' are rightly situated, they are great Ornaments to such Gardens as have them, for their Regularity and Opening; especially when they are well built, and beautify'd with handsome Stairs, and fine Ascents.

: “There are several Kinds of '''Terrace'''-walks:

: “1. The great '''Terrace''', which lies next to the House.

: “2. The side or middle '''Terrace''', which is commonly raised above the Level of the [[Parterre]], [[Lawn]], &c.

: “3. Those '''Terraces''' which encompass a Garden.

: "4. Those '''Terraces''' which lie under one another, being cut out of a large Hill; and these are different one from another, in some respect or other.

: “As to the Breadth of side '''Terraces''', this is usually decided by its Correspondence with some [[Pavilion]], or some little Jettee or Building; but most of all by the Quantity of Stuff that is to spare for those Purposes.

: “The side '''Terrace''' of a Garden ought not to be less than twenty Feet, and but very seldom wider than forty.

: “As for the Height of a '''Terrace''', some allow it to be but five Feet high; but others more or less, according to their Fancies; but the more exact Persons never allow above five or six Feet; and in a small Garden, and a narrow '''Terrace''' [[walk]], three Feet; and sometimes three Feet and an half high are sufficient for a Terrace eighteen Feet wide; and four Feet are sufficient for a Terrace of twenty Feet wide; but when the Garden is proportionably large, and the '''Terrace''' is thirty or forty Feet wide, then it must be at least five or six Feet high.

: “The noblest '''Terrace''' is very deficient without Shade; for which Elm-trees are very proper: for no [[Seat]] can be said to be complete, where there is not an immediate Shade almost as soon as out of the House; and therefore these shady Trees should be detach'd from the Body and Wings of the Edifice.

: “'''Terraces''' should be planted rather with Elm or Lime-trees, than with Yew or Holly; which will not grow large enough to afford Shade.

: “The Distance of the Elms across will be about twenty Feet; and they may be plac'd thirty Feet asunder in Lines.”

* Salmon, William, 1762, ''Palladio Londinensis'' (1762: n.p.)<ref>William Salmon, ''Palladio Londinensis, or The London Art of Building: In Three Parts . . . with Fifty-Four Copper Plates, to Which Is Annexed, The Builder’s Dictionary'', ed. E. Hoppus, 6th ed. (London: printed for C. Hitch et al., 1762), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IEIQ5QGM view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “''Tarrau'', or '''''Tarras''''', an open [[Walk]], or Gallery; also a flat Roof on a House; also a Kind of coarse Plaister, durable in the Weather.”

* Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “A '''terrace''' as a boundary is now seldom formed, but in some situations, such as an eminence might in several respects, be agreeable.”

* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806: 59, 64, 69)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “In other parts are sometimes discovered eminences, or rising grounds, as a high '''terrace''', mount, steep declivity, or other eminence, ornamented with curious trees and shrubs, with [[walk]]s leading under the shade of trees, by easy ascents to the summit, where is presented to the [[view]], an extensive prospect of the adjacent fields, buildings, hamlets, and country around, and likewise affording a fresh and cooling air in summer. . . .

: “[[Fountain]]s and [[statue]]s, are generally introduced in the middle of spacious opens . . . sometimes in [[wood]]s, [[thicket]]s, and recesses, upon mounts, '''terraces''', and other stations, according to what they are intended to represent. . . .

: “Regular '''terraces''' either on natural eminences or forced ground were often introduced by way of ornament, for the sake of [[prospect]], and of enjoying the fresh air in summer; they were of various dimensions with respect to height, from two, to ten, or twenty feet, according to the nature of the situation and purpose they were designed for; some being ranged singly, others double, treble, or several, one above another, on the side of some consideable rising ground in theatrical arrangement.”

* [[John Abercrombie|Abercrombie, John]], with [[James Mean]], 1817, ''Abercrombie's Practical Gardener'' (1817: 472)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s practical gardener or, Improved system of modern horticulture'', with additions by James Mean, (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/q/Abercrombie's| view on Zotero.]</ref>
: “If flights of stone-stairs and ballustrades are not the inseparable accompaniments, if the term '''terrace''' is merely to designate a raised walk, many situations may be imagined, in which a '''terrace''' would both conduce to the accommodation of the proprietor of the grounds, and, ''without dispute'', improve the [[view]].

: “The [[view]] FROM the house, and TO the house, cannot always be consulted with mutual improvement. When a high '''terrace''' with ornaments which appear to mark the boundary of the architect's province, is interposed between the house and the [[lawn]], the [[view]] immediately under the windows cannot certainly be so pleasant as if the house stood in a verdant field:—but let the [[prospect]] be reversed, and every stranger will see more grandeur in the house connected by a '''terrace''' with the garden; and perhaps among the spectators under the influence of cultivated taste, a few may think such a gradation conduces to general harmony.

: “In a flat, or confined situation, a '''terrace''' with sloping grass banks may create a [[prospect]], or relieve the sameness of the scenery.”

[[File:1339.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[J.C. Loudon]], “Levelling for terrace-slopes,” 1826.]]

* [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 377, 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/order/creator/q/loudon/sort/desc view on Zotero.]</ref>

: “1933. ''Levelling for'' '''''terrace-slopes''''' . . . or for geometrical surfaces, however varied, is performed by the union of both modes, and requires no explanation to those who have acquired the rudiments of geometry, or understand what has been described. . . . [Fig. 13]

: “7256. '''''Terrace''''' ''and [[conservatory]]''. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the [[ancient style]], that the design of the '''terrace''' must be jointly influenced by the magnitude and style of the house, the [[view]]s from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the [[view]]s of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions. The level or levels will be supported partly by grassy '''slopes''', but chiefly by stone [[wall]]s, harmonising with the lines and forms of the house. These, in the Gothic style, may be furnished by battlements, [[gateway]]s, oriels, pinnacles, &c.; or, on a very great scale, watch-towers may form very [[picturesque]], characteristic, and useful additions. . . .

: “7257. The '''breadth of''' '''''terraces''''', and their height relatively to the level of the floor of the living-rooms, must depend jointly on the height of the floor of the living-rooms and the surface of the grounds or country to be seen over them. Too broad or too high a '''terrace''' will both have the effect of foreshortening a [[lawn]] with a declining surface, or concealing a near valley. The safest mode in doubtful cases is, not to form this appendage till after the principal floor is laid, and then to determine the details of the '''terrace''' by trial and correction.

: “7258. ''Narrow'' '''''terraces''''' are entirely occupied as [[promenade]]s, and may be either gravelled or paved: and different levels, when they exist, connected by inclined planes or flights of steps. Where the breadth is more than is requisite for [[walk]]s, the [[border]]s may be kept in turf with groups or marginal strips of flowers and low shrubs. In some cases, the '''terrace'''-walls may be so extended as to enclose ground sufficient for a level [[plot]] to be used as a [[bowling-green]] or a [[flower garden]]. These are generally connected with one of the living-rooms or the [[conservatory]], and to the latter is frequently joined an [[aviary]] and the entire range of botanic stoves. Or, the [[aviary]] may be made an elegant detached building, so placed as to group with the house and other surrounding objects.”

* <div id="Loudon"></div>[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 117)<ref> Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1843), [//www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VJ3SM523/q/Gardening%20for%20Ladies| view on Zotero] </ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]

: “'''''Terrace'''''-''gardens'' are merely architectural-gardens, formed on platforms adjoining the house, on one or more levels, each level being supported by a '''terrace'''-wall; but as they are chiefly adapted for mansions and places of considerable extent, where of course a regular gardener must be kept, it does not appear necessary to enlarge on them here.”

* [[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, ''History of Architecture'' (1848; repr., 1988: 306)<ref> Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848; repr., New York: Garland, 1988),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
: "The garden of the Elizabethan villa should be laid out with a few simple '''terraces''' near the house, so as to unite it well with the ground."

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 1139)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language . . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''TER'RACE''', n. [Fr. ''terrasse''; It. ''terrazzo''; Sp. ''terrado''; from L. ''terra'', the earth.],

: “1. A raised level space or platform of earth, supported on one or more sides by a [[wall]] or bank of turf, &c., used either for cultivation or for a [[promenade]].

: “2. A balcony or open gallery. ''Johnson''.

: “3. The flat roof of a house.”

* <div id="Downing"></div>[[A.J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 344, 346, 376, 418–20, 423, 531)<ref>A.J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a view to the improvement of country residences. Comprising historical notices and general principles of the art, directions for laying out grounds and arranging plantations, the description and cultivation of hardy trees, decorative accompaniments to the house and grounds, the formation of pieces of artificial water, flower gardens, etc.: with remarks on rural architecture'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64| view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]

: “Where it is desirable to separate the house from the level grass of the [[lawn]], let it be done by an architectural '''terrace''' of stone. . . .

: “In a succeeding section we shall refer to '''terraces''' with their parapets, which are by far the most elegant barriers for a highly decorated [[flower garden]], or for the purpose of maintaining a proper connexion between the house and the grounds. . . .

: "the long [[veranda]] round many of our country residences stands instead of the paved '''terraces''' of the English mansions as the place for [[promenade]]. . . .

: “In our finest places, or those country [[seat]]s where much of the polish of [[pleasure ground]] or [[park]] scenery is kept up, one of the most striking defects is the want of '' ‘union between the house and the grounds.’ '' . . . .

: “Let us suppose . . . The house now rising directly out of the green turf which encompasses it, we will surround by a raised platform or '''terrace''', wide enough for a dry, firm [[walk]], at all seasons; on the top of the [[wall]] or [[border]] of this '''terrace''', we will form a handsome ''parapet'', or balustrade, some two or three feet high, the details of which shall be in good keeping with the house. . . . On the coping of this parapet . . .we will find suitable places, at proper intervals, for some handsome urns, vases, etc. On the drawing-room side of the house . . . we will place the [[flower-garden]], into which we descend from the '''terrace''' by a few steps. . . .

: “The eye now, instead of witnessing the sudden termination of the architecture at the base of the house, where the [[lawn]] commences as suddenly, will be at once struck with the increased variety and richness imparted to the whole scene, by the addition of the architectural and garden decorations. . . .

: “Where there is a '''terrace''' ornamented with urns or vases, and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, vases, sundials, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations. . . .

: “The only situation where this brilliant [white] gravel seems to us perfectly in keeping, is in the highly artificial garden of the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], or in the symmetrical '''terrace''' [[flower garden]] adjoining the house. In these instances its striking appearance is in excellent keeping with the expression of all the surrounding objects, and it renders more forcible and striking the highly artificial and artistical character of the scene; and to such situations we would gladly see its use limited.”

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

File:1042.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, Illustration for chapter entitled: “Of different Terrasses and Stairs, with their most exact Proportions,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. opp. p. 117.

File:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'',̹ after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208. “Terrace” is inscribed as S.S., and is located near the bottom of the plan.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX. “Terrace walk” is inscribed between the “kitchen garden” and “fruit garden.”

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . .House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in New Principles of Gardening (1728), pl. XI. “Terrace” is located at E and forms the walk P Q.

File:0072.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Monticello: orchard and vineyard (plat), c. 1778. “Foot of terras” is inscribed above the wall.

File:1749.jpg|William Bartram, “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2. Platform mounds are located at B and C.

File:0331.jpg|George Washington, ''Drawing and Notes for a Ha-Ha Wall at Mount Vernon, October 1798'', 1798.

Image:0090a.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:1339.jpg|J. C. Loudon, “Levelling for terrace-slopes,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 377, fig. 369.

File:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange Terrace, La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831–34.

File:1247.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], '“Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans),” 1835.

File:1147.jpg|William Strickland, Plan of the walks and avenues of Laurel Hill cemetery, c. 1836.

File:0877.jpg|Anonymous, Section of a terrace of the Messrs. Winship, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6 (November 1840): 403, fig. 10.

File:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

</gallery>

=== Associated ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

Image:0187.jpg|Anonymous, Mount Clare, n.d.

Image:1378.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.

Image:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.

Image:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

Image:0992.jpg|Charles B. Lawrence (attr.), ''Point Breeze, the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817–20.

Image:2006.jpg|Joseph Drayton, ''View near Bordenton, from the Gardens of the Count de Survilliers'', c. 1820.

Image:1018.jpg|Thomas Birch, Point Breeze, c. 1820, in Edward J. Nygren, ''Views and Visions: American Landscape before 1830'' (1986), p. 146, pl. 120.

Image:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.

Image:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

Image:1216.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

Image:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

Image:0536.jpg|George Lehman, “Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay,” 1833.

Image:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

Image:0542.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild,“Fairmount Waterworks,” 1838.

File:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in [[Nathaniel Parker Willis]], ''American Scenery'', vol. II (1840), pl. 24.

File:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in [[Nathaniel Parker Willis]], ''American Scenery'', vol. II (1840), pl. 37.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, engraver Tucker, W. E., “Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane,” c. 1841, in [[Thomas S. Kirkbride]], ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:1866.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, “A Villa in the Italian Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 386, fig. 45.

File:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

File:0778.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Italian Bracketed Villa,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 7.

Image:0786.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Italian Villa,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 22, design XXXIII.

File:0632.jpg|Anonymous, View of the terraces at Middleton Place, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1934), vol. 2, p. 196.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
<gallery>

File:1388.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

Image:0056.jpg|John or William Bartram, ''A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

File:0881.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America,” 1782.

File:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

File:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with Terraces, 1806, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 80.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

File:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0694.jpg|Thomas Ender, Main Alley Leading to the Fountain of the Alligators and the Terrace, 1817.

File:0169.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Bird's-eye view of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

File:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''View of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0514.jpg|Catherine Mary Wheeler, Sampler, 1825.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

Image:2013.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Back View of Mount Airy, Va.” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:1217.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, Mount Airy, Virginia; southwest front as viewed from the bowling green, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

File:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

File:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs'' (1831).

File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.

Image:0896.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Anson G. Phelps' Villa, North Tarrytown, 1841-44.

File:0706.jpg|Anonymous, “Pegg's Run,” in John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time'' (1844), p. 436.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, Map of the Hampton Estate, 1843.

File:1437.jpg|C. Bachman(n), ''New York'', 1848.

File:1686.jpg|James Smillie, “Italian Garden and Lake at Wellesley near Boston,” 1859, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 452.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

Fence

2018-05-03T15:18:47Z

C-cole:

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in [[Lewis Miller]], ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report''(Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Francis Guy]], ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the view of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view citation]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union Square Park.]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view citation]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view citation]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as [[wall]]s. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view citation]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[William Halfpenny]], “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as [[Westover]], on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Casnovia,” c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Francis Guy]], ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by [[William and John Halfpenny]] (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view citation]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[squares]], roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view citation]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view citation]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone . . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted . . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing''' . . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, S.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees . . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting . . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Anburey_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1806: 54–55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” (Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site), http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the [[White House|President’s House]]:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Waln_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 2 (October 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “ Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants . . .'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Watson_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese style|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . . .
:“GARDENING. . . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work . . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]] . . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1837), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.”

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (February 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live [[Hedge]]s” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (April 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll . . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3 (October 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America . . .'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (November 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (January 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a fence of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

File:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0788.jpg|Frances Palmer, Elevations and profiles of wood fences, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787–92.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, “A S. W. View of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens,” c. 1790.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, “Map of Deming [[Orchard]],” after 1798.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), ''[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,'' 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “[[Yale College]]. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. p. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after p. 94.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] Fountain,” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

File:0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725–1757)'', c. 1742–46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0065.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West Prospect of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire'', 1774.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on Fence, 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,'' c. 1785.

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “A View of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States,” 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a Fence, c. 1791.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Fore[[yard]], 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0272.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

File:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800.

File:0450.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], seat of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, ''[[Box Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

Image:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Vauxhall Garden (New York)|Vauxhall Garden]],” 1803.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Fore[[yard]]s and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.

Image:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0301.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from Belmont Pennsyla. the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811–13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of fRing'' (January 2012): 27.

File:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815, in Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: The Americans and the French in a Revolutionary World, 1780–1820'' (1990), 271.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

File:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0129.jpg|Dorcas Berry, [[White House]], 1818, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 39.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Caznovia,” c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after [[Thomas Birch]], ''View of the Dam and [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the [[White House]],” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|[[Hugh Bridport]], ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

File:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

File:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]], 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

File:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A View of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the [[White House|President’s House]],” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] View of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

File:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

File:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, “Front Elevation on Live Oak Street,” 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.
</gallery>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

Canal

2018-05-03T15:18:21Z

C-cole:

See also: [[Basin]]

==History==
[[File:0594.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Section of the northern course of the canal from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp'', 1803.]]

The canal was an artificial waterway built for navigation, irrigation, and ornamentation. In general, it was a channel, usually set into the ground, with parallel [[wall]]s made of earth, stone, or brick. Canals varied widely in size: from broad navigable examples, such as the Erie and the Chesapeake & Ohio, to smaller garden ones such as that depicted in a sketch of the [[seat]] of [[Edmund Quincy]] [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]] in Massachusetts. Within the garden, canals could be straight, an idea promoted by treatise author [[Humphry Repton]] (1803), or they could meander, as at the [[Vale]], in Waltham, Massachusetts [<span id="Fig_11_cite"></span>[[#Fig_11|See Fig. 11]]]. In addition to the main channel, garden canals sometimes widened to form a fishpond emptied into a nearby river or pond, or filled a [[basin]] as in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]’s plan of an aqueduct [Fig. 1] (see [[Basin]]).
[[File:0881.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.]]

Canals were an element of American landscape design as early as the beginning of the 18th century, <span id="Jones_cite"></span>as attested to by [[Hugh Jones]]’s 1722 description of the [[Governor’s Palace]] in Williamsburg, Virginia ([[#Jones|view citation]]) [Fig. 2]. The chronology of American garden canal construction, at least as recorded in garden descriptions, suggests that the popularity of building canals in residential gardens dwindled in the 19th century. They continued to be utilized in public landscape designs, however, as at the [[Columbian Institute]] in Washington, DC Although images of navigable canals, such as the Erie Canal, were popular symbols during this time of America’s burgeoning prosperity and technological achievement [Fig. 3], [[view]]s of private garden canals were rare.
[[File:0289.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, John William Hill, ''View on the Erie Canal'', 1829.]]

In gardens, canals were less common than still-water features (such as fishponds and pools), most likely because canals required both a continuous water source and a relatively large amount of space. The feasibility of such a canal was obviously dependent upon the availability of water, and, not unexpectedly, garden canals were more common in coastal or riverine areas such as Charleston, Williamsburg, Washington, DC, and Philadelphia.
[[File:0042.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, DC with projected improvements'', c. 1852.]]

Like other water features, canals provided a source of fresh food. The canal of [[Edmund Quincy]] supplied eel, [[Alexander Gordon]]’s canal was stocked with fish, and the canal of [[Thomas Brattle]] was noted for its waterfowl. Canals also provided irrigation, ice, and, if large enough, offered opportunities for boating [Fig. 4]. In low-lying areas and in examples such as Garden’s waterway (which was fed by fresh springs), the canal also offered drainage for excess water. Like other water features, they provided a garden with the animation of moving or rippling water, the cooling effect of evaporation, the visual interest of reflective surfaces, and habitats for swans and other ornamental birds. The slow flow and placid surface of a canal might stand in contrast to the burbling course of a stream or the dynamic rush of a [[cascade]]. With a border of flowers, a canal might, <span id="Repton_cite"></span>as Repton (1803) suggested, lend “to the whole an air of neatness and careful attention” ([[#Repton|view citation]]).
[[File:1994.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.]]
[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.]]
Urban canals, indicated on city plans, were built as commercial transportation routes, but these canals were also embraced in efforts to create healthful, recreational areas for city dwellers. Banks along some navigable canals were ornamented with [[walk]]s, benches, and [[fence]]s. In other cases, canals constructed for commercial or navigational purposes were incorporated in public landscape design schemes, as at [[Fairmount Park]] in Philadelphia [Fig. 5] and the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]. At [[Fairmount Park]], which is depicted on a painted [[vase]] [Fig. 7], the canal for the pumping station became a popular [[promenade]]. In Washington, designers such as [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], [[Charles Bulfinch]], and [[Robert Mills]] used the canal as an integral element of their plans for the [[national Mall]], routing it to accentuate the [[view]] of the capitol and ornamenting it with [[bridge]]s and [[walk]]s. Latrobe’s Plan of the Capitol (1815) incorporated a waterway he referred to as a Canal [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. L'Enfant even proposed an ambitious scheme to have water run under the U.S. Capitol and then [[cascade]] into the canal below, at the level of the [[national Mall|Mall]].

[[File:0537.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.]]
<span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition of a canal as a “course of water made by art” ([[#Johnson|view citation]]), and <span id="Sheridan_cite"></span>[[Thomas Sheridan]]’s 1789 definition ([[#Sheridan|view citation]]) are particularly telling for the canal’s significance in a landscape-design context. The use of art and water points to the canal’s combination of the artificial and the natural, a juxtaposition that is at the essence of any garden. A canal, in particular, resonates with the theme; it carries water, a basic element in the garden, yet the hand of its human creator is obvious in the contrived regularity of its construction. <span id="Garden_cite"></span>Dr. [[Alexander Garden]] (1754), in reference to [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s garden]], noted that the botanist’s enthusiastic attempt to put the stamp of art on every natural feature, culminated in a design in which “[e]very run of water, [was] a Canal” ([[#Garden|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Jones"></div>[[Hugh Jones|Jones, Hugh]], 1722, describing the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (1956: 70), [[#Jones_cite|back up to history]]<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the Palace or [[Governor’s House]], a magnificent structure, built at the publick expence, finished and beautified with [[gate]]s, fine gardens, offices, [[walk]]s, a fine '''canal''', [[orchard]]s, etc. with a great number of the best arms nicely posited, by the ingenious contrivance of the most accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]], July 17, 1744, describing [[Malbone Hall]], country seat of Godfrey Malbone, Newport, RI (1948: 103)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This house makes a grand show att a distance but is not extraordinary for the architecture, being a clumsy Dutch modell. Round it are pritty gardens and terrasses with '''canals''' and basons for water.”

*Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the kitchen garden of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“. . . at the end of which is a '''canal''' supplied with fresh springs of water, about 300 feet long, with fish.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:1176.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Eliza Susan Quincy, “View of the seat of Edmund Quincy Esqr.,” 1822. [[#Fig_8_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Francis Goelet|Goelet, Capt. Francis]], c. 1750, describing the residence and garden of Edmund Quincy, Boston, MA (quoted in Pearson 1980: 6)<ref>Danella Pearson, “Shirley-Eustis House Landscape History,” ''Old-Time New England'' 70 (1980): 1–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E2F8TJTH view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . about Ten Yards from the House is a Beautiful '''Cannal''', which is Supplyd by a Brook which is well Stockt with Fine Silver Eels, we Cought a fine Parcell and carried them Home and had them drest for Supper, the House has a Beautifull [[Pleasure Garden]] Adjoyning it, and on the Back Part the Building is a Beautiful [[Orchard]] with fine fruit trees, etc.” [Fig. 8]

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*<div id="Garden"></div>[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (Colden 1920: 4: 472),<ref>Cadwaller Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918–37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UT8C2FTZ view on Zoter.]</ref> [[#Garden_cite|back up to history]]

:“. . . he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an Arbour, Every run of water, a '''Canal''', & every small level Spot a [[Parterre]].” [Fig. 9]

*[[Thomas Lee Shippen|Shippen, Thomas Lee]], December 31, 1783, describing [[Westover]], seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, Westover ''Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“These [[meadow]]s well watered with '''canals''', which communicate with each other across the road give occasion every 50 yards for a [[bridge]]; and between every two [[bridge]]s are two [[gate]]s one on each side the road.”

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:0035.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Pierre Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 152–53)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“a '''canal''' being easy to open from the eastern branch and to be lead across the first settlement and carried toward the mouth of the [T]iber where it will again give an issue into the Potowmack and at a distance not to far off for to admit the boats from the grand navigation '''canal''' from getting in, will undoubtedly facilitate a conveyance most advantageous to trading Interest. . . .
:“I propose in this map, of leting the [T]iber return in its proper channel by a [[fall]] which issuing from under the base of the Congress building may there form a [[cascade]] of forty feet heigh [''sic''] or more than one hundred waide [''sic''] which would produce the most happy effect in rolling down to fill up the '''canall''' [''sic''] and discharge itself in the Potowmack of which it would then appear as the main spring when seen through that grand and majestic [[avenue]] intersecting with the [[prospect]] from the palace.” [Fig. 10]

*[[William Bentley|Bentley, William]], October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, MA (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 2 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“I visited [[Mr Brattle’s Garden]]s, &c. at Cambridge. We first saw the [[fountain]] & '''canal''' opposite to his House, & the [[walk]] on the side of another '''canal''' in the road, flowing under an [[arch]] & in the direction of the outer [[fence]]. There is another '''canal''' which communicates with a beautiful pool in the [[park]] & place for his wild fowl.”

*[[La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de]], 1799, describing [[Middleton Place]], seat of Henry Middleton, near Charleston, SC (1800: 2:438)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A peculiar feature of the situation is this, that the river, which flows in a circuitous course, until it reaches this point, forms here a wide, beautiful '''canal''', pointing straight to the house.”

*[[Joseph Scott|Scott, Joseph]], 1806, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia (1806: 25–26)<ref>Joseph Scott, ''A Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. They consist of a [[basin]], excavated, partly in the [[bed]] of the river [[Schuylkill]], three feet deeper than low-water mark. . . . The [[basin]] extends easterly to high-water mark, where it is secured by another [[wall]] and sluice, admitting the water to a '''canal''' 40 feet wide, and 200 feet long. From the east end of the '''canal''', a subteraneous tunnel, conveys the water underneath the edge of the high bank, or plain, upon which the city is built. The '''canal''' and tunnel are hewn out of the solid granite, and their bottoms are three feet below low-water mark. The east end of the tunnel enters a well, sunk from the top of the bank. The well receives the waters of the Schulkill, from the [[basin]], by means of the '''canal'''.”

<div id="Fig_11"></div>[[File:0716.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25. [[#Fig_11_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Samuel Ripley|Ripley, Samuel]], 1815, describing the [[Vale]], estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1815: 272)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Through the [[lawn]], in front of the mansion house, which is large and handsome, runs Beaver Brook, which it there formed into a serpentine '''canal''', and over which is erected a [[bridge]] of three [[arch]]es, made of the Chelmsford white stone, which is both an ornament to the place, and a specimen of correct taste and workmanship.”

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC 1791–1852" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The '''canal''' that surrounds it is 15 feet wide and 2 1/2 feet deep.”

*Commissioner of Public Buildings, June 9, 1827, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 133)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“The new section of the Washington '''Canal''' was laid out along a line drawn through the middle of the Capitol and of the [[national Mall|Mall]]. The pathway, '''canal''' and [[plantation]] in the garden do not coincide with this line, but diverge from it at an acute angle.” [Fig. 12]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“5th: Fountain Park

:“This Park would be chiefly remarkable for its water features. The [[Fountain]] would be chiefly supplied from a [[basin]] in the Capitol. The [[Pond]] or [[lake]] might either be formed from the overflow of this [[fountain]], or from a filtering drain from the '''canal'''. The earth that would be excavated to form this [[pond]] is needed to fill up low places now existing in this portion of the grounds.”

===Citations===

[[File:1382.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.]]
[[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “As for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . , in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]
*[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xii–xiii)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero]</ref>

:“Plate IX. is an improvement of a ''beautiful Garden at Twickenham'', situated on the ''River Thames'', which passes by the Line E F, and has a free communication with the '''Canals''' X and Z . . . [Fig. 13]
:“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the '''''Canal''''' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view'd form M. I,I are contracts [[Walk]]s leading up to the [[Mount]] . . . [Fig. 14]
:“Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House to the ''North'' opens upon ''a noble circular [[Basin]] of Water'' B, in the ''[[Park]]'', and to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'', from which over the '''''Canal''''' you have a boundless [[View]] into the Country.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“GARDEN. . . .
:“The chief furniture of [[pleasure garden]]s are, [[parterre]]s, [[vista]]’s, glades, [[grove]]s, compartiments, quincunces, verdant halls, arbour work, mazes, [[labyrinth]]s, [[fountain]]s, cabinets, [[cascade]]s, '''canals''', [[terrace]]s, ''&c''.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.),<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3/ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]

:“'''CANA'L'''. n.s. [canalis, Lat.]
:“1. A [[basin|bason]] of water in a garden. . . .
:“2. Any tract or course of water made by art; as the '''canals''' in Holland.”

*<div id="Sheridan"></div>[[Thomas Sheridan|Sheridan, Thomas]], 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sheridan_cite|back up to history]]

:“'''CANAL''', ka-nal'. s. . . . any course of water made by art.”

*<div id="Repton"></div>[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 101, 103)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Repton_cite|back up to history]]

:“This explanation is necessary to justify the plan which I recommended for the '''canal''' in this flower garden: for while I should condemn a long straight line of water in an open [[park]], where every thing else is natural; I should equally object to a meandering '''canal''' or [[walk]], by the side of a long straight [[wall]], where every thing else is artificial. . . .
:“The banks of this '''canal''', or fish [[pond]], may be enriched with borders of curious flowers, and a light [[fence]] of green laths will serve to train such as require support, while it gives to the whole an air of neatness and careful attention.”

[[File:1368.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon]], ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Water] forms a part of every garden in the ancient style, in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong '''canals''', [[pond]]s, [[basin]]s, [[cascade]]s, and ''[[jet|jeux d'eux]]'' (''fig''. 694).” [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''CANAL'''’, ''n''. [L. ''canalis'', a ''channel'' or ''kennel''; these being the same word differently written; Fr. ''canal''; Arm. ''can'', or ''canol''; Sp. Port. ''canal''; It. ''canale''. See. ''Cane''. It denotes a passage, from shooting, or passing.]
:“1. A passage for water; a water course; properly, a long trench or excavation in the earth for conducting water, and confining it to narrow limits; but the term may be applied to other water courses. It is chiefly applied to artificial cuts or passages for water, used for transportation; whereas ''channel'' is applicable to a natural water course.”

*[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 21)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“In many cases '''canals''' have a pleasing effect as on extensive places where they are so managed as to be lost to the eye of the observer; in such cases the utility of '''canals''' is obvious to the intelligent observer.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0603.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la Nouvelle Orleans'', 1720. The “canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Walks about the two Canals, and the Centers Z Z [adorned] with ''Apollo'' and the ''nine Muses'' . . .”

Image:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V. “The ''Avenue'' . . . having its ''Canal'' terminated on both ends with ''Groves of Forest Trees'' . . .”

Image:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX. “Canals X and Z”

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "''Canal'' E E”

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. “D is a ''pleasant Cabinet'', from whence we have five different Views, of which the Middle one . . . over a ''Canal of Water'' . . .”

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. "the House . . . opens . . . to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'', from which over the ''Canal'' . . .”

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. The “Canal” is south of “GeorgeTown.”

Image:0728.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''Plan of Springland'', c. 1800, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), p. 206, fig. 117. The “canal” is on the middle right side of the plan.

Image:0594.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Section of the northern course of the canal from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp'', 1803.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, Moore and Jones (engravers), ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804. The “canal” is in the middle of the plan, below the "Capitol.”

Image:0871.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal, No. 1'', February 5, 1804, in John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (1967), fig. 17.

Image:0496.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''A Bason and Storehouse Belonging to the Santee Canal in 1803'', 1805.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815. The “canal” runs through the middle of the plan.

Image:0414.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall, as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university'', 1816. The “canal” is in the upper right of the plan.

Image:0039.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822. "proposed alteration of the Canal"

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal'', 1831.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, SC'', September 1844. “Canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:0567.jpg|Sam A. Gilbert, ''A Plan of the City of Charleston'', 1849. “Canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:0352.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Suspension bridge across the Canal'' [proposed], 1851.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington'', 1851. “Canal” is north of the Mall.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867. “Canal” is north of the Mall.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg| [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0731.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''View from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0302.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “Fountain Green Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup> the Seat of M.<sup>r</sup> S. Meeker,” ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

Image:1176.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''View of the seat of Edmund Quincy Esqr.'', 1822.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

Image:0289.jpg|John William Hill, ''View on the Erie Canal'', 1829.

Image:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''View of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:0111.jpg|Seth Eastman, ''Washington’s Monument, Under Construction'', November 16, 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, DC with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''“The Duke’s Plan,” a Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

Image:0881.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun'r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:0665.jpg|Anonymous, Bonaparte’s residence and the surrounding park, c. 1830, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931–34), p. 321.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

Trellis

2018-05-01T18:20:50Z

C-cole: /* History */

(Treillage, Trelase, Trelass, Treliage, Trelliss) <br/>
See also: [[Arbor]], [[Espalier]]

==History==
[[File:1391.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Batty Langley]], “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady walks &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.]]
Trellis is a term used to describe a network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal posts and rails designed to support vegetation. The term “treillage” was also used to refer to trellis work, especially in 16th- and 17th-century treatises; in the early 19th century the term “treliage” was noted on Charles Varlé’s plan of Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), Virginia (later West Virginia) [<span id="Fig_4_cite"></span>[[#Fig_4|Fig. 4]]]. Trellis was also closely associated with [[espalier]], especially by the mid-19th century when the latter term referred to the support material (including trellis or lattice work) upon which fruit trees and ornamental trees were trained (see [[Espalier]]). Trellises also fulfilled a decorative function in the garden. In [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley’s]] ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), the trellis was recommended as a framing device to direct a view to a distant focal point [Fig. 1]. Trellises could take on elaborate forms and were used for garden structures such as [[arbor]]s and [[summerhouse]]s.<ref>Jellicoe, Sir Geoffrey et al., eds., ''The Oxford Companion to Gardens'' (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero]</ref> [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]]’s ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712) indicates that such structures decreased in popularity in the early 18th century because they were relatively expensive for impermanent wooden structures. While [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] recommended treillage for decorative structures found in the [[pleasure ground]], <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span>[[Thomas Jefferson]] (1804) insisted that “treillages” belonged in the [[kitchen garden]], which suggests that he used them primarily for training fruit trees ([[#Jefferson|view text]]).

[[File:0919.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 109, figs. 33 and 34.]]
[[File:1050.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847. A “trellis” was marked at the garden border, at the upper right.]]
17th-, 18th-, and early 19th-century gardening treatises all generally describe the feature as supports for fruits trained against [[wall|walls]]; therefore, trellises were located frequently in the walled [[kitchen garden]]. Placing fruit trees or fruit-bearing vegetation on trellises attached to [[wall|walls]] was beneficial; the [[wall]] sheltered the fruit and radiated warmth that hastened its ripening. Moreover, affixing and spreading a tree or vine against a trellis often stimulated fruit production. For similar reasons, the trellis was used in [[hothouse|hothouses]] and [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], especially in the 19th century when specialized forcing houses became increasingly popular. In 1826, <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>[[J. C. Loudon]] set forth seven types of trellises for [[hothouse|hothouses]] and [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], each differentiated by its location within these structures ([[#Loudon|view text]]).

By the mid-19th century, treatise writers such as [[A. J. Downing]] (1851) promoted the trellis for both cultivation of plant material and use as an ornamental feature. Trellises supporting decorative and sweet-smelling plant material, such as roses and honeysuckles, could be attached to the structure of the [[summerhouse]], [[arbor]], [[seat]], outbuildings, and the house itself, often along the [[veranda]] [Fig. 2]. Trellises not only embellished the structure, but also, as <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] noted, offered “an air of rural refinement and poetry” ([[#Downing|view text]]). When used as freestanding elements in landscape designs, trellises functioned as semi-transparent [[wall|walls]]. Like those at the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]] in Cambridge, Massachusetts [Fig. 3], they were placed along borders and walkways and positioned to mask unsightly structures or elements, as <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>[[Edward Sayers]] recommended in his 1838 treatise ([[#Sayers|view text]]).

Trellis construction varied widely from simple post-and-rail grid patterns to intricate systems composed of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal elements of different lengths and widths. Many treatises contain detailed instructions for the construction of trellises, whose requirements depended upon the type of vegetation to be supported. <span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), for example, explains different trellises according to the type of plant, vine, or tree to be supported, as well as describing their placement in [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], [[hothouse|hothouses]], or along [[walk|walks]] ([[#Johnson|view text]]).

Until the 19th century, wood was commonly used for the feature, although in 1789 Thomas Sheridan also mentioned the use of iron. Some treatise writers recommended specific wood types. [[Philip Miller]] (1754), for example, reported that fir was commonly used, [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) mentioned pine, and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1851) suggested cedar. Treatise authors also debated whether wood trellises should be painted. By mid-century, the availability of relatively inexpensive metalwork (which could be worked into a variety of forms), allowed wider use of materials such as cast iron and wire.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
<div id="Fig_4"></div>[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 4, [[Charles Varlé]], “Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of [[Bath]],” 1809. [[#Fig_4_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to history]]
:“The [[kitchen garden]] is not the place for ornaments of this kind. [[bower]]s and '''treillages''' suit that better, & these [[temple|temples]] will be better disposed in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]].”

*Varlé, Charles, 1809, describing the improvement of the [[square]] and the town of Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), VA (later WV) (Library of Congress, Map Division)
:“E. Reservoir or [[Fountain]] covered with a vine '''treliage''' in a form of a dome or copula [''sic''].” [Fig. 4]

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“. . . the latter [monuments], at least, should be exposed from its base to its summit, and to accomplish this the space must remain open, or only be enclosed by the lightest constructed '''trellis''', formed with iron posts and delicate pales, or small stone or iron posts and chains.”
[[File:1766.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of Mercury in front of trelliswork for creepers, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 585, fig. 238.]]

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture,” describing the vicinity of Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411–12)
:“The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] . . . the '''trellis''' covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium . . . all this, owing to the natural advantages of the country surrounding Boston, may be accomplished at a comparatively trifling expense and loss of time.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, describing the Lawrencian Villa, residence of Mrs. Lawrence, Dayton Green, near London, England (1838: 584)<ref name="Loudon_1838">J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero]</ref>
:“. . . and looking northwards, we have the [[statue]] of Mercury in the foreground, and behind it the camellia-house, the wall on each side of which is heightened with '''trellis'''work for creepers.” [Fig. 5]

[[File:1767.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], A walk covered with trelliswork, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 664, fig. 280.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, describing Kenwood, [[seat]] of the Earl of Mansfield, Hampstead, England (1838: 662–3)<ref name="Loudon_1838"/>
:“The impression is not lessened when we come within sight of the house . . . or when, passing through a [[walk]] covered with '''trellis'''work, in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]], to the [[lawn]] front, we look down the declivity to the water, at the foot of the rising [[wood|woods]] on the opposite bank.” [Fig. 6]

*Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, c. 1847, describing the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 43)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', vol. 1 (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The green '''trellis'''-work by the [[flower garden|flower-garden]] was a part of an old covered [[walk]] to the outhouses. The [[gateway]] is from the old College house which stood opposite the bookseller’s in the college [[yard]]. In taking up this covered [[walk]] was found the skull of a dog, with a brass collar marked ‘Andrew Craigie.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing [[Bellmont Place]], residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 50–51)
:“The inclosed space [between the [[greenhouse]] and the peach houses], of about two acres, forms the [[kitchen garden]], which is finely laid out, '''trellised''' and planted with the finer sorts of pears, peaches, &c. These latter were on '''trellises''', and protected with spruce branches, from the frost, or rather from the hot sun that succeeds it. I think this an excellent method; it is extensively practised with much benefit in the northern parts of Great Britain. In fact, without such partial protection, the culture of peaches would be all but impossible. The principles upon which the various operations of gardening are conducted about this place by Mr. Schimming, are thoroughly scientific, and manifest a perfect understanding of the numerous details connected with the higher branches of horticulture.”

[[File:0787.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 7, Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, plate 29.]]
*[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, describing Waldwic Cottage (formerly Little Hermitage), property of Elijah Rosencrantz, Hohokus, NJ (1851; repr., 1976: 2: 43)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Ground [[plot]] for Waldwick Cottage. . . . These grounds are to be laid out and executed, and the out-buildings all placed according to this [[plot]]. . . . N N, grape [[arbor]] and '''trellis'''.” [Fig. 7]

===Citations===
*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero]</ref>
:“A ''trail'' is a '''Trelliss''', or Lattice frame made for the support of [[Wall]] and palisaded ''Trees''. . . .
:“To '''''trelliss''''', is to pallisade, nail up and fasten Trees upon [[wall|Walls]], or Pole-Hedges and on wooden Trails or '''Trellisses'''. . . .
:“''Lattices'', are the square works in wooden frames or '''Trellisses''' that support of [[Wall]] or palisaded ''Trees''.”

*[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1509–10)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Where Persons are very curious to have good Fruit, they erect a '''Trelase''' against their [[wall|Walls]], which projects about two Inches from them, to which they fasten their Trees; which is an excellent Method, because the Fruit will be always at a proper Distance from the [[wall|Walls]], so as not to be injured by them, and will have all the Advantage of their Heat. . . .
:“These '''Trelases''' may be contrived according to the Sorts of Fruit which are planted against them. Those which are design’d for Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots (which, for the most part, produce their Fruit on the young Wood), should have their Rails three, or, at most, but four, Inches asunder every Way: but for other Sorts of Fruit, which continue bearing on the old Wood, they may be five or six Inches apart; and those for Vines may be eight or nine Inches Distance. . . .
:“These '''Trelases''' may be made of any Sort of Timber, according to the Expence which the Owner is willing to bestow; but Fir is most commonly used for this Purpose, which, if well dried and painted, will last many Years; but if a Person will go to the Expence of Oak, it will last sound much longer. And if any one is unwilling to be at the Expence of either, then a '''Trelase''' may be made of Ash-poles, in the same manner as is practiced in making [[espalier|Espaliers]]; with this Difference only, that every fourth upright Rail or Post should be very strong, and fasten’d with iron Hooks to the [[Wall]], which will support the Whole: and as these Rails must be laid much closer together, than is generally practiced for [[espalier|Espaliers]], these strong upright Rails or Posts will not be farther distant than three Feet from each other. To these the cross Rails which are laid horizontally should be well nail’d, which will secure them from being displaced, and also strengthen the '''Trelase'''; but to the other smaller upright Poles, they need only be fasten’d with Wire. To these '''Trelases''' the Shoots of the Trees should be fasten’d with Ozier-twigs, Rope-yarn, or any other sort Bandage; for they must not be nail’d to it, because that will decay the Wood-work.
:“These '''Trelases''' need not be erected until the Trees are well spread, and begin to bear Fruit plentifully; before which time the young Trees may be trained up against any ordinary low [[espalier|Espaliers]], made only of a few slender Ash-poles, or any other slender Sticks; by which Contrivance the '''Trelases''' will be new when the Trees come to Bearing, and will last many Years after the Trees have overspread them; whereas, when they are made before the Trees are planted, they will be decayed before the Trees attain half their Growth.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''TRELLIS''', trel’-lis. s. Is a structure of iron, wood, or osier, the parts crossing each other like a lattice.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 113)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year . . .'' (Washington, DC: printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Trellisses''' for tying the vines to, must be completed this month [March]; they should be five feet high, the stakes about three feet asunder, and have four cross rails.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 16–17)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[[espalier|Espaliers]] are hedges of fruit-trees, which are trained up regularly to a lattice or '''trellis''' of wood work, and are commonly arranged in a single row in the [[border]]s, round the boundaries of the principal divisions of the [[kitchen garden|kitchen-garden]]. . . .
:“For common [[espalier]] fruit-trees in the open ground, a '''''trellis''''' is absolutely necessary, and may either be formed of common stakes or poles, or of regular joinery work, according to taste or fancy.
:“The cheapest, the easiest, and soonest made '''trellis''' for common [[espalier]] trees, is, that formed with straight poles, being cut into proper lengths, and driving them into the ground, in a range, a foot distance, all of an equal height, and then railed along the top with the same kind of poles or slips of pine or other boards, nailed down to each stake, to preserve the whole straight and firm in a regular position; to which the branches of the [[espalier]] trees are to be fastened with small osier-twigs, rope yarn, &c. and trained along horizontally from stake to stake, as directed for the different sorts under their proper heads.
:“To render the above '''trellis''' still stronger, run two or three horizontal ranges of rods or small poles along the back parts of the uprights, a foot or eighteen inches asunder, fastening them to the upright stakes, either with pieces of strong wire twisted two or three times round, or by nailing them.
:“But when more elegant and ornamental '''trellis’s''' of joinery work are required in any of the departments, they are formed with regularly squared posts and rails, of good durable timber, neatly planed and framed together, fixing the main posts in the ground, ten or twelve feet asunder, with smaller ones between, ranging the horizontal railing from post to post, in three or more ranges; the first being placed about a foot from the bottom, a second at top, and one or two along the middle space, and if thought convenient, may range one between each of the intermediate spaces; then fix thin slips of lath, or the like, upright to the horizontal railing, ten inches or a foot asunder; and paint the whole with oil colour, to render it more ornamental and durable; and in training the trees, tie their branches both to the railing of the '''trellis''', and to the upright laths, according as they extend in length on each side.”

*[[John Abercrombie|Abercrombie, John]], with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 180)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[[espalier|Espaliers]] have the branches trained to an upright superficial '''trellis''', standing detached from a [[wall]], and thus bear on both sides.”

[[File:1979.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 8, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The fixed rafter-trellis,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 329, fig. 277.]]
*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 308, 328)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]
:“1575. '''''Trellised''''' ''walls'' are sometimes formed when the material of the [[wall]] is soft, as in mud [[wall]]s; rough, as in rubble-stone [[wall]]s, or when it is desired not to injure the face of neatly finished brick-work. Wooden '''trellises''' have been adopted in several places, especially when the [[wall]]s are flued. . . .
:“1671. '''''Trellises''''' are of the greatest use in forcing-houses and houses for fruiting the trees of hot climates. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun, of whose influence every branch, and every twig and single leaf partake alike, whereas, were they left to grow as standards, unless the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots would enjoy sufficient light. The advantages in point of air, water, pruning, and other parts of culture, are equally in favor of '''trellises''', independently altogether of the tendency which proper training has on woody fruit-trees, to induce fruitfulness.
:“1672. ''The material of the '''trellis''' is'' either wood or metal; its situation in culinary [[hothouse|hot-houses]] is against the back [[wall]], close under the glass roof, or in the middle part of the house, or in all these modes. . . .
:“1673. ''The back wall '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1674. ''The middle '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1675. ''The front or roof '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1676. ''The fixed rafter-'''trellis'''''. . . .[Fig. 8]
:“1677. ''The moveable rafter-'''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1678. ''The secondary '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1679. ''The cross '''trellis'''''.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''TREILLAGE''', ''n. trel’lage''. [Fr. from ''treillis'', '''trellis'''.]
:“In ''gardening'', a sort of rail-work, consisting of light posts and rails for supporting [[espalier|espaliers]], and sometimes for [[wall]] trees. ''Cyc''. . . .
:“'''TREL’LIS''', ''n''. [Fr. ''treillis'', grated work.] In ''gardening'', a structure or frame of cross-barred work, or lattice work, used like the treillage for supporting plants.”

*[[Thomas Green Fessenden|Fessenden, Thomas Green]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (1828: 294)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“VINE.—''Vitis''.—Many gentlemen in this neighbourhood have given considerable attention to the cultivation of grapes in the open air upon open '''trellises''', and some have succeeded remarkably well.”

*[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 111, 134)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero]</ref>
:“In a retired part of the [[flower garden|[flower] garden]], a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]] may be formed, over and around which honey-suckles and other sweet and ornamental creepers and climbers may he [''sic''] trained on '''trellises''', so as to afford a pleasant retirement. . . .
:“When [[shrub|Shrubs]], Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall|walls]] or '''trellises''', either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough [[fence]] or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training.”

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)
:“An [[arbor]] or '''trellis''' covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a [[walk]], which should branch off close round the '''trellis''', to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few [[shrub|shrubs]] might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

[[File:1201.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 9, [[George William Johnson]], Umbrella Trellis, in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), 602, fig. 171.]]
*<div id="Sayers"></div>[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 17–19)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to history]]
:“running vines, such as ''Honeysuckles'', ''Clematis'', ''Bignonias'', and so on, are most proper for covering [[arbor|arbors]] and '''trellises'''. . . .

:“In many [[flower garden|flower gardens]], '''trellises''', [[arbor|arbors]], and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], may be introduced to a very good purpose for concealing offices and unseemly appendages. . . .

:“In city gardens, '''trellises''' are mostly introduced on entrances to the back offices, in which case, they are generally covered with the ''Isabella grape'', or other running vines; as the ''Honeysuckle'' and ''Clematis''. . . .

:“In [[flower garden|flower gardens]] attached to country residences, the '''trellis''' is mostly applied to [[arbor|arbors]], which ought to be of a [[rustic style|rustic]] nature, and any form most convenient; formality in their structure, spoils the good effect they would otherwise produce.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 600–3)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', edited by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''TRELLIS''' or '''TREILLAGE''', is an arrangement of supporters upon which to train plants.

:“''[[Espalier]] '''Trellis'''''.—The cheapest, the easiest, and soonest made, is that formed with straight poles or stakes, of ash, oak, or chestnut, in lengths of from five to six or seven feet, driving them in the ground in a range about a foot distant, all of an equal height; and then railed along the top with the same kind of poles or rods, to preserve the whole form in a regular position. . . .

:“When the '''treillage''' is finished, it is advisable to paint the whole to render it both more beautiful and durable; and the durability is greatly increased by charring the ends of the uprights before driving them into the soil.

:“[[Espalier]] '''Trellis''' made of cast iron rods, is much more durable, and neater, than that made of wood.

:“'''''Trellis''' for Climbers''.—These have been greatly improved, or rather created within these few years, for ten years ago we had nothing but stakes and rods. The following observations and designs are from the ''Gardener’s Chronicle'':—

[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.]]

:“‘The beauty of [[greenhouse|green-houses]] has been wonderfully increased, by the contrivance of compelling these unmanageable rambling scrambling plants, to grow down upon themselves, or round and round a circular '''trellis''', so as to be compelled to clothe themselves all over with foliage, and to present immediately to the eye whatever flowers they produce. . . . It is not because some climbing plants require to have their roots confined in garden [[pot|pots]], nor because being, in the majority of cases, inhabitants of tropical forests, they demand more bottom-heat than they can obtain in this country, when planted in the open [[border]] of a [[conservatory]] that the modern plan of distributing their branches over the '''trellis''' of a flower-[[pot]], is to be so much commended. Nor is it because the flowers, which if the branches are uncontrolled, are carried out of sight by the excessive length of the stems, are thus brought immediately before the eye; but there is another great advantage in this practice. Gardeners need not be told that the immediate effect of compelling branches to grow downwards is to make them bloom. This was effected over the [[wall|walls]] of Sir Joseph Banks’ house; and as those branches were always loaded with fruit, the practice was soon imitated, and gave rise, among other things, to what is called balloon training. . . . The many kind of '''trellises''' that have been invented for this purpose, are admirably adapted for compelling plants to grow upside down; for the branches can be bent in all directions, over and over again, and the more they are entangled, the prettier is the effect produced. . . .’ —''Gard. Chron''.

:“''Umbrella '''Trellis''''' is a form excellently adapted for ''Wisteria sinensis'', and other climbers or [[shrubs]] having long racemes of flowers. The following . . . is its form. [Fig. 9]

:“''[[Hothouse]] '''Trellis''''' for training vines near the glass, is usually made of thin rods of deal or of iron, placed about a foot apart, and fastened to the frame-work of the building. Mr. Long, Beaufort Place, Chelsea, has invented a moveable wire '''trellis''', by which the vines may be lowered from the roof, or placed at any angle, without injuring the vines. . . .

:"“'''''Trellis''' for [[walk|Walks]]''.—The following observations made by [[J.C. Loudon|Mr. Loudon]], when criticising the gardens of Lord Selsey, at Westdean, comprise all that need be said upon this kind of structure.

:"“‘Among the contrivances adopted for giving interest to the [[walk|walks]], and to separate one scene from another, are portions of [[walk]] covered with arched '''trellis''' work. One of these is grown over with climbing roses; another with laburnums, which in the flowering season has a remarkably fine aspect. . . . This laburnum '''trellis''' has a new feature, that of a table [[border]] of '''trellis''' work intended to be covered with ivy; we have no doubt its effects will be good, especially in winter. We must remark some circumstances in the construction of garden '''trellises''', which should be ample in their dimensions, strictly [[geometric style|geometrical]] in all their forms, and most accurately and substantially executed. Nothing can be more miserable in its effect on the eye than a low narrow [[arch|archway]], the support leaning in different directions, and the curve of the ground plan and of the roof in no marked style of determinate line. The most accurate carpentry and smithwork ought always to be employed in such structures, otherwise they had much better be omitted as garden decorations. Some attempt forming '''trellises''' over [[walk|walks]] with long hazel rods, but nothing can be meaner than the effect: such rod '''trellis''' works or [[arbor|arbours]] are at best fit for a cottage garden, or a [[hedge]] alehouse.’—''Gard. Mag''.”

[[File:1003.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A.J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850: 109–10, 112–13)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero]</ref>
:“This design is an attempt to redeem from the entire baldness of some examples and the frippery ornament of others, a class of cottages very general in the neighborhood of our larger country towns. . . .

:“The '''trellis'''-work [[veranda]] along the front of this cottage, and the bay-window in the best apartment, convey at once an expression of beauty arising from a sense of a superior comfort or refinement in the mode of living; and the whole exterior effect, without having any decided architectural merit, is one which we should be very glad to see followed in suburban houses of this class.

:“In the Design before us . . . there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or '''trellis''', which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of [[picturesque|picturesqueness]], by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall|walls]].” [Fig. 10]

*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], July 1851, “A Cottage for a Country Clergyman” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 315) [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]
:“The rustic [[veranda]], and rustic '''trellises''' over the windows, are intended [in a planned cottage] for vines—but not merely as a support for vines—but rather as thereby giving an air of rural refinement and poetry to the house without expense. We say without expense; and by this we mean comparatively; for we do not mean these [[rustic style|rustic]] '''trellises''' to be built by carpenters, and included in the original cost of the cottage, but to be added afterwards from time to time by the clergyman himself, aided by some farm-hand, expert with the saw and hammer. They should be constructed of cedar poles—with the bark on—which may be had almost anywhere in Massachusetts for a trifle, and which if neatly put together will be more becoming to such a cottage as this than elaborate carpentry work. By the addition of such trellis work and a few vines, a simple rural cottage like this may be made a most attractive object in a rural landscape.” [Fig. 11]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1391.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady Walks, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

Image:1393.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Shady walks with Temples of Trellis work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and "An Avenue in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

Image:1979.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The fixed rafter-trellis,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 329, fig. 277.

Image:1766.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of Mercury in front of trelliswork for creepers, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 585, fig. 238.

Image:1767.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A walk covered with trelliswork, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 664, fig. 280.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (Mar. 31, 1841): 308.

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked . . . by trellises. . . .”

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:1198.jpg|Anonymous, Flowerpot Trellis in the Shape of an Urn or Vase, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 601, fig. 168.

Image:1199.jpg|Anonymous, Flowerpot with Trellis, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 601, fig. 169.

Image:1200.jpg|Anonymous, The Manner in Which the Wire-trellis for Climbing Plants is Attached to Pots, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 602, fig. 170.

Image:1201.jpg|[[George William Johnson]], Umbrella Trellis, in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 602, fig. 171.

Image:1672.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of middle trellis with a curvilinear shape, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 86, fig. 29.

Image:1658.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of hothouse showing sloping trellis on back wall and centre bed occupied with dwarf standards, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 87, fig. 30.

Image:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1344.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Peach-houses and vineries,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 509, fig. 450a-c.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, “Small Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:0919.jpg|Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 109, figs. 33 and 34.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0805.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “New Lutheran Church, in Fourth Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “York-Island with a View of the Seats of Mr. A. Gracie, Mr. Church &c.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 75, pl. 17.

Image:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, “Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath,” 1809.

Image:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

Image:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

Image:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

Image:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–1847.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N.W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Plant Support]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Trellis

2018-05-01T18:19:19Z

C-cole: /* History */

(Treillage, Trelase, Trelass, Treliage, Trelliss) <br/>
See also: [[Arbor]], [[Espalier]]

==History==
[[File:1391.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Batty Langley]], “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady walks &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.]]
Trellis is a term used to describe a network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal posts and rails designed to support vegetation. The term “treillage” was also used to refer to trellis work, especially in 16th- and 17th-century treatises; in the early 19th century the term “treliage” was noted on Charles Varlé’s plan of Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), Virginia (later West Virginia) [<span id="Fig_4_cite"></span>[[#Fig_4|Fig. 4]]]. Trellis was also closely associated with [[espalier]], especially by the mid-19th century when the latter term referred to the support material (including trellis or lattice work) upon which fruit trees and ornamental trees were trained (see [[Espalier]]). Trellises also fulfilled a decorative function in the garden. In [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley’s]] ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), the trellis was recommended as a framing device to direct a view to a distant focal point [Fig. 1]. Trellises could take on elaborate forms and were used for garden structures such as [[arbor]]s and [[summerhouse]]s.<ref>Jellicoe, Sir Geoffrey et al., eds., ''The Oxford Companion to Gardens'' (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero]</ref> [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]]’s ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712) indicates that such structures decreased in popularity in the early 18th century because they were relatively expensive for impermanent wooden structures. While [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]] recommended treillage for decorative structures found in the [[pleasure ground]], <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span>[[Thomas Jefferson]] (1804) insisted that “treillages” belonged in the [[kitchen garden]], which suggests that he used them primarily for training fruit trees ([[#Jefferson|view text]]).

[[File:0919.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 109, figs. 33 and 34.]]
[[File:1050.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847. A “trellis” was marked at the garden border, at the upper right.]]
17th-, 18th-, and early 19th-century gardening treatises all generally describe the feature as supports for fruits trained against [[wall|walls]]; therefore, trellises were located frequently in the walled [[kitchen garden]]. Placing fruit trees or fruit-bearing vegetation on trellises attached to [[wall|walls]] was beneficial; the [[wall]] sheltered the fruit and radiated warmth that hastened its ripening. Moreover, affixing and spreading a tree or vine against a trellis often stimulated fruit production. For similar reasons, the trellis was used in [[hothouse|hothouses]] and [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], especially in the 19th century when specialized forcing houses became increasingly popular. In 1826, <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>[[J. C. Loudon]] set forth seven types of trellises for [[hothouse|hothouses]] and [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], each differentiated by its location within these structures ([[#Loudon|view text]]).

By the mid-19th century, treatise writers such as [[A. J. Downing]] (1851) promoted the trellis for both cultivation of plant material and use as an ornamental feature. Trellises supporting decorative and sweet-smelling plant material, such as roses and honeysuckles, could be attached to the structure of the [[summerhouse]], [[arbor]], [[seat]], outbuildings, and the house itself, often along the [[veranda]] [Fig. 2]. Trellises not only embellished the structure, but also, as <span id="Downing_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing|Downing]] noted, offered “an air of rural refinement and poetry” ([[#Downing|view text]]). When used as freestanding elements in landscape designs, trellises functioned as semi-transparent [[wall|walls]]. Like those at the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]] in Cambridge, Massachusetts [Fig. 3], they were placed along borders and walkways and positioned to mask unsightly structures or elements, as <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>[[Edward Sayers]] recommended in his 1838 treatise ([[#Sayers|view text]]).

Trellis construction varied widely from simple post-and-rail grid patterns to intricate systems composed of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal elements of different lengths and widths. Many treatises contain detailed instructions for the construction of trellises, whose requirements depended upon the type of vegetation to be supported. <span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), for example, explains different trellises according to the type of plant, vine, or tree to be supported, as well as describing their placement in [[greenhouse|greenhouses]], [[hothouse|hothouses]], or along [[walk|walks]] ([[#Johnson|view text]]).

Until the 19th century, wood was commonly used for the feature, although in 1789 Thomas Sheridan also mentioned the use of iron. Some treatise writers recommended specific wood types. [[Philip Miller]] (1754), for example, reported that fir was commonly used, [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) mentioned pine, and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1851) suggested cedar. Treatise authors also debated whether wood trellises should be painted. By mid-century, the availability of relatively inexpensive metalwork (which could be worked into a variety of forms), allowed wider use of materials such as cast iron and wire.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
<div id="Fig_4"></div>[[File:0460.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 4, [[Charles Varlé]], “Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of [[Bath]],” 1809. [[#Fig_4_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to history]]
:“The [[kitchen garden]] is not the place for ornaments of this kind. [[bower]]s and '''treillages''' suit that better, & these [[temple|temples]] will be better disposed in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]].”

*Varlé, Charles, 1809, describing the improvement of the [[square]] and the town of Bath ([[Berkeley Springs]]), VA (later WV) (Library of Congress, Map Division)
:“E. Reservoir or [[Fountain]] covered with a vine '''treliage''' in a form of a dome or copula [''sic''].” [Fig. 4]

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 83)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“. . . the latter [monuments], at least, should be exposed from its base to its summit, and to accomplish this the space must remain open, or only be enclosed by the lightest constructed '''trellis''', formed with iron posts and delicate pales, or small stone or iron posts and chains.”
[[File:1766.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of Mercury in front of trelliswork for creepers, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 585, fig. 238.]]

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture,” describing the vicinity of Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411–12)
:“The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] . . . the '''trellis''' covered with climbing roses leading to a rosarium . . . all this, owing to the natural advantages of the country surrounding Boston, may be accomplished at a comparatively trifling expense and loss of time.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, describing the Lawrencian Villa, residence of Mrs. Lawrence, Dayton Green, near London, England (1838: 584)<ref name="Loudon_1838">J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero]</ref>
:“. . . and looking northwards, we have the [[statue]] of Mercury in the foreground, and behind it the camellia-house, the wall on each side of which is heightened with '''trellis'''work for creepers.” [Fig. 5]

[[File:1767.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], A walk covered with trelliswork, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 664, fig. 280.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1838, describing Kenwood, [[seat]] of the Earl of Mansfield, Hampstead, England (1838: 662–3)<ref name="Loudon_1838"/>
:“The impression is not lessened when we come within sight of the house . . . or when, passing through a [[walk]] covered with '''trellis'''work, in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]], to the [[lawn]] front, we look down the declivity to the water, at the foot of the rising [[wood|woods]] on the opposite bank.” [Fig. 6]

*Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, c. 1847, describing the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 43)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', vol. 1 (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The green '''trellis'''-work by the [[flower garden|flower-garden]] was a part of an old covered [[walk]] to the outhouses. The [[gateway]] is from the old College house which stood opposite the bookseller’s in the college [[yard]]. In taking up this covered [[walk]] was found the skull of a dog, with a brass collar marked ‘Andrew Craigie.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing [[Bellmont Place]], residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 50–51)
:“The inclosed space [between the [[greenhouse]] and the peach houses], of about two acres, forms the [[kitchen garden]], which is finely laid out, '''trellised''' and planted with the finer sorts of pears, peaches, &c. These latter were on '''trellises''', and protected with spruce branches, from the frost, or rather from the hot sun that succeeds it. I think this an excellent method; it is extensively practised with much benefit in the northern parts of Great Britain. In fact, without such partial protection, the culture of peaches would be all but impossible. The principles upon which the various operations of gardening are conducted about this place by Mr. Schimming, are thoroughly scientific, and manifest a perfect understanding of the numerous details connected with the higher branches of horticulture.”

[[File:0787.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 7, Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, plate 29.]]
*[[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, describing Waldwic Cottage (formerly Little Hermitage), property of Elijah Rosencrantz, Hohokus, NJ (1851; repr., 1976: 2: 43)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Ground [[plot]] for Waldwick Cottage. . . . These grounds are to be laid out and executed, and the out-buildings all placed according to this [[plot]]. . . . N N, grape [[arbor]] and '''trellis'''.” [Fig. 7]

===Citations===
*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero]</ref>
:“A ''trail'' is a '''Trelliss''', or Lattice frame made for the support of [[Wall]] and palisaded ''Trees''. . . .
:“To '''''trelliss''''', is to pallisade, nail up and fasten Trees upon [[wall|Walls]], or Pole-Hedges and on wooden Trails or '''Trellisses'''. . . .
:“''Lattices'', are the square works in wooden frames or '''Trellisses''' that support of [[Wall]] or palisaded ''Trees''.”

*[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1509–10)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Where Persons are very curious to have good Fruit, they erect a '''Trelase''' against their [[wall|Walls]], which projects about two Inches from them, to which they fasten their Trees; which is an excellent Method, because the Fruit will be always at a proper Distance from the [[wall|Walls]], so as not to be injured by them, and will have all the Advantage of their Heat. . . .
:“These '''Trelases''' may be contrived according to the Sorts of Fruit which are planted against them. Those which are design’d for Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots (which, for the most part, produce their Fruit on the young Wood), should have their Rails three, or, at most, but four, Inches asunder every Way: but for other Sorts of Fruit, which continue bearing on the old Wood, they may be five or six Inches apart; and those for Vines may be eight or nine Inches Distance. . . .
:“These '''Trelases''' may be made of any Sort of Timber, according to the Expence which the Owner is willing to bestow; but Fir is most commonly used for this Purpose, which, if well dried and painted, will last many Years; but if a Person will go to the Expence of Oak, it will last sound much longer. And if any one is unwilling to be at the Expence of either, then a '''Trelase''' may be made of Ash-poles, in the same manner as is practiced in making [[espalier|Espaliers]]; with this Difference only, that every fourth upright Rail or Post should be very strong, and fasten’d with iron Hooks to the [[Wall]], which will support the Whole: and as these Rails must be laid much closer together, than is generally practiced for [[espalier|Espaliers]], these strong upright Rails or Posts will not be farther distant than three Feet from each other. To these the cross Rails which are laid horizontally should be well nail’d, which will secure them from being displaced, and also strengthen the '''Trelase'''; but to the other smaller upright Poles, they need only be fasten’d with Wire. To these '''Trelases''' the Shoots of the Trees should be fasten’d with Ozier-twigs, Rope-yarn, or any other sort Bandage; for they must not be nail’d to it, because that will decay the Wood-work.
:“These '''Trelases''' need not be erected until the Trees are well spread, and begin to bear Fruit plentifully; before which time the young Trees may be trained up against any ordinary low [[espalier|Espaliers]], made only of a few slender Ash-poles, or any other slender Sticks; by which Contrivance the '''Trelases''' will be new when the Trees come to Bearing, and will last many Years after the Trees have overspread them; whereas, when they are made before the Trees are planted, they will be decayed before the Trees attain half their Growth.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''TRELLIS''', trel’-lis. s. Is a structure of iron, wood, or osier, the parts crossing each other like a lattice.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 113)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year . . .'' (Washington, DC: printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''Trellisses''' for tying the vines to, must be completed this month [March]; they should be five feet high, the stakes about three feet asunder, and have four cross rails.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 16–17)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[[espalier|Espaliers]] are hedges of fruit-trees, which are trained up regularly to a lattice or '''trellis''' of wood work, and are commonly arranged in a single row in the [[border]]s, round the boundaries of the principal divisions of the [[kitchen garden|kitchen-garden]]. . . .
:“For common [[espalier]] fruit-trees in the open ground, a '''''trellis''''' is absolutely necessary, and may either be formed of common stakes or poles, or of regular joinery work, according to taste or fancy.
:“The cheapest, the easiest, and soonest made '''trellis''' for common [[espalier]] trees, is, that formed with straight poles, being cut into proper lengths, and driving them into the ground, in a range, a foot distance, all of an equal height, and then railed along the top with the same kind of poles or slips of pine or other boards, nailed down to each stake, to preserve the whole straight and firm in a regular position; to which the branches of the [[espalier]] trees are to be fastened with small osier-twigs, rope yarn, &c. and trained along horizontally from stake to stake, as directed for the different sorts under their proper heads.
:“To render the above '''trellis''' still stronger, run two or three horizontal ranges of rods or small poles along the back parts of the uprights, a foot or eighteen inches asunder, fastening them to the upright stakes, either with pieces of strong wire twisted two or three times round, or by nailing them.
:“But when more elegant and ornamental '''trellis’s''' of joinery work are required in any of the departments, they are formed with regularly squared posts and rails, of good durable timber, neatly planed and framed together, fixing the main posts in the ground, ten or twelve feet asunder, with smaller ones between, ranging the horizontal railing from post to post, in three or more ranges; the first being placed about a foot from the bottom, a second at top, and one or two along the middle space, and if thought convenient, may range one between each of the intermediate spaces; then fix thin slips of lath, or the like, upright to the horizontal railing, ten inches or a foot asunder; and paint the whole with oil colour, to render it more ornamental and durable; and in training the trees, tie their branches both to the railing of the '''trellis''', and to the upright laths, according as they extend in length on each side.”

*[[John Abercrombie|Abercrombie, John]], with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 180)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“[[espalier|Espaliers]] have the branches trained to an upright superficial '''trellis''', standing detached from a [[wall]], and thus bear on both sides.”

[[File:1979.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 8, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The fixed rafter-trellis,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 329, fig. 277.]]
*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 308, 328)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to history]]
:“1575. '''''Trellised''''' ''walls'' are sometimes formed when the material of the [[wall]] is soft, as in mud [[wall]]s; rough, as in rubble-stone [[wall]]s, or when it is desired not to injure the face of neatly finished brick-work. Wooden '''trellises''' have been adopted in several places, especially when the [[wall]]s are flued. . . .
:“1671. '''''Trellises''''' are of the greatest use in forcing-houses and houses for fruiting the trees of hot climates. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun, of whose influence every branch, and every twig and single leaf partake alike, whereas, were they left to grow as standards, unless the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots would enjoy sufficient light. The advantages in point of air, water, pruning, and other parts of culture, are equally in favor of '''trellises''', independently altogether of the tendency which proper training has on woody fruit-trees, to induce fruitfulness.
:“1672. ''The material of the '''trellis''' is'' either wood or metal; its situation in culinary [[hothouse|hot-houses]] is against the back [[wall]], close under the glass roof, or in the middle part of the house, or in all these modes. . . .
:“1673. ''The back wall '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1674. ''The middle '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1675. ''The front or roof '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1676. ''The fixed rafter-'''trellis'''''. . . .[Fig. 8]
:“1677. ''The moveable rafter-'''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1678. ''The secondary '''trellis'''''. . . .
:“1679. ''The cross '''trellis'''''.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“'''TREILLAGE''', ''n. trel’lage''. [Fr. from ''treillis'', '''trellis'''.]
:“In ''gardening'', a sort of rail-work, consisting of light posts and rails for supporting [[espalier|espaliers]], and sometimes for [[wall]] trees. ''Cyc''. . . .
:“'''TREL’LIS''', ''n''. [Fr. ''treillis'', grated work.] In ''gardening'', a structure or frame of cross-barred work, or lattice work, used like the treillage for supporting plants.”

*[[Thomas Green Fessenden|Fessenden, Thomas Green]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (1828: 294)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“VINE.—''Vitis''.—Many gentlemen in this neighbourhood have given considerable attention to the cultivation of grapes in the open air upon open '''trellises''', and some have succeeded remarkably well.”

*[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 111, 134)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero]</ref>
:“In a retired part of the [[flower garden|[flower] garden]], a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]] may be formed, over and around which honey-suckles and other sweet and ornamental creepers and climbers may he [''sic''] trained on '''trellises''', so as to afford a pleasant retirement. . . .
:“When [[shrub|Shrubs]], Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall|walls]] or '''trellises''', either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough [[fence]] or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training.”

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)
:“An [[arbor]] or '''trellis''' covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a [[walk]], which should branch off close round the '''trellis''', to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few [[shrub|shrubs]] might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

[[File:1201.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 9, [[George William Johnson]], Umbrella Trellis, in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), 602, fig. 171.]]
*<div id="Sayers"></div>[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 17–19)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to history]]
:“running vines, such as ''Honeysuckles'', ''Clematis'', ''Bignonias'', and so on, are most proper for covering [[arbor|arbors]] and '''trellises'''. . . .

:“In many [[flower garden|flower gardens]], '''trellises''', [[arbor|arbors]], and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], may be introduced to a very good purpose for concealing offices and unseemly appendages. . . .

:“In city gardens, '''trellises''' are mostly introduced on entrances to the back offices, in which case, they are generally covered with the ''Isabella grape'', or other running vines; as the ''Honeysuckle'' and ''Clematis''. . . .

:“In [[flower garden|flower gardens]] attached to country residences, the '''trellis''' is mostly applied to [[arbor|arbors]], which ought to be of a [[rustic style|rustic]] nature, and any form most convenient; formality in their structure, spoils the good effect they would otherwise produce.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 600–3)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', edited by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''TRELLIS''' or '''TREILLAGE''', is an arrangement of supporters upon which to train plants.

:“''[[Espalier]] '''Trellis'''''.—The cheapest, the easiest, and soonest made, is that formed with straight poles or stakes, of ash, oak, or chestnut, in lengths of from five to six or seven feet, driving them in the ground in a range about a foot distant, all of an equal height; and then railed along the top with the same kind of poles or rods, to preserve the whole form in a regular position. . . .

:“When the '''treillage''' is finished, it is advisable to paint the whole to render it both more beautiful and durable; and the durability is greatly increased by charring the ends of the uprights before driving them into the soil.

:“[[Espalier]] '''Trellis''' made of cast iron rods, is much more durable, and neater, than that made of wood.

:“'''''Trellis''' for Climbers''.—These have been greatly improved, or rather created within these few years, for ten years ago we had nothing but stakes and rods. The following observations and designs are from the ''Gardener’s Chronicle'':—

[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.]]

:“‘The beauty of [[greenhouse|green-houses]] has been wonderfully increased, by the contrivance of compelling these unmanageable rambling scrambling plants, to grow down upon themselves, or round and round a circular '''trellis''', so as to be compelled to clothe themselves all over with foliage, and to present immediately to the eye whatever flowers they produce. . . . It is not because some climbing plants require to have their roots confined in garden [[pot|pots]], nor because being, in the majority of cases, inhabitants of tropical forests, they demand more bottom-heat than they can obtain in this country, when planted in the open [[border]] of a [[conservatory]] that the modern plan of distributing their branches over the '''trellis''' of a flower-[[pot]], is to be so much commended. Nor is it because the flowers, which if the branches are uncontrolled, are carried out of sight by the excessive length of the stems, are thus brought immediately before the eye; but there is another great advantage in this practice. Gardeners need not be told that the immediate effect of compelling branches to grow downwards is to make them bloom. This was effected over the [[wall|walls]] of Sir Joseph Banks’ house; and as those branches were always loaded with fruit, the practice was soon imitated, and gave rise, among other things, to what is called balloon training. . . . The many kind of '''trellises''' that have been invented for this purpose, are admirably adapted for compelling plants to grow upside down; for the branches can be bent in all directions, over and over again, and the more they are entangled, the prettier is the effect produced. . . .’ —''Gard. Chron''.

:“''Umbrella '''Trellis''''' is a form excellently adapted for ''Wisteria sinensis'', and other climbers or [[shrubs]] having long racemes of flowers. The following . . . is its form. [Fig. 9]

:“''[[Hothouse]] '''Trellis''''' for training vines near the glass, is usually made of thin rods of deal or of iron, placed about a foot apart, and fastened to the frame-work of the building. Mr. Long, Beaufort Place, Chelsea, has invented a moveable wire '''trellis''', by which the vines may be lowered from the roof, or placed at any angle, without injuring the vines. . . .

:"“'''''Trellis''' for [[walk|Walks]]''.—The following observations made by [[J.C. Loudon|Mr. Loudon]], when criticising the gardens of Lord Selsey, at Westdean, comprise all that need be said upon this kind of structure.

:"“‘Among the contrivances adopted for giving interest to the [[walk|walks]], and to separate one scene from another, are portions of [[walk]] covered with arched '''trellis''' work. One of these is grown over with climbing roses; another with laburnums, which in the flowering season has a remarkably fine aspect. . . . This laburnum '''trellis''' has a new feature, that of a table [[border]] of '''trellis''' work intended to be covered with ivy; we have no doubt its effects will be good, especially in winter. We must remark some circumstances in the construction of garden '''trellises''', which should be ample in their dimensions, strictly [[geometric style|geometrical]] in all their forms, and most accurately and substantially executed. Nothing can be more miserable in its effect on the eye than a low narrow [[arch|archway]], the support leaning in different directions, and the curve of the ground plan and of the roof in no marked style of determinate line. The most accurate carpentry and smithwork ought always to be employed in such structures, otherwise they had much better be omitted as garden decorations. Some attempt forming '''trellises''' over [[walk|walks]] with long hazel rods, but nothing can be meaner than the effect: such rod '''trellis''' works or [[arbor|arbours]] are at best fit for a cottage garden, or a [[hedge]] alehouse.’—''Gard. Mag''.”

[[File:1003.jpg|thumb|225px|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A.J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.]]
*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850: 109–10, 112–13)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero]</ref>
:“This design is an attempt to redeem from the entire baldness of some examples and the frippery ornament of others, a class of cottages very general in the neighborhood of our larger country towns. . . .

:“The '''trellis'''-work [[veranda]] along the front of this cottage, and the bay-window in the best apartment, convey at once an expression of beauty arising from a sense of a superior comfort or refinement in the mode of living; and the whole exterior effect, without having any decided architectural merit, is one which we should be very glad to see followed in suburban houses of this class.

:“In the Design before us . . . there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or '''trellis''', which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of [[picturesque|picturesqueness]], by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall|walls]].” [Fig. 10]

*<div id="Downing"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], July 1851, “A Cottage for a Country Clergyman” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 315) [[#Downing_cite|back up to history]]
:“The rustic [[veranda]], and rustic '''trellises''' over the windows, are intended [in a planned cottage] for vines—but not merely as a support for vines—but rather as thereby giving an air of rural refinement and poetry to the house without expense. We say without expense; and by this we mean comparatively; for we do not mean these [[rustic style|rustic]] '''trellises''' to be built by carpenters, and included in the original cost of the cottage, but to be added afterwards from time to time by the clergyman himself, aided by some farm-hand, expert with the saw and hammer. They should be constructed of cedar poles—with the bark on—which may be had almost anywhere in Massachusetts for a trifle, and which if neatly put together will be more becoming to such a cottage as this than elaborate carpentry work. By the addition of such trellis work and a few vines, a simple rural cottage like this may be made a most attractive object in a rural landscape.” [Fig. 11]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1391.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady Walks, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

Image:1393.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Shady walks with Temples of Trellis work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and "An Avenue in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

Image:1979.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The fixed rafter-trellis,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 329, fig. 277.

Image:1766.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of Mercury in front of trelliswork for creepers, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 585, fig. 238.

Image:1767.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A walk covered with trelliswork, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 664, fig. 280.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (Mar. 31, 1841): 308.

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842): p. 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the walk may be flanked . . . by trellises. . . .”

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:1198.jpg|Anonymous, Flowerpot Trellis in the Shape of an Urn or Vase, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 601, fig. 168.

Image:1199.jpg|Anonymous, Flowerpot with Trellis, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 601, fig. 169.

Image:1200.jpg|Anonymous, The Manner in Which the Wire-trellis for Climbing Plants is Attached to Pots, in [[George William Johnson]], ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 602, fig. 170.

Image:1201.jpg|[[George William Johnson]], Umbrella Trellis, in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847), p. 602, fig. 171.

Image:1672.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of middle trellis with a curvilinear shape, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 86, fig. 29.

Image:1658.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Section of hothouse showing sloping trellis on back wall and centre bed occupied with dwarf standards, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 87, fig. 30.

Image:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1344.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Peach-houses and vineries,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 509, fig. 450a-c.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, “Small Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 78, fig. 9.

Image:0919.jpg|Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 109, figs. 33 and 34.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. p. 297.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0805.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “New Lutheran Church, in Fourth Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0320.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “York-Island with a View of the Seats of Mr. A. Gracie, Mr. Church &c.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 75, pl. 17.

Image:0460.jpg|Charles Varlé, “Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath,” 1809.

Image:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

Image:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

Image:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

Image:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–1847.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N.W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Plant Support]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

André Parmentier

2018-04-27T19:06:57Z

C-cole: /* Images */

'''André Joseph Ghislain Parmentier''' (July 3, 1780–November 27, 1830) was a Belgian-born horticulturalist who immigrated to Brooklyn in 1824, where he established his [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural and Botanic Garden]]. He was known for importing European fruit trees, grape vines, and rose to the United States, and for introducing the country to the [[modern style]] of [[landscape gardening]].

==History==
André Parmentier was born in 1780 in Enghien, Belgium, to a Walloon family that had been ennobled in the 16th century.<ref>“Biographie Enghiennoise,” ''Mémoires et publications de la Société des sciences, des arts et des lettres'' (Mons: Dusquesne Masquillier, 1876), 485, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DFND2SRI view on Zotero].</ref> He counted among his relatives a number of celebrated botanists and horticulturalists: a cousin, Antoine Augustin Parmentier, is known for introducing the potato to France, and two of his brothers—Joseph Julien Ghislain Parmentier (1775–1852) and Louis Joseph Ghislain Parmentier (1782–1847)—were recognized for their work in horticulture. Joseph served as mayor of Enghien from 1802 to 1830 and oversaw the rehabilitation of the Duke of Arenburg’s formal gardens, which had fallen into disrepair during the political upheavals in Europe; he also developed his own expansive garden that featured many rare and exotic plants.<ref>Patrick Neal, ''Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Some Parts of Flanders, Holland, and the North of France, in the Autumn of 1817'' (Edinburgh: Bell and Bradfute, 1823), 325–32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E7PVRNMT view on Zotero].</ref> Louis likewise established his own garden and was known as great ''rosiériste'', trading in the more than 3000 varieties of roses he had cultivated at Enghien.<ref>Fr. Mertens, “Les roses de Louis Parmentier (1782–1847),” ''Annales du cercle archeologique d’Enghien'' 26 (1990): 86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WGHBA2DV view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]
Although the precise reasons behind André Parmentier’s decision to immigrate to America with his wife Sylvie, 8-year-old daughter Adèle, and 4-year-old son Léon, are not fully clear, he is believed to have suffered serious financial difficulties in Belgium due to a failed speculation.<ref>An 1821 court case, in which André Parmentier struggled to recoup outstanding debt, may have contributed to his financial difficulties; see ''Pasicrisie belge: Recueil général de la jurisprudence des cours de Belgique en matière civile, commerciale, criminelle, de droit public et administratif'' (Brussels: Adolphe Wahlen et Cie, 1844), 125.</ref> Like his brothers, he had established an international reputation in the field of horticulture, and less than a month after he and his family arrived in the United States on May 31, 1824, he was unanimously elected to membership in the New-York Horticultural Society.<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''American'' [New York] (June 28, 1824): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref> By June 1825, he was already advertising his newly established [[nursery]] in Brooklyn, [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden]] [Fig. 1].<ref>Advertisement, ''Evening Post'' [New York] (June 6, 1825): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>

At his [[nursery]] Parmentier worked doggedly to corner the market on certain types of plants, such as grape vines, which he sold by subscription, offering a warranty to purchasers that the plants would be fruitful, “provided that his instructions are followed.”<ref>“Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut,” ''Salem Observer'' [Massachusetts] (July 7, 1827): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PKR5U3E8 view on Zotero]. On July 26, 1827, Parmentier’s nursery was the subject of a vitriolic letter to the editor of the ''American'', in which the author—identified only by the pseudonym “A Friend to the Vine”—claimed that “[i]t cannot but be inferred . . . that Mr. P. would wish to be the only importer of the grape vine for cultivation into this country.”</ref> Parmentier was clearly reliant on his brothers for portions of his stock, with grape vines and fruit trees—especially pears—being a specialization of his brother Joseph.<ref>Cynthia Zaitzevsky, “Parmentier, André (1780–1830),” in Charles A. Birnbaum and Robin Karson, eds., ''Pioneers of American Landscape Design'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 286, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC7E58JM view on Zotero].</ref> In 1824 Joseph sent a list of nearly 200 pear varieties, along with descriptions of the fruits’ texture, size, and flavor, to the Horticultural Society of London.<ref>Joseph Parmentier, “A List of Pears Cultivated in France and the Netherlands . . . ,” ''Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London'' 5 (1824): Appendix II, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/JZXHAGCX view on Zotero].</ref> The advertisements for Parmentier’s Brooklyn [[nursery]] often mention fruit trees specifically, and he submitted a letter on the cultivation of pears in America to the Société d’Horticulture de Paris, which later published it in their ''Annales''.<ref>André Parmentier, “Sur les Arbres fruitiers d’Amérique,” ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' 4 (1829): 351–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WRFUH5XB view on Zotero].</ref> He also did a brisk business in roses, the primary focus of his brother Louis. An 1827 advertisement points out: “At the [[greenhouse|green houses]] in [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Mr. Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden]] in Brooklyn . . . the admirers of flowers may see many rare and elegant varieties of roses. . . . As these plants are cultivated in [[pot]]s, their transportation may be safely effected at any season.”<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''Evening Post'' [New York] (May 19, 1827): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K44FFB9V view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Rustic prospect-arbor,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
Parmentier was not, however, solely a nurseryman; he was also a landscape designer. His [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural and Botanic Garden]] differed from other [[nursery|nurseries]] in its layout, which was not purely utilitarian but featured serpentine [[walk]]s, a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere]], and other key elements of the [[modern style|modern]] or naturalistic style of [[landscape gardening]]. As early as March 1826 Parmentier had begun to advertise “on the advice of several of his friends” his landscape services along with his nursery business, and he is known to have provided designs for Hawkswood, in Pelham, New York; the University of Toronto (originally King’s College); and Moss Park, also in Toronto.<ref>“On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''Evening Post'' [New York] (March 4, 1826): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XU4R98QW view on Zotero]; see also Zaitzevsky 2000, 286, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC7E58JM view on Zotero].</ref> His essay “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” which articulates the primary features of the [[modern style]] of landscape design, was incorporated into Thomas Fessenden’s ''The New American Gardener'' (1828). [[A. J. Downing]], in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', identified Parmentier as the first practitioner of this style in America, citing the layout and design of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural and Botanic Garden]], as well as Parmentier’s contributions to the design of [[David Hosack]]’s estate on the Hudson River, [[Hyde Park]] [Fig. 3].<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York & London: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theory%20and%20practice%20 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2046.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Nathaniel Currier, ''[[Hyde Park]], Hudson River'', c. 1835.]]
The degree of success André Parmentier achieved as a nurseryman and landscape designer in the United States belies the short six and a half years he lived in the country. On November 27, 1830, after “seven weeks and three days” of an undefined illness, he died at his home in Brooklyn. Following his death his daughter Adèle paid tribute to her father in a letter published in several newspapers, noting that his final wish was for his widow, Sylvie, “to continue the establishment for the good of his children.”<ref>The letter, dated November 29, 1830, was sent to the editor of the ''New England Farmer'' and republished in several newspapers; this excerpt is quoted from the ''New-York Spectator'' (December 28, 1830): 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ME8ZMRZ3 view on Zotero].</ref> Sylvie Parmentier continued to maintain the nursery for the next three years, but ultimately sold it for $53,000 in October 1833. The plot was then divided into lots and auctioned off the following month.<ref>Some papers cite the original sale price as $57,000; see “Price of Farms,” ''New-York American'' (November 22, 1833): 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZB28JDE7 view on Zotero]. For additional details of the sale and subsequent auction, see “Parmentier’s Garden,” ''Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56/q/parmentier's%20garden view on Zotero], “All in the Wrong,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' [New York] (November 9, 1833): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4AV8M7X3 view on Zotero], and ''New-York American'' (November 19, 1833): 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CQZTHBC6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Athens''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, June 28, 1824, “Horticultural Memoranda” (''American'' [New York])<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''American'' [New York] (June 28, 1824): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Ninety-seven new members had signed the constitution [of the New-York Horticultural Society] since the last sitting and were unanimously elected: amongst this number are . . . two distinguished horticulturists from Europe, Mr. Stead, from the Botanic Garden of Liverpool, member of the Yorkshire Horticultural Society, and '''Mr. Parmentier''', of Enghien, a member of the scientific societies of that place, and of Brussels. These gentlemen have brought with them an extensive collection of fruit trees, rare plants, and seeds.”

*Anonymous, June 6, 1825, advertisement for [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden]] (''Evening Post'' [New York])<ref>Advertisement, ''Evening Post'' [New York] (June 6, 1825): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''ANDREW PARMENTIER''' has established himself in America with a view to Horticulture, and has already set on foot a nursery of considerable extent and variety, of ornamental & fruit-bearing trees, at the cross-roads formed by the intersection of the Jamaica & Flatbush turnpikes. . . . He has also a fine collection of [[shrubbery|shrubs]] and flowers, in [[pot]]s, for sale.

:“Mr. P. intends to devote particular care to adding to his collection, those European fruits and remarkable rare trees, which are as yet unknown here, or have not been generally introduced into the United States.

:“Mr. Parmentier will be happy to exhibit his garden and nursery to the ladies and gentlemen of New York, who may honor him with a visit.”

*Anonymous, April 6, 1827, “Mr. Parmentier” (''National Advocate'' [New York])<ref>“'Mr. Parmentier,” ''National Advocate'' [New York] (April 6, 1827): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAKCD7HA view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are few individuals in our country to whom the friends of agriculture and Botany are more indebted than to '''Mr. Parmentier''' of King’s county, Long Island. At an immense expense he has imported, from all parts of Europe, the choicest seeds, fruit and other trees, the collection of which he is introducing into the United States with great success. He is deserving of all encouragement, and we strongly recommend his establishment to public patronage.”

*Anonymous, July 7, 1827, “Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut” (''Salem Observer'')<ref> “Establishment of Vineyards in the States of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut,” ''Salem Observer'' (July 7, 1827): 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PKR5U3E8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Not less than seven vineyards have been established in these states from the plants furnished by '''Mr. Andrew Parmentier''', at the [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Garden]], Brooklyn, L. I. and that they are all in the most flourishing condition. Two of these vineyards are at Middletown, (N. J.) and not a single plant has failed. Those at Yellow Hook, Flatbush, and Flatbush hill, (L. I.) are equally successful. The one at Bridgeport, (Conn.) is very flourishing, and that at Phillipstown, (N. Y.) is coming on well. Several other establishments of the same kind are about to be undertaken under the superintendence of Mr. P. who warrants his grape-vines to live, provided that his instructions are followed, and that the order sent is for more than one hundred plants.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, “The Art of Landscape Gardening” (Fessenden 1828: 185–87)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), 184–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH/q/fessenden view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a symmetric garden to one in [[modern style|modern]] taste; who would not prefer to walk in a plantation irregular and [[picturesque]], rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, [[border|bordered]] with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?

:“Where is the person, gifted with any taste, who would not choose those [[alley]]s that wind without constraint, in preference to those dull straight lines which can be measured by one glance of the eye, and the monotony of which is unvaried? Instead of this, the [[modern style]] presents to you a constant change of scene, perfectly in accordance with the desires of a man who loves, as he continues his walk, to have new objects laid open to his view. . . . Limited [[prospect]]s, and neighbouring houses and buildings not worthy of notice, should be concealed, and the [[view]] left open to those objects which strike the eye of the beholder agreeably. . . .

:“The [[plantation]]s and groups of trees near the house should be, if possible, of a deeper green;— they would extend the view and the perspective, and produce the effect of shades in a landscape-picture, where the groups of trees in front are of a darker shade, and seem to remove the perspective from the extremity of the landscape. . . .

:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting views which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind [[fence]]s, and live [[hedge]]s. But [[fence]]s, necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]]. The judicious use of [[hermitage]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], cottages, and rotundas will add to the effect, in [[picturesque]] gardens and [[ferme ornée|ornamented farms]]. If you use these ornaments, place the [[hermitage]] in some retired spot: a small rivulet would be an appropriate and beautiful accompaniment . . .

:“As to tombs and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], I should wish to banish them entirely from gardens. They always awaken melancholy reflections in old people, for they remind them of their approaching end; and a regard for their feelings should, I think, exclude from their places of resort every object which could have such an effect.”

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, “Rural Scenery” (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Landscape and Picturesque Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than [[picturesque]] and landscape gardens. . . .

:“For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of [[landscape gardening|landscape]] and picturesque gardening, the public is much indebted to '''Mr. A. Parmentier''', proprietor of the [[Parmentier's Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrubbery|shrubs]] that are found in his [[nursery|nurseries]]. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France.”

*Parmentier, Adèle, November 29, 1830, describing her father, '''André Parmentier''' (quoted in ''New-York Spectator'')<ref>“The Late Mr. Parmentier,” ''New-York Spectator'' (December 28, 1830): 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ME8ZMRZ3 view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Mr. Smith.—My mother desires me to fulfil the painful duty of informing you of the terrible loss we have sustained in the death of my dear father, after an illness of seven weeks and three days. His personal qualities and mild character made him the best of husbands and fathers. The establishment under his good management and honest principles, had acquired a reputation which he so well merited, and which was about to enable him to reap the fruits of his labors and industry, when death cruelly took him away from his afflicted family. His last moments were those of a good christian. He was not only resigned to die, but wished for death. He bore with the greatest patience and courage his great sufferings, and spoke to us about all our duties, and expressed the hope that we would die like him a tranquil and calm conscience. He was sensible to his last moment, and wished my dear mother to continue the establishment for the good of his children, which she hopes to do. . . .”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1841, describing [[Hyde Park]], the residence of [[David Hosack]] (1841: 22)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York & London: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Hyde Park]], on the Hudson, the seat of the late [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], has been justly celebrated as one of the finest specimens of the [[modern style]] of [[Landscape Gardening]] in America. Nature has indeed, done much for this place, as the grounds are finely varied, beautifully watered by a lively stream, and the [[view]]s from the neighbourhood of the house itself, including as they do the noble Hudson, and the superb wooded valley which stretches away until bounded at the horizon by the distant summits of the blue Cattskills, are unrivalled in [[picturesque]] beauty. But the efforts of art are not unworthy so rare a locality; and while the native [[woods]], and beautifully undulating grounds are preserved in their original state, the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], roads, [[walk]]s, [[drive]]s, and new [[plantation]]s, have been laid out in so tasteful a manner as to heighten the charms of nature. Large and costly [[hothouse|hot-houses]] were erected and elegant entrance lodges at two points on the estate, a fine [[bridge]] over the stream, and numerous [[pavilion]]s and [[seat]]s commanding extensive [[prospect]]s; in short, nothing was spared to render this [[seat]] one of the finest in America. The [[park]], which at one time contained some fine deer, afforded a delightful [[drive]] within itself, as the whole estate numbered about seven hundred acres. The plans for laying out the grounds were furnished by '''Parmentier''', and architects from New York were employed in designing and erecting the buildings. Since the death of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the place has lost something of the high keeping which it formerly evinced, but we still consider it one of the most instructive [[seat]]s in this country.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden|Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:2033.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, View of the [[David Hosack]] Estate at [[Hyde Park]], New York, from Western Bank of the Hudson River, c. 1832.

File:2034.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, View of [[David Hosack]] Estate, [[Hyde Park]], New York, with a Sundial, c. 1832.

File:2035.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, View of the [[David Hosack]] Estate, [[Hyde Park]], New York, from the South, c. 1832.

File:2036.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, View of [[David Hosack]] Estate, Hyde Park, New York, from the East, c. 1832.

File:2046.jpg|Nathaniel Currier, ''[[Hyde Park]], Hudson River'', c. 1835.

File:2166.jpg|Nathaniel Currier, ''Upper Canada College (1831-1891)'', 1835.

File:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic prospect-arbor,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:People|Parmentier, André]]

File:2166.jpg

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<br>
Nathaniel Currier, ''Upper Canada College (1831-1891)'', 1835, lithograph, 241 (cropped) x 456 mm. Courtesy of Toronto Public Library, Gift of J. Ross Robertson.

File:2166.jpg

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Vase/Urn

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==History==

[[File:1175.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “A fine terra-cotta vase,” [[A. J. Downing]], “Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture,” ''American Gardener's Magazine'', vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.]]

[[File:1728.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.]]

The term vase typically referred to a freestanding, symmetrical vessel having a wider mouth than foot [Fig. 1], although some British pattern books included types with narrow mouths and elaborate lids [Fig. 2]. If fitted with a foot or pedestal set on either a small base or plinth, the vessel sometimes was referred to as an urn. Throughout history, ashes of the dead have been deposited in urns, giving them symbolic importance. Frequently urns were used for memorials and monuments, especially in [[cemetery|cemeteries]]. In the context of the designed landscape, treatise writers often strongly recommended that the vase be placed on top of a pedestal or plinth so that it would be easily visible. [[A. J. Downing]] elaborated upon this point in an 1836 article about architecture and at greater length in his 1849 treatise, when he explained that without such a placement, the vase would appear as a temporary, accidental introduction to the landscape. A permanent base, in his opinion, gave the vase the “character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability” [Fig. 3].

[[File:1840.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[J. C. Loudon]], “Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage,” in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.]]

[[File:0251.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.]]

Vases functioned primarily as ornamentation and were associated with a number of garden features. In his eighteenth-century treatise, [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] suggested that vases could be used to decorate [[parterre]]s, placed amidst planting features (such as [[grove]]s) or in water features (such as [[basin]]s), situated at the termination of [[walk]]s and [[vista]]s, or housed within structures (such as [[portico]]s and [[arbor]]s).

[[File:0852.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.]]

[[File:0218.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.]]

Vases continued to be featured in ornamental landscapes well into the nineteenth century, despite many changes in garden design. A painting of Kalorama, for example, depicts a vase at the center of the [[view]] [Fig. 4]. The connection between vases and water features continued as well. [[A. J. Downing|Downing’s]] texts, for example, contain numerous references to vases as [[fountain]]s. The strategic placement of vases in [[pleasure ground]]s also endured. At the early 19th-century estate of [[Blithewood]] in Dutchess County, New York, vases of grey Maltese stone (which [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] praised for its ability to harmonize with vegetation) were used throughout the [[pleasure ground]]s and, in particular, at the corners of adjoining [[walk]]s. Vases were also used at the termination of [[walk]]s, where they served as visual focal points as in a suburban garden design described in 1848 in the ''Horticulturist''.

Treatise authors from different periods agreed that the vase should never be placed far from the house. [[Thomas Whately]], in his 1770 treatise, insisted that the vase “attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden.” In 1849 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] reiterated [[Thomas Whately|Whately]]’s idea, explaining that since the vase was a “highly artificial and architectural” object, it must be situated in the [[pleasure ground]] in such a manner that it would always “appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character.” He cautioned further that vases be used judiciously. If placed “indiscriminately . . . where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature,” vases ran the danger of destroying the “unity of expression” that [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and others sought.

The function and placement of the vase was closely connected to its style and form. As several treatise writers counseled, vases should be stylistically consistent with their settings and, when placed near the house, should reflect the architectural character of the structure, such as Gothic, Grecian, Roman, or Italianate styles. In nineteenth-century treatises, vases in the classical or [[ancient style]] emerged as the most popular. A favored model was the Warwick Vase, a carved and decorated white marble vase from Hadrian’s Villa. The vase was recovered from the Roman site in 1770 by the Englishman [[William Hamilton]] and was subsequently taken to England by his nephew, George, Earl of Warwick. At [[Montgomery Place]], designed by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in the 1840s, a Warwick-style vase was placed in the center of the flower garden [Fig. 5]. In 1849, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the popular option of the [[Rustic_style|rustic-style]] vase, in which the vessel was made out of the “branches and sections of trees with the bark attached.”

Outdoor vases were usually large in scale, two to three feet in height. They could be composed of a variety of materials, such as cast-brass, lead gilt, marble, stone and stucco, according to [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], writing nearly one hundred and fifty years later, gave an equally wide-ranging list, including stone, artificial stone, plaster, and Roman cement. He also cited inexpensive materials intended to imitate luxury materials, such as terra-cotta and English Staffordshire, which could be treated to emulate marble. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s allusion to Staffordshire pottery suggests the near-dominant presence of refined British pottery in America. Nevertheless, he mentioned several American manufacturers that produced vases and noted especially such New York manufacturers as the Salamander Works, the Garnick Company, and Coffee’s Manufactory.

Vases were also used as plant containers, as indicated in Augustus Weidenbach’s c. 1858 painting of the garden at [[Belvedere]] in Baltimore [Fig. 6], or in [[C. M. Hovey]]’s 1839 description of a greenhouse or conservatory. Nevertheless, large-scale, ornamental vases were often regarded as works of art, and, therefore, as [[J. C. Loudon]] argued, cited by [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] in 1849, they should not be reduced to the level of “a mere garden flower-[[pot]].”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:1190.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Samuel McIntire, ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799. ]]
* McIntire, Samuel, June 8, 1795, describing a statement of account with Elias Hasket Derby (quoted in Kimball 1940: 74)<ref>Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, ME: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref>
:{|
|“1793 ''Dec 4th'' || to Sundrie Drawings for <br /> [[Summer House]]s @ 24/ || £1: 4:
|-
|1794 ''Apl 25'' || to Carving 4 '''Vases''' for <br /> the [[Summer House]] at 18/s each || 3: 18:
|-
|July || to Building the Summer <br /> House at the Farm @ 100:0:0 <br />to Extra work on the Same, <br />Viz., finishing four Closets <br />@20/each 4: 0:0” [Fig. 7]"
|}

* Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1:243)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy hall of the dwelling, which opened from [[piazza]] to [[piazza]] through the house, to the front gallery, whose light columns were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome '''vases''' of marble and China-ware. The main avenue opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, ‘Where Flora’s brightest broidery shone,’ terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
* Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, [[seat]] of General George P. Morris, near Cold-Spring, NY (1840; repr. 1971: 233)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian '''vase''', and encircled by ornamental [[shrubbery]]; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left [[slope]] of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 8]

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 405)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “7. Large palms in [[pot]]s, or Maltese '''vases''', or '''vases''' made of artificial stone, set on the turf. In the introduction of '''vases''', it should always be remembered that the '''vase''' should not be set down immediately on the turf, but upon a ''plinth''. . . .
: “8. [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] basket, for flowers, as represented in the engraving just referred to. These are very easily made. Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] has given a figure of one, in his ''Treatise on Landscape Gardening'', where he states they may be made in the following manner:—An octagon box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel, (small split limbs, covered with the bark,) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large '''vase''' of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer house|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character.”

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece. ]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Blithewood]], [[seat]] of Robert Donaldson, Dutchess County, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 425)<ref name="Downing 1849"> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “At [[Blithewood]], the seat of R. Donaldson, Esq., on the Hudson, a number of exquisite '''vases''' may be seen in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, which are cut in Maltese stone. These were imported by the proprietor, direct from Malta, at very moderate rates, and are not only ornamental, but very durable. Their color is a warm shade of grey which harmonizes agreeably with the surrounding vegetation.” [Fig. 9]

* Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, "The Fairmount Waterworks", ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We arrived at Fairmount. . . . Seeing a park at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about. Fat marble Cupids, in big marble '''vases''', squirted water upward incessantly.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 75–76)<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “STATUES and '''Vases''' contribute very much to the Embellishment and Magnificence of a Garden, and extremely advance the natural Beauties of it. They are made of several Forms, and different Materials; the richest are those of Cast-Brass, Lead gilt, and Marble; the ordinary Sort are of common Stone, or Stucco. . . .
: “THE usual Places of Figures and '''Vases''' are along the Palisades, in the Front, and upon the Sides of a [[parterre|Parterre]]; in the Niches and Sinkings of Horn-beam, or of Lattice-work made for that Purpose. In [[grove|Grove]]s, they are placed in the Center of a Star, or S. ''Andrew’s'' Cross; in the Spaces between the [[walk|Walk]]s of a Goose-foot, in the Middle of Halls and Cabinets, among the Trees and [[arch|Arch]]es of a Green-Gallery, and at the Head of a Row of Trees, or Palisades, that stand free and detached. They are also put at the lower End of [[walk|Walk]]s and [[vista|Vista]]s, to set them off the better; in [[portico|Portico]]s, and [[arbor|Arbor]]s of [[trellis|Trellis]]-work; in [[basin|Bason]]s, [[cascade|Cascade]]s, &c. In general, they do well every where; and you can scarce have too many of them in a Garden: But, as in the Business of Sculpture, it should be excellent, as well as in Painting and Poesy [''sic''] (which are its two Sisters).”

[[File:1727.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.]]
* [[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xxi, xxv)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Three Designs for Columns, proper for publick Places or private Gardens; ''viz''. a plain Dorick [[column|Column]] upon its Pedestal with a '''Vase''' a top, a fluted [[column|Column]] properly adorn’d, and a [[Rustic_style|Rustick]] frosted [[column|Column]], with a Figure a-top, as I have made them for several Gentlemen. The Proportions of them are mark’d upon an upright Line, divided into so many Diameters of the [[column|Column]] for the Height. . . .
: “Three Designs for '''Vases''', done for the Right Honourable the Earl of ''Oxford''. There are two '''Vases''' well executed in Portland Stone according to the middle Draught, which are set upon two large Peers on each side of the principal [[walk|Walk]] in the Garden at ''Wimpole'' in ''Cambridgeshire''. . . . [Fig. 10]
: “Fifty four Draughts of '''Vases''', &c. in the Antique manner, made for several persons at different times. Many of them have been executed both in Marble and Metal.”

* [[Thomas Wately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''vases''', [[statue]]s, and termini, are usual appendages to a considerable edifice; as such they may attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure.”

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''URN''' . . . A kind of vase of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''. . . .
: “'''VASE''', ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]
: “1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a '''''vase''''' for sacrifice, an '''urn''', &c.
: “2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.
: “3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-[[pot]]s, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.
: “4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 285–86)

: “It will not be inadvertent to the present hasty remarks to hint at the additional charm which may be produced in highly finished places, especially where the buildings are in the Grecian style, by introducing into the [[lawn]]s and gardens the classic '''''vase''''' in its different forms, and, if thought desirable, [[statue]]s also. They serve as it were as a connecting link between so highly artificial an object as a modern villa, and the verdant [[lawn]]s and gay gardens which surround it. Elevated upon pedestals, and placed at suitable points in the [[view]]—on the parapets of [[terrace]]s near the house—before a group of foliage upon the [[lawn]], and at proper intervals in the garden, they give a classic and elegant air to the whole, which adds greatly to its value. Beautiful in their forms, contrasting finely with the deep green of vegetation, and leading the eye gradually from their own sculptured beauty to the architectural symmetry of the building, of which they form as it were a continuous though detached part, amalgamating it with the grounds in which it is placed—their effect can only be appreciated beforehand by those who have studied the excellent effect produced by their introduction into the scene.
: “Another reason which may be offered for the introduction of '''vases''' into architectural and garden scenery is ‘the gratification which such objects afford to the man of intelligence and taste. There are, perhaps, few objects, next to the human figure, which afford as many interesting historical associations as the '''vase'''. It may truly be said to be the first and last production of the plastic art. The first utensil formed by man, in the dawn of civilization in every country, is a vessel or '''vase''' for holding water; and that on which the highest resources of art are bestowed, in ages of the greatest refinement, is a '''vase''' or vessel for holding wine. In the first case, it is hollowed out of a gourd, or rudely shaped of clay, and dried in the sun; and, in the latter case, it is manufactured of costly metals or precious stones; or, if of common materials, such as stone, earthenware or glass, it is rendered valuable by the taste and skill bestowed on its form and ornaments. The history of every country may be traced by its '''vases''' no less than by its coins; and the history of all countries is set before us in the '''vases''' of all countries.’ [Loudon, X. 494.]”

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], January 1839, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 29)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes on Gardens and Nurseries", ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5 (1839): 59–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EQ6ZIWR4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The beauty of '''vases''' in garden scenery has been already urged by our correspondent, Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], (Vol. II, p. 281,) and we had intended to add something to his remarks, ourselves, by the way of impressing the subject more upon the attention of our readers. . . .
: “Surely we need not say any thing further to show how much they would add to the beauty of the garden, or the elegance of the [[conservatory]]. In either place, they are objects too inviting not to be found in every garden. These '''vases''' are easily filled with handsome plants, well suited to the situation, and the following might compose, in part, the group for the [[greenhouse|green-house]].”

* Rusticus [pseud.], August 1846, “Design for a Rustic Gate” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 72)<ref>Rusticus [pseud]., “Design for a Rustic Gate,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1 (1846): 72–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DPX658P3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Indeed, [[Rustic_style|rustic work]] of all kinds is extremely pleasing in any situation where there is any thing like a wild or natural character; or even where there is a simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic character]]. In the immediate proximity of a highly finished villa, it strikes me that [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], such as [[arbor]]s, [[fence]]s, flower baskets and the like, are rather out of place. The sculptured '''vase''' of marble, or terra cotta, would appear to be the most in keeping with an elegant place of the first class; that is to say, for all situations very near the house. In wooded [[walk]]s, or secluded spots, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work looks well always.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], July 1848, “Ornamental Vases and Chimney Tops” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 40)

: “There are few objects that may, with so much good effect, be introduced into the scenery of [[pleasure ground]]s, surrounding a tasteful villa, as the '''''vase''''', in its many varied forms. The terra cotta '''vases''' of the Garnkirk company exhibit pleasing forms, and a soft mellow shade of colour, which harmonizes admirably with the hue of foliage and turf. From among the variety manufactured by them, we have selected a few, of which we here present engravings. . . .
: “To set down a '''vase''' upon the earth, or the [[lawn]], without any pedestal, is to give it a temporary character, and to rob it of that dignity and importance which it gains, both to the eye and the reason, by being placed on a firm and secure pedestal. . . .
: “Looking at the '''vase''' in an artistical point of view, it is considered as performing the office of uniting the architecture and the grounds of a complete country residence. It is the architectural idea, carried a little beyond the house, and shows that the same feeling of taste and embellishment reigns in both departments of the residence. It will be easily understood from this, that the most suitable place for '''vases''' is in highly kept portions of the [[pleasure ground]], near the house, where the '''vases''' may be seen in connexion with it; or, at least, where the architecture of the building harmonizes with the highly artificial forms of the '''vase'''. The simplest cottage may have its '''vase'''; but, where the building is small, the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''', made of bits of wood, and filled with flowering plants, is in better keeping than those made of any more highly artificial materials.”

[[File:1819.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, "A Gothic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 423–27, 471, 473) <ref name="Downing 1849"></ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with '''urns''' or '''vases''', and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower garden|flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s in various different points ''near the house''. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured '''vase''', is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. To place a beautiful '''vase''' in a distant part of the grounds, where there is no direct allusion to art, and where it is accompanied only by natural objects, as the overhanging trees and the sloping turf, is in a measure doing violence to our reason or taste, by bringing two objects so strongly contrasted, in direct union. But when we see a statue or a '''vase''' placed in any part of the grounds where a near [[view]] is obtained of the house (and its accompanying statues or '''vases'''), the whole is accounted for, and we feel the distant '''vase''' to be only part of, or rather a repetition of the same idea,—in other words, that it forms part of a whole, harmonious and consistent.
: “'''Vases''' of real stone, as marble or granite, are decorations of too costly a kind ever to come into general use among us. '''Vases''', however, of equally beautiful forms, are manufactured of artificial stone, of fine pottery, or of cast iron, which have the same effect, and are of nearly equal durability, as garden decorations.
: “A '''vase''' should never, in the open air, be set down upon the ground or grass, without being placed upon a firm base of some description, either a ''plinth'' or a ''pedestal''. Without a base of this kind it has a temporary look, as if it had been left there by mere accident, and without any intention of permanence. Placing it upon a pedestal, or square plinth (block of stone), gives it a character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability. Besides this, the pedestal in reality serves to preserve the vase in a perpendicular position, as well as to expose it fairly to the eye, which could not be the case were it put down, without any preparation, on the bare turf or gravel.
: “Figure 69 is . . . Gothic. . . . These with many other elegant '''vases''' and '''urns''' are manufactured in an artificial stone, as durable as marble, by Austin of London, and together with a great variety of other beautiful sculpturesque decorations, may be imported at very reasonable prices. . . . [Fig. 11]
: “These '''vases''', when colored to imitate marble or other stone, are extremely durable and very ornamental. As yet, we are unable to refer our readers to any manufactory here, where these articles are made in a manner fully equal to the English; but we are satisfied, it is only necessary that the taste for such articles should increase, and the consequent demand, to induce our artisans to produce them of equal beauty and of greater cheapness. . . .
: “Large '''vases''' are sometimes filled with earth and planted with choice flowering plants, and the effect of the blossoms and green leaves growing out of these handsome receptacles, is at least unique and striking [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] objects to it in the case of an elegant sculptured '''vase''', ‘because it is reducing a work of art to the level of a mere garden flower-[[pot]], and dividing the attention between the beauty of the form of the '''vase''' and of its sculptured ornaments, and that of the plant which it contains.’ This criticism is a just one in its general application, especially when '''vases''' are considered as architectural decorations. Occasional deviations, however, may be permitted, for the sake of producing variety, especially in the case of vases used as decorations in the [[flower-garden]].
[[File:0389.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase”" in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.]]
: “A very pretty and fanciful substitute for the sculptured '''vase''', and which may take its place in the [[picturesque]] landscape, may be found in '''vases''' or baskets of ''rustic work'', constructed of the branches and sections of trees with the bark attached. Figure 74 is a representation of a pleasing [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''' which we have constructed without difficulty. A tripod of branches of trees forms the pedestal. An octagonal box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel (small split limbs covered with the bark) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior. Ornaments of this kind, which may be made by the amateur with the assistance of a common carpenter, are very suitable for the decoration of the grounds and [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s of cottages or [[picturesque]] villas. An endless variety of forms will occur to an ingenious artist in [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], which he may call in to the embellishment of rural scenes, without taxing his purse heavily. . . . [Fig. 12]
[[File:0403.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.]]
: “Weeping, or ''Tazza [[fountain|Fountain]]s'', as they are called, are simple and highly pleasing objects, which require only a very moderate supply of water compared with that demanded by a constant and powerful [[jet]]. The conduit pipe rises through and fills the '''vase''', which is so formed as to overflow round its entire margin. Figure 93 represents a beautiful Grecian '''vase''' for tazza [[fountain]]s. The ordinary [[jet]] and the tazza [[fountain]] may be combined in one, when the supply of water is sufficient, by carrying the conduit pipe to the level of the top of the '''vase''', from which the water rises perpendicularly, then falls back into the '''vase''' and overflows as before. . . . [Fig. 13]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain square edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.
: “In addition to this, there is great danger that a mere lover of fine '''vases''' may run into the error of assembling these objects indiscriminately in different parts of his grounds, where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature. He may overload the grounds with an unmeaning distribution of sculpturesque or artificial forms, instead of working up those parts where art predominates in such a manner, by means of appropriate decorations, as to heighten by contrast the beauty of the whole adjacent landscape.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1727.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.
File:1728.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.
File:1190.jpg|[[Samuel McIntire]], ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.
File:1293.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Designs for Urns,” in ''The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter'' (1830), pl. 26.
File:1758.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Rustic arch and vase,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 581, fig. 231.
File:1827.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Hermit's Seat, and Classical Vase,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 664, fig. 172.
File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "16. Green-house"
File:0941.jpg|Anonymous, “A pair of ''tozza'' [''sic''] vases, for a fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848): p. 42, fig. 13.
File:0948.jpg|Anonymous, Ornamental Vases, ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848), p. 40, figs. 7–11.

File:1819.jpg|Anonymous, “A Gothic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.

File:0388.jpg|Anonymouse, Vase, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 425, fig. 72.

File:0389.jpg|Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.

File:0403.jpg|Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1175.jpg|Anonymous, "A fine terra-cotta vase," [[A. J. Downing]], "Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture," American Gardener's Magazine, vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.
File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.
File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.
File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.
File:0583.jpg|Lewis Miller, "For a Lady's Album ...," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 125.
File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.
File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0259.jpg|The Gansevoort Limner (possibly Pieter Vanderlyn), ''Young Lady with a Fan'', 1737.

File:0191.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Margaret Tilghman Carroll'', c. 1770.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0001.jpg|[[George Ropes]], ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East View of Greenvill[e], S.C.'', possibly 1825.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:1247.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.

File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

File:1840.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage," in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.

File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.

File:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

File:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.

File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.

File:0891.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Joseph H. Jennings’ House, 1841–44.

File:0704.jpg|Lewis Miller, "Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, September 15" [detail], September 15, 1856.

File:0218.jpg|[[Augustus Weidenbach]], ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

Vase/Urn

2018-04-18T17:26:13Z

C-cole: /* Usage */

==History==

[[File:1175.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “A fine terra-cotta vase,” [[A. J. Downing]], “Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture,” ''American Gardener's Magazine'', vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.]]

[[File:1728.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.]]

The term vase typically referred to a freestanding, symmetrical vessel having a wider mouth than foot [Fig. 1], although some British pattern books included types with narrow mouths and elaborate lids [Fig. 2]. If fitted with a foot or pedestal set on either a small base or plinth, the vessel sometimes was referred to as an urn. Throughout history, ashes of the dead have been deposited in urns, giving them symbolic importance. Frequently urns were used for memorials and monuments, especially in [[cemetery|cemeteries]]. In the context of the designed landscape, treatise writers often strongly recommended that the vase be placed on top of a pedestal or plinth so that it would be easily visible. [[A. J. Downing]] elaborated upon this point in an 1836 article about architecture and at greater length in his 1849 treatise, when he explained that without such a placement, the vase would appear as a temporary, accidental introduction to the landscape. A permanent base, in his opinion, gave the vase the “character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability” [Fig. 3].

[[File:1840.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[J. C. Loudon]], “Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage,” in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.]]

[[File:0251.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.]]

Vases functioned primarily as ornamentation and were associated with a number of garden features. In his eighteenth-century treatise, [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] suggested that vases could be used to decorate [[parterre]]s, placed amidst planting features (such as [[grove]]s) or in water features (such as [[basin]]s), situated at the termination of [[walk]]s and [[vista]]s, or housed within structures (such as [[portico]]s and [[arbor]]s).

[[File:0852.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.]]

[[File:0218.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.]]

Vases continued to be featured in ornamental landscapes well into the nineteenth century, despite many changes in garden design. A painting of Kalorama, for example, depicts a vase at the center of the [[view]] [Fig. 4]. The connection between vases and water features continued as well. [[A. J. Downing|Downing’s]] texts, for example, contain numerous references to vases as [[fountain]]s. The strategic placement of vases in [[pleasure ground]]s also endured. At the early 19th-century estate of [[Blithewood]] in Dutchess County, New York, vases of grey Maltese stone (which [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] praised for its ability to harmonize with vegetation) were used throughout the [[pleasure ground]]s and, in particular, at the corners of adjoining [[walk]]s. Vases were also used at the termination of [[walk]]s, where they served as visual focal points as in a suburban garden design described in 1848 in the ''Horticulturist''.

Treatise authors from different periods agreed that the vase should never be placed far from the house. [[Thomas Whately]], in his 1770 treatise, insisted that the vase “attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden.” In 1849 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] reiterated [[Thomas Whately|Whately]]’s idea, explaining that since the vase was a “highly artificial and architectural” object, it must be situated in the [[pleasure ground]] in such a manner that it would always “appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character.” He cautioned further that vases be used judiciously. If placed “indiscriminately . . . where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature,” vases ran the danger of destroying the “unity of expression” that [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and others sought.

The function and placement of the vase was closely connected to its style and form. As several treatise writers counseled, vases should be stylistically consistent with their settings and, when placed near the house, should reflect the architectural character of the structure, such as Gothic, Grecian, Roman, or Italianate styles. In nineteenth-century treatises, vases in the classical or [[ancient style]] emerged as the most popular. A favored model was the Warwick Vase, a carved and decorated white marble vase from Hadrian’s Villa. The vase was recovered from the Roman site in 1770 by the Englishman [[William Hamilton]] and was subsequently taken to England by his nephew, George, Earl of Warwick. At [[Montgomery Place]], designed by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in the 1840s, a Warwick-style vase was placed in the center of the flower garden [Fig. 5]. In 1849, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the popular option of the [[Rustic_style|rustic-style]] vase, in which the vessel was made out of the “branches and sections of trees with the bark attached.”

Outdoor vases were usually large in scale, two to three feet in height. They could be composed of a variety of materials, such as cast-brass, lead gilt, marble, stone and stucco, according to [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], writing nearly one hundred and fifty years later, gave an equally wide-ranging list, including stone, artificial stone, plaster, and Roman cement. He also cited inexpensive materials intended to imitate luxury materials, such as terra-cotta and English Staffordshire, which could be treated to emulate marble. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s allusion to Staffordshire pottery suggests the near-dominant presence of refined British pottery in America. Nevertheless, he mentioned several American manufacturers that produced vases and noted especially such New York manufacturers as the Salamander Works, the Garnick Company, and Coffee’s Manufactory.

Vases were also used as plant containers, as indicated in Augustus Weidenbach’s c. 1858 painting of the garden at [[Belvedere]] in Baltimore [Fig. 6], or in [[C. M. Hovey]]’s 1839 description of a greenhouse or conservatory. Nevertheless, large-scale, ornamental vases were often regarded as works of art, and, therefore, as [[J. C. Loudon]] argued, cited by [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] in 1849, they should not be reduced to the level of “a mere garden flower-[[pot]].”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:1190.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Samuel McIntire, ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799. ]]
* McIntire, Samuel, June 8, 1795, describing a statement of account with Elias Hasket Derby (quoted in Kimball 1940: 74)<ref>Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, ME: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref>
:{|
|“1793 ''Dec 4th'' || to Sundrie Drawings for <br /> [[Summer House]]s @ 24/ || £1: 4:
|-
|1794 ''Apl 25'' || to Carving 4 '''Vases''' for <br /> the [[Summer House]] at 18/s each || 3: 18:
|-
|July || to Building the Summer <br /> House at the Farm @ 100:0:0 <br />to Extra work on the Same, <br />Viz., finishing four Closets <br />@20/each 4: 0:0” [Fig. 7]"
|}

* Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1:243)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy hall of the dwelling, which opened from [[piazza]] to [[piazza]] through the house, to the front gallery, whose light columns were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome '''vases''' of marble and China-ware. The main avenue opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, ‘Where Flora’s brightest broidery shone,’ terminating at the villas of adjoining [[plantation]]s.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
* Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, [[seat]] of General George P. Morris, near Cold-Spring, NY (1840; repr. 1971: 233)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian '''vase''', and encircled by ornamental [[shrubbery]]; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left [[slope]] of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 8]

* [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 405)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “7. Large palms in [[pot]]s, or Maltese '''vases''', or '''vases''' made of artificial stone, set on the turf. In the introduction of '''vases''', it should always be remembered that the '''vase''' should not be set down immediately on the turf, but upon a ''plinth''. . . .
: “8. [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] basket, for flowers, as represented in the engraving just referred to. These are very easily made. Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] has given a figure of one, in his ''Treatise on Landscape Gardening'', where he states they may be made in the following manner:—An octagon box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel, (small split limbs, covered with the bark,) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[flower garden|FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large '''vase''' of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer house|summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character.”

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece. ]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Blithewood]], [[seat]] of Robert Donaldson, Dutchess County, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 425)<ref name="Downing 1849"> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “At [[Blithewood]], the seat of R. Donaldson, Esq., on the Hudson, a number of exquisite '''vases''' may be seen in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, which are cut in Maltese stone. These were imported by the proprietor, direct from Malta, at very moderate rates, and are not only ornamental, but very durable. Their color is a warm shade of grey which harmonizes agreeably with the surrounding vegetation.” [Fig. 9]

* Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, "The Fairmount Waterworks", ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We arrived at Fairmount. . . . Seeing a park at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about. Fat marble Cupids, in big marble '''vases''', squirted water upward incessantly.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[[Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 75–76)<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “STATUES and '''Vases''' contribute very much to the Embellishment and Magnificence of a Garden, and extremely advance the natural Beauties of it. They are made of several Forms, and different Materials; the richest are those of Cast-Brass, Lead gilt, and Marble; the ordinary Sort are of common Stone, or Stucco. . . .
: “THE usual Places of Figures and '''Vases''' are along the Palisades, in the Front, and upon the Sides of a [[Parterre]]; in the Niches and Sinkings of Horn-beam, or of Lattice-work made for that Purpose. In [[Grove]]s, they are placed in the Center of a Star, or S. ''Andrew’s'' Cross; in the Spaces between the [[Walk]]s of a Goose-foot, in the Middle of Halls and Cabinets, among the Trees and [[Arch]]es of a Green-Gallery, and at the Head of a Row of Trees, or Palisades, that stand free and detached. They are also put at the lower End of [[Walk]]s and [[Vista]]s, to set them off the better; in [[Portico]]s, and [[Arbor]]s of [[Trellis]]-work; in [[Bason]]s, [[Cascade]]s, &c. In general, they do well every where; and you can scarce have too many of them in a Garden: But, as in the Business of Sculpture, it should be excellent, as well as in Painting and Poesy [''sic''] (which are its two Sisters).”

[[File:1727.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.]]
* [[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xxi, xxv)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Three Designs for Columns, proper for publick Places or private Gardens; ''viz''. a plain Dorick [[Column]] upon its Pedestal with a '''Vase''' a top, a fluted [[Column]] properly adorn’d, and a [[Rustic_style|Rustick]] frosted [[Column]], with a Figure a-top, as I have made them for several Gentlemen. The Proportions of them are mark’d upon an upright Line, divided into so many Diameters of the [[Column]] for the Height. . . .
: “Three Designs for '''Vases''', done for the Right Honourable the Earl of ''Oxford''. There are two '''Vases''' well executed in Portland Stone according to the middle Draught, which are set upon two large Peers on each side of the principal [[Walk]] in the Garden at ''Wimpole'' in ''Cambridgeshire''. . . . [Fig. 10]
: “Fifty four Draughts of '''Vases''', &c. in the Antique manner, made for several persons at different times. Many of them have been executed both in Marble and Metal.”

* [[Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''vases''', [[statue]]s, and termini, are usual appendages to a considerable edifice; as such they may attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''URN''' . . . A kind of vase of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''. . . .
: “'''VASE''', ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]
: “1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a '''''vase''''' for sacrifice, an '''urn''', &c.
: “2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.
: “3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-pots, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.
: “4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 285–86)

: “It will not be inadvertent to the present hasty remarks to hint at the additional charm which may be produced in highly finished places, especially where the buildings are in the Grecian style, by introducing into the [[lawn]]s and gardens the classic '''''vase''''' in its different forms, and, if thought desirable, [[statue]]s also. They serve as it were as a connecting link between so highly artificial an object as a modern villa, and the verdant [[lawn]]s and gay gardens which surround it. Elevated upon pedestals, and placed at suitable points in the [[view]]—on the parapets of [[terrace]]s near the house—before a group of foliage upon the [[lawn]], and at proper intervals in the garden, they give a classic and elegant air to the whole, which adds greatly to its value. Beautiful in their forms, contrasting finely with the deep green of vegetation, and leading the eye gradually from their own sculptured beauty to the architectural symmetry of the building, of which they form as it were a continuous though detached part, amalgamating it with the grounds in which it is placed—their effect can only be appreciated beforehand by those who have studied the excellent effect produced by their introduction into the scene.
: “Another reason which may be offered for the introduction of '''vases''' into architectural and garden scenery is ‘the gratification which such objects afford to the man of intelligence and taste. There are, perhaps, few objects, next to the human figure, which afford as many interesting historical associations as the '''vase'''. It may truly be said to be the first and last production of the plastic art. The first utensil formed by man, in the dawn of civilization in every country, is a vessel or '''vase''' for holding water; and that on which the highest resources of art are bestowed, in ages of the greatest refinement, is a '''vase''' or vessel for holding wine. In the first case, it is hollowed out of a gourd, or rudely shaped of clay, and dried in the sun; and, in the latter case, it is manufactured of costly metals or precious stones; or, if of common materials, such as stone, earthenware or glass, it is rendered valuable by the taste and skill bestowed on its form and ornaments. The history of every country may be traced by its '''vases''' no less than by its coins; and the history of all countries is set before us in the '''vases''' of all countries.’ [Loudon, X. 494.]”

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], January 1839, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 29)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes on Gardens and Nurseries", ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5 (1839): 59–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EQ6ZIWR4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The beauty of '''vases''' in garden scenery has been already urged by our correspondent, Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], (Vol. II, p. 281,) and we had intended to add something to his remarks, ourselves, by the way of impressing the subject more upon the attention of our readers. . . .
: “Surely we need not say any thing further to show how much they would add to the beauty of the garden, or the elegance of the [[conservatory]]. In either place, they are objects too inviting not to be found in every garden. These '''vases''' are easily filled with handsome plants, well suited to the situation, and the following might compose, in part, the group for the [[green-house]].”

* Rusticus [pseud.], August 1846, “Design for a Rustic Gate” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 72)<ref>Rusticus [pseud]., “Design for a Rustic Gate,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1 (1846): 72–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DPX658P3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Indeed, [[Rustic_style|rustic work]] of all kinds is extremely pleasing in any situation where there is any thing like a wild or natural character; or even where there is a simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic character]]. In the immediate proximity of a highly finished villa, it strikes me that [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], such as [[arbor]]s, [[fence]]s, flower baskets and the like, are rather out of place. The sculptured '''vase''' of marble, or terra cotta, would appear to be the most in keeping with an elegant place of the first class; that is to say, for all situations very near the house. In wooded [[walk]]s, or secluded spots, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work looks well always.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], July 1848, “Ornamental Vases and Chimney Tops” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 40)

: “There are few objects that may, with so much good effect, be introduced into the scenery of [[pleasure ground]]s, surrounding a tasteful villa, as the '''''vase''''', in its many varied forms. The terra cotta '''vases''' of the Garnkirk company exhibit pleasing forms, and a soft mellow shade of colour, which harmonizes admirably with the hue of foliage and turf. From among the variety manufactured by them, we have selected a few, of which we here present engravings. . . .
: “To set down a '''vase''' upon the earth, or the [[lawn]], without any pedestal, is to give it a temporary character, and to rob it of that dignity and importance which it gains, both to the eye and the reason, by being placed on a firm and secure pedestal. . . .
: “Looking at the '''vase''' in an artistical point of view, it is considered as performing the office of uniting the architecture and the grounds of a complete country residence. It is the architectural idea, carried a little beyond the house, and shows that the same feeling of taste and embellishment reigns in both departments of the residence. It will be easily understood from this, that the most suitable place for '''vases''' is in highly kept portions of the [[pleasure ground]], near the house, where the '''vases''' may be seen in connexion with it; or, at least, where the architecture of the building harmonizes with the highly artificial forms of the '''vase'''. The simplest cottage may have its '''vase'''; but, where the building is small, the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''', made of bits of wood, and filled with flowering plants, is in better keeping than those made of any more highly artificial materials.”

[[File:1819.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, "A Gothic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 423–27, 471, 473) <ref name="Downing 1849"></ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with '''urns''' or '''vases''', and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure-ground]]s in various different points ''near the house''. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured '''vase''', is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. To place a beautiful '''vase''' in a distant part of the grounds, where there is no direct allusion to art, and where it is accompanied only by natural objects, as the overhanging trees and the sloping turf, is in a measure doing violence to our reason or taste, by bringing two objects so strongly contrasted, in direct union. But when we see a statue or a '''vase''' placed in any part of the grounds where a near [[view]] is obtained of the house (and its accompanying statues or '''vases'''), the whole is accounted for, and we feel the distant '''vase''' to be only part of, or rather a repetition of the same idea,—in other words, that it forms part of a whole, harmonious and consistent.
: “'''Vases''' of real stone, as marble or granite, are decorations of too costly a kind ever to come into general use among us. '''Vases''', however, of equally beautiful forms, are manufactured of artificial stone, of fine pottery, or of cast iron, which have the same effect, and are of nearly equal durability, as garden decorations.
: “A '''vase''' should never, in the open air, be set down upon the ground or grass, without being placed upon a firm base of some description, either a ''plinth'' or a ''pedestal''. Without a base of this kind it has a temporary look, as if it had been left there by mere accident, and without any intention of permanence. Placing it upon a pedestal, or square plinth (block of stone), gives it a character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability. Besides this, the pedestal in reality serves to preserve the vase in a perpendicular position, as well as to expose it fairly to the eye, which could not be the case were it put down, without any preparation, on the bare turf or gravel.
: “Figure 69 is . . . Gothic. . . . These with many other elegant '''vases''' and '''urns''' are manufactured in an artificial stone, as durable as marble, by Austin of London, and together with a great variety of other beautiful sculpturesque decorations, may be imported at very reasonable prices. . . . [Fig. 11]
: “These '''vases''', when colored to imitate marble or other stone, are extremely durable and very ornamental. As yet, we are unable to refer our readers to any manufactory here, where these articles are made in a manner fully equal to the English; but we are satisfied, it is only necessary that the taste for such articles should increase, and the consequent demand, to induce our artisans to produce them of equal beauty and of greater cheapness. . . .
: “Large '''vases''' are sometimes filled with earth and planted with choice flowering plants, and the effect of the blossoms and green leaves growing out of these handsome receptacles, is at least unique and striking [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] objects to it in the case of an elegant sculptured '''vase''', ‘because it is reducing a work of art to the level of a mere garden flower-[[pot]], and dividing the attention between the beauty of the form of the '''vase''' and of its sculptured ornaments, and that of the plant which it contains.’ This criticism is a just one in its general application, especially when '''vases''' are considered as architectural decorations. Occasional deviations, however, may be permitted, for the sake of producing variety, especially in the case of vases used as decorations in the [[flower-garden]].
[[File:0389.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase”" in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.]]
: “A very pretty and fanciful substitute for the sculptured '''vase''', and which may take its place in the [[picturesque]] landscape, may be found in '''vases''' or baskets of ''rustic work'', constructed of the branches and sections of trees with the bark attached. Figure 74 is a representation of a pleasing [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''' which we have constructed without difficulty. A tripod of branches of trees forms the pedestal. An octagonal box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel (small split limbs covered with the bark) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior. Ornaments of this kind, which may be made by the amateur with the assistance of a common carpenter, are very suitable for the decoration of the grounds and [[flower-garden]]s of cottages or [[picturesque]] villas. An endless variety of forms will occur to an ingenious artist in [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], which he may call in to the embellishment of rural scenes, without taxing his purse heavily. . . . [Fig. 12]
[[File:0403.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.]]
: “Weeping, or ''Tazza [[Fountain]]s'', as they are called, are simple and highly pleasing objects, which require only a very moderate supply of water compared with that demanded by a constant and powerful [[jet]]. The conduit pipe rises through and fills the '''vase''', which is so formed as to overflow round its entire margin. Figure 93 represents a beautiful Grecian '''vase''' for tazza [[fountain]]s. The ordinary [[jet]] and the tazza [[fountain]] may be combined in one, when the supply of water is sufficient, by carrying the conduit pipe to the level of the top of the '''vase''', from which the water rises perpendicularly, then falls back into the '''vase''' and overflows as before. . . . [Fig. 13]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain square edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.
: “In addition to this, there is great danger that a mere lover of fine '''vases''' may run into the error of assembling these objects indiscriminately in different parts of his grounds, where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature. He may overload the grounds with an unmeaning distribution of sculpturesque or artificial forms, instead of working up those parts where art predominates in such a manner, by means of appropriate decorations, as to heighten by contrast the beauty of the whole adjacent landscape.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1727.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.
File:1728.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.
File:1190.jpg|[[Samuel McIntire]], ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.
File:1293.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Designs for Urns,” in ''The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter'' (1830), pl. 26.
File:1758.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Rustic arch and vase,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 581, fig. 231.
File:1827.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Hermit's Seat, and Classical Vase,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 664, fig. 172.
File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "16. Green-house"
File:0941.jpg|Anonymous, “A pair of ''tozza'' [''sic''] vases, for a fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848): p. 42, fig. 13.
File:0948.jpg|Anonymous, Ornamental Vases, ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848), p. 40, figs. 7–11.

File:1819.jpg|Anonymous, “A Gothic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.

File:0388.jpg|Anonymouse, Vase, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 425, fig. 72.

File:0389.jpg|Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.

File:0403.jpg|Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1175.jpg|Anonymous, "A fine terra-cotta vase," [[A. J. Downing]], "Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture," American Gardener's Magazine, vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.
File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.
File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.
File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.
File:0583.jpg|Lewis Miller, "For a Lady's Album ...," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 125.
File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.
File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0259.jpg|The Gansevoort Limner (possibly Pieter Vanderlyn), ''Young Lady with a Fan'', 1737.

File:0191.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Margaret Tilghman Carroll'', c. 1770.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0001.jpg|[[George Ropes]], ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East View of Greenvill[e], S.C.'', possibly 1825.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:1247.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.

File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

File:1840.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage," in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.

File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.

File:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

File:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.

File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.

File:0891.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Joseph H. Jennings’ House, 1841–44.

File:0704.jpg|Lewis Miller, "Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, September 15" [detail], September 15, 1856.

File:0218.jpg|[[Augustus Weidenbach]], ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

Boston Common

2018-04-18T13:47:04Z

C-cole: /* Images */

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:'''<br>
'''Site Dates:''' <br>
'''Site Owner(s):'''<br>
'''Associated People:'''<br>
'''Location:''' Boston, MA<br>

==History==

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, 1640 and 1646, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (quoted in Adams 1842: 7)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March 1660] Hereafter there shall be no land granted either for house [[plot]] or garden to any person, out of the open ground or '''common''' ﬁeld, which is left between the Sentry Hill and Mr. Colburn’s end. . . .
:“[May 1646] No dry cattle, young cattle, or horse, shall be free to go on the '''Common''' this year but one horse of Elder Oliver.”

*Josselyn, John, 1674, describing Boston, MA (quoted in Reps 1965: 141)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/making%20of%20urban%20america view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the South there is a small but pleasant '''common''', where the Gallants a little before Sunset walk with their Marmalet-Madams.”

*Anonymous, May 19, 1766, ''Boston Evening-Post'' (quoted in Brigham 1954: 21)<ref>Clarence Brigham, ''Paul Revere’s Engravings'' (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A/q/paul%20revere's%20engravings, view on Zotero].</ref>

:“ . . . [T]he Gentlemen Selectmen of Boston, have fix’d upon this Evening for the public Rejoicing, at whose Desire, will be exhibited on the '''Common''', an [[obelisk|OBELISK]].—A Description of which is engraved by Mr. [[Paul Revere]]; and is now selling by Edes & Gill.—The Signal of its Ending will be by firing a Horizontal Wheel on the Top of the [[Obelisk]], when its desired the Assembly would retire.”

*Wansey, Henry, May 11, 1794, describing the [[mall]] in Boston, MA (1794; repr., 1970: 60)<ref>Henry Wansey, Henry Wansey and His American Journal, ed. David John Jeremy (1794; repr., Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UQTHRX3W/q/wansey view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the south west side of the town, there is a pleasant [[promenade]], called the [[Mall]], adjoining to '''Boston Common''', consisting of a long [[walk]] shaded by trees, about half the length of the [[Mall]] in St. James’s Park. At one end you have a fine [[view]] of the sea. The [[Common]] itself is a pleasant green field, with a gradual ascent from the sea shore, till it ends in Beacon Hill, a high point of land, commanding a very fine [[view]] of the country.”

*Anonymous, December 6, 1835, describing the Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from my Note Book,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Apart from the beautiful scenery connected with these resorts [public walks in New York], or in themselves alone, they cannot compare with our fine '''Common''', of which Bostonians deservedly pride themselves, and which at a little expense might be made one of the most splendid places of [[promenade]] in the country.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing the picturesque quality of Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1838: 40)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or, Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: G. W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/q/nehemiah%20adams view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Had its principles been regarded, we should have seen trees of various foliage, here standing alone, and there intermingled in [[copse]]s and [[grove]]s—arranged, indeed, so as to imitate nature herself, in her [[picturesque|picturesqueness]] as well as her beauty.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1841: 2:331)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK/q/james%20silk%20buckingham view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This '''Common''', as it is called, or ‘The [[Park]],’ as it might with propriety be designated, with the ﬁne [[view]] of the surrounding country from its more elevated parts, and the noble trees and gravel-[[walk]]s throughout, is only inferior in size and beauty to Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, and the Green Park in London; and is greatly superior to any similar enclosure in New-York, Philadelphia, or Baltimore. It covers an area of seventy-ﬁve acres, and has upward of 600 trees planted in it. The whole is enclosed with an ornamental iron [[fence]] or railing, which cost 90,000 dollars, or nearly £20,000. Within it is a ﬁne sheet of water, surrounded with elms, called ‘The Crescent [[Pond]]’; and very near the centre of the whole are the remains or traces of a fortiﬁcation, thrown up by the British troops who were stationed here in 1775.
:“The '''Common''' is surrounded on three of its sides by noble rows or terraces of houses, like the [[park]]s in London; and as it was originally granted for the public use, and any farther encroachment upon it rendered impossible by a clause in the last charter of the city, it is of the utmost value to the inhabitants. It is not merely a beautifully ornamental appendage to their noble city, but is used as a place of healthful and innocent recreation for all classes, as a spot of constant exercise and [[promenade]]; and it is impossible to witness its advantages without regretting that every town in England is not provided with a similar extent of public grounds for the delight and enjoyment of its population.”

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1842, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1842: 9, 11–12, 22, 28, 35, 51)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many, very many, in a great city, seldom see the [[arch]] of heaven. Even those who walk or ride for pleasure are often struck with the effect of a full [[view]] of the sky when they are out of the city. One of the great advantages of the '''Common''' is the unobstructed sight of the heavens above it. . . .
:“Indeed it is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversiﬁed in surface and combines so much in itself that is [[picturesque]], as the '''Common'''. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufﬁcient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difﬁcult for art to arrange the surface of the '''Common''' more agreeable for pleasing effect or use. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its [[mall]]s for hoops, and ball, and marbles, and wicker carriages, its Frog [[Pond]] for boats and skating, its hills for coasting, its new cut grass, its training days and military parades, and ﬁreworks, the governor taking his chair at ‘artillery election,’ and all its varied entertainments, contributes as largely as any place can do to the formation of those youthful impressions which make childhood happy, and the remembrances of it pleasant. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its varied surface is admirably ﬁtted for military exhibitions. . . .
:“One of the most interesting exhibitions that ever took place on the '''Common''' was that of the Indians of the Sacs and Fox, the Sioux and Iowa tribes, who visited us in the fall of 1837. They held a war dance on the '''Common''' in the presence of seventy thousand spectators. . . .
:“The centre of the '''Common''' is obstructed by rows of young but thrifty and fast increasing trees. They were planted along the principal paths, for the benevolent purpose of affording shade to those who cross the '''Common'''. Their usefulness even in this respect is doubtful, and there is more than a doubt respecting their good inﬂuence upon the '''Common''' as a [[public ground]]. Our summers are so short, the air of the '''Common''' is generally so cool or in such good circulation, that the use of shaded [[walk]]s through its centre is very small compared with the desirableness of having one large open place, as the '''Common''' has always been, in a crowded city. We do not need the whole '''Common''' as a mere parasol; its wide and free grounds and [[prospect]] are its chief beauty, and the shaded [[mall]]s are sufﬁcient as places of resort from the heat. . . . There will soon be an end to great public exhibitions on the '''Common''', if the trees now in the centre should thrive.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1848; repr., 1988: 318)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (1848; repr., Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Boston '''Common''' is the most spacious public [[pleasure-ground]] in the United States. Seventy-ﬁve acres were appropriated by the early ‘fathers of the town’ to this purpose, on the condition that it should ever remain devoted in this way to public convenience and comfort. The same venerable elms which shaded the patriots of the Revolution, still wave over the heads of their successors, and fresh young trees are planted from year to year by the side of the new-gravelled [[walk]]s, rendered necessary by the rapidly increasing population of the city. The undulating ground of the '''Common''' gives it a pleasing diversity of hill and vale, and the little [[lake]] or [[pond]] near the centre, adds to its [[picturesque]] beauty.”

*Loudon, J. C., 1850, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. Loudon, ''An Encyclopeaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, and Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG/q/encyclopaedia view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. [[Public Garden]]s. . . .

:“At Boston there are extensive public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] called the '''Common''', consisting of seventy-five acres, in the very heart of the city. This piece of ground is well laid out, and contains many fine trees. The state-house, and the handsome houses of the city, surround it on three sides.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, describing the planting of trees in Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17 (February 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-[[walk]]s. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''[[walk]]'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-walks and the carriageway. . . .

:“Take as an example '''Boston Common'''. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-[[walk]]s, and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances from each other. But suppose no tree or [[walk]] were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">

File:0068.jpg|John Bonner, ''The Town of Boston in New England'', 1722.

File:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728.

File:0481_detail.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'' [detail], 1728.

File:0480.jpg|Francis Dewing after John Bonner, ''A New Plan of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0134.jpg|thumb|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of Part of the Commons'', c. 1768.

File:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

File:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on Boston Common'', 1837.

Image:0478.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''View of the Water Celebration, on Boston Common October 25th 1848'', 1849.

File:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye View of Boston'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==

{{#display_map:
42.355, -71.065556
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
https://www.boston.gov/parks/boston-common

http://www.thefreedomtrail.org/freedom-trail/boston-common.shtml

http://friendsofthepublicgarden.org/our-parks/the-common/

https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/massachusetts_conservation/boston_common.html

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Places]]

Boston Common

2018-04-18T13:43:21Z

C-cole: /* Images */

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:'''<br>
'''Site Dates:''' <br>
'''Site Owner(s):'''<br>
'''Associated People:'''<br>
'''Location:''' Boston, MA<br>

==History==

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, 1640 and 1646, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (quoted in Adams 1842: 7)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March 1660] Hereafter there shall be no land granted either for house [[plot]] or garden to any person, out of the open ground or '''common''' ﬁeld, which is left between the Sentry Hill and Mr. Colburn’s end. . . .
:“[May 1646] No dry cattle, young cattle, or horse, shall be free to go on the '''Common''' this year but one horse of Elder Oliver.”

*Josselyn, John, 1674, describing Boston, MA (quoted in Reps 1965: 141)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/making%20of%20urban%20america view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the South there is a small but pleasant '''common''', where the Gallants a little before Sunset walk with their Marmalet-Madams.”

*Anonymous, May 19, 1766, ''Boston Evening-Post'' (quoted in Brigham 1954: 21)<ref>Clarence Brigham, ''Paul Revere’s Engravings'' (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A/q/paul%20revere's%20engravings, view on Zotero].</ref>

:“ . . . [T]he Gentlemen Selectmen of Boston, have fix’d upon this Evening for the public Rejoicing, at whose Desire, will be exhibited on the '''Common''', an [[obelisk|OBELISK]].—A Description of which is engraved by Mr. [[Paul Revere]]; and is now selling by Edes & Gill.—The Signal of its Ending will be by firing a Horizontal Wheel on the Top of the [[Obelisk]], when its desired the Assembly would retire.”

*Wansey, Henry, May 11, 1794, describing the [[mall]] in Boston, MA (1794; repr., 1970: 60)<ref>Henry Wansey, Henry Wansey and His American Journal, ed. David John Jeremy (1794; repr., Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UQTHRX3W/q/wansey view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the south west side of the town, there is a pleasant [[promenade]], called the [[Mall]], adjoining to '''Boston Common''', consisting of a long [[walk]] shaded by trees, about half the length of the [[Mall]] in St. James’s Park. At one end you have a fine [[view]] of the sea. The [[Common]] itself is a pleasant green field, with a gradual ascent from the sea shore, till it ends in Beacon Hill, a high point of land, commanding a very fine [[view]] of the country.”

*Anonymous, December 6, 1835, describing the Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from my Note Book,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Apart from the beautiful scenery connected with these resorts [public walks in New York], or in themselves alone, they cannot compare with our fine '''Common''', of which Bostonians deservedly pride themselves, and which at a little expense might be made one of the most splendid places of [[promenade]] in the country.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing the picturesque quality of Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1838: 40)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or, Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: G. W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/q/nehemiah%20adams view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Had its principles been regarded, we should have seen trees of various foliage, here standing alone, and there intermingled in [[copse]]s and [[grove]]s—arranged, indeed, so as to imitate nature herself, in her [[picturesque|picturesqueness]] as well as her beauty.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1841: 2:331)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK/q/james%20silk%20buckingham view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This '''Common''', as it is called, or ‘The [[Park]],’ as it might with propriety be designated, with the ﬁne [[view]] of the surrounding country from its more elevated parts, and the noble trees and gravel-[[walk]]s throughout, is only inferior in size and beauty to Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, and the Green Park in London; and is greatly superior to any similar enclosure in New-York, Philadelphia, or Baltimore. It covers an area of seventy-ﬁve acres, and has upward of 600 trees planted in it. The whole is enclosed with an ornamental iron [[fence]] or railing, which cost 90,000 dollars, or nearly £20,000. Within it is a ﬁne sheet of water, surrounded with elms, called ‘The Crescent [[Pond]]’; and very near the centre of the whole are the remains or traces of a fortiﬁcation, thrown up by the British troops who were stationed here in 1775.
:“The '''Common''' is surrounded on three of its sides by noble rows or terraces of houses, like the [[park]]s in London; and as it was originally granted for the public use, and any farther encroachment upon it rendered impossible by a clause in the last charter of the city, it is of the utmost value to the inhabitants. It is not merely a beautifully ornamental appendage to their noble city, but is used as a place of healthful and innocent recreation for all classes, as a spot of constant exercise and [[promenade]]; and it is impossible to witness its advantages without regretting that every town in England is not provided with a similar extent of public grounds for the delight and enjoyment of its population.”

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1842, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1842: 9, 11–12, 22, 28, 35, 51)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many, very many, in a great city, seldom see the [[arch]] of heaven. Even those who walk or ride for pleasure are often struck with the effect of a full [[view]] of the sky when they are out of the city. One of the great advantages of the '''Common''' is the unobstructed sight of the heavens above it. . . .
:“Indeed it is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversiﬁed in surface and combines so much in itself that is [[picturesque]], as the '''Common'''. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufﬁcient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difﬁcult for art to arrange the surface of the '''Common''' more agreeable for pleasing effect or use. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its [[mall]]s for hoops, and ball, and marbles, and wicker carriages, its Frog [[Pond]] for boats and skating, its hills for coasting, its new cut grass, its training days and military parades, and ﬁreworks, the governor taking his chair at ‘artillery election,’ and all its varied entertainments, contributes as largely as any place can do to the formation of those youthful impressions which make childhood happy, and the remembrances of it pleasant. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its varied surface is admirably ﬁtted for military exhibitions. . . .
:“One of the most interesting exhibitions that ever took place on the '''Common''' was that of the Indians of the Sacs and Fox, the Sioux and Iowa tribes, who visited us in the fall of 1837. They held a war dance on the '''Common''' in the presence of seventy thousand spectators. . . .
:“The centre of the '''Common''' is obstructed by rows of young but thrifty and fast increasing trees. They were planted along the principal paths, for the benevolent purpose of affording shade to those who cross the '''Common'''. Their usefulness even in this respect is doubtful, and there is more than a doubt respecting their good inﬂuence upon the '''Common''' as a [[public ground]]. Our summers are so short, the air of the '''Common''' is generally so cool or in such good circulation, that the use of shaded [[walk]]s through its centre is very small compared with the desirableness of having one large open place, as the '''Common''' has always been, in a crowded city. We do not need the whole '''Common''' as a mere parasol; its wide and free grounds and [[prospect]] are its chief beauty, and the shaded [[mall]]s are sufﬁcient as places of resort from the heat. . . . There will soon be an end to great public exhibitions on the '''Common''', if the trees now in the centre should thrive.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1848; repr., 1988: 318)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (1848; repr., Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Boston '''Common''' is the most spacious public [[pleasure-ground]] in the United States. Seventy-ﬁve acres were appropriated by the early ‘fathers of the town’ to this purpose, on the condition that it should ever remain devoted in this way to public convenience and comfort. The same venerable elms which shaded the patriots of the Revolution, still wave over the heads of their successors, and fresh young trees are planted from year to year by the side of the new-gravelled [[walk]]s, rendered necessary by the rapidly increasing population of the city. The undulating ground of the '''Common''' gives it a pleasing diversity of hill and vale, and the little [[lake]] or [[pond]] near the centre, adds to its [[picturesque]] beauty.”

*Loudon, J. C., 1850, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. Loudon, ''An Encyclopeaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, and Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG/q/encyclopaedia view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. [[Public Garden]]s. . . .

:“At Boston there are extensive public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] called the '''Common''', consisting of seventy-five acres, in the very heart of the city. This piece of ground is well laid out, and contains many fine trees. The state-house, and the handsome houses of the city, surround it on three sides.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, describing the planting of trees in Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17 (February 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-[[walk]]s. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''[[walk]]'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-walks and the carriageway. . . .

:“Take as an example '''Boston Common'''. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-[[walk]]s, and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances from each other. But suppose no tree or [[walk]] were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">

File:0068.jpg|John Bonner, ''The Town of Boston in New England'', 1722.

File:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728.

File:0481_detail.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'' [detail], 1728.

File:0480.jpg|Francis Dewing after John Bonner, ''A New Plan of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0134.jpg|thumb|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of Part of the [[Common]]s'', c. 1768.

File:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

File:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on Boston Common'', 1837.

Image:0478.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''[[View]] of the Water Celebration, on Boston Common October 25th 1848'', 1849.

File:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye View of Boston'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==

{{#display_map:
42.355, -71.065556
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
https://www.boston.gov/parks/boston-common

http://www.thefreedomtrail.org/freedom-trail/boston-common.shtml

http://friendsofthepublicgarden.org/our-parks/the-common/

https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/massachusetts_conservation/boston_common.html

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Places]]

Boston Common

2018-04-18T13:42:53Z

C-cole: /* Images */

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:'''<br>
'''Site Dates:''' <br>
'''Site Owner(s):'''<br>
'''Associated People:'''<br>
'''Location:''' Boston, MA<br>

==History==

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, 1640 and 1646, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (quoted in Adams 1842: 7)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March 1660] Hereafter there shall be no land granted either for house [[plot]] or garden to any person, out of the open ground or '''common''' ﬁeld, which is left between the Sentry Hill and Mr. Colburn’s end. . . .
:“[May 1646] No dry cattle, young cattle, or horse, shall be free to go on the '''Common''' this year but one horse of Elder Oliver.”

*Josselyn, John, 1674, describing Boston, MA (quoted in Reps 1965: 141)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/making%20of%20urban%20america view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the South there is a small but pleasant '''common''', where the Gallants a little before Sunset walk with their Marmalet-Madams.”

*Anonymous, May 19, 1766, ''Boston Evening-Post'' (quoted in Brigham 1954: 21)<ref>Clarence Brigham, ''Paul Revere’s Engravings'' (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8QDGHC3A/q/paul%20revere's%20engravings, view on Zotero].</ref>

:“ . . . [T]he Gentlemen Selectmen of Boston, have fix’d upon this Evening for the public Rejoicing, at whose Desire, will be exhibited on the '''Common''', an [[obelisk|OBELISK]].—A Description of which is engraved by Mr. [[Paul Revere]]; and is now selling by Edes & Gill.—The Signal of its Ending will be by firing a Horizontal Wheel on the Top of the [[Obelisk]], when its desired the Assembly would retire.”

*Wansey, Henry, May 11, 1794, describing the [[mall]] in Boston, MA (1794; repr., 1970: 60)<ref>Henry Wansey, Henry Wansey and His American Journal, ed. David John Jeremy (1794; repr., Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UQTHRX3W/q/wansey view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the south west side of the town, there is a pleasant [[promenade]], called the [[Mall]], adjoining to '''Boston Common''', consisting of a long [[walk]] shaded by trees, about half the length of the [[Mall]] in St. James’s Park. At one end you have a fine [[view]] of the sea. The [[Common]] itself is a pleasant green field, with a gradual ascent from the sea shore, till it ends in Beacon Hill, a high point of land, commanding a very fine [[view]] of the country.”

*Anonymous, December 6, 1835, describing the Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from my Note Book,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Apart from the beautiful scenery connected with these resorts [public walks in New York], or in themselves alone, they cannot compare with our fine '''Common''', of which Bostonians deservedly pride themselves, and which at a little expense might be made one of the most splendid places of [[promenade]] in the country.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing the picturesque quality of Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1838: 40)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or, Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: G. W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/q/nehemiah%20adams view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Had its principles been regarded, we should have seen trees of various foliage, here standing alone, and there intermingled in [[copse]]s and [[grove]]s—arranged, indeed, so as to imitate nature herself, in her [[picturesque|picturesqueness]] as well as her beauty.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1841: 2:331)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK/q/james%20silk%20buckingham view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This '''Common''', as it is called, or ‘The [[Park]],’ as it might with propriety be designated, with the ﬁne [[view]] of the surrounding country from its more elevated parts, and the noble trees and gravel-[[walk]]s throughout, is only inferior in size and beauty to Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, and the Green Park in London; and is greatly superior to any similar enclosure in New-York, Philadelphia, or Baltimore. It covers an area of seventy-ﬁve acres, and has upward of 600 trees planted in it. The whole is enclosed with an ornamental iron [[fence]] or railing, which cost 90,000 dollars, or nearly £20,000. Within it is a ﬁne sheet of water, surrounded with elms, called ‘The Crescent [[Pond]]’; and very near the centre of the whole are the remains or traces of a fortiﬁcation, thrown up by the British troops who were stationed here in 1775.
:“The '''Common''' is surrounded on three of its sides by noble rows or terraces of houses, like the [[park]]s in London; and as it was originally granted for the public use, and any farther encroachment upon it rendered impossible by a clause in the last charter of the city, it is of the utmost value to the inhabitants. It is not merely a beautifully ornamental appendage to their noble city, but is used as a place of healthful and innocent recreation for all classes, as a spot of constant exercise and [[promenade]]; and it is impossible to witness its advantages without regretting that every town in England is not provided with a similar extent of public grounds for the delight and enjoyment of its population.”

*[[Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1842, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (Adams 1842: 9, 11–12, 22, 28, 35, 51)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many, very many, in a great city, seldom see the [[arch]] of heaven. Even those who walk or ride for pleasure are often struck with the effect of a full [[view]] of the sky when they are out of the city. One of the great advantages of the '''Common''' is the unobstructed sight of the heavens above it. . . .
:“Indeed it is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversiﬁed in surface and combines so much in itself that is [[picturesque]], as the '''Common'''. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufﬁcient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difﬁcult for art to arrange the surface of the '''Common''' more agreeable for pleasing effect or use. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its [[mall]]s for hoops, and ball, and marbles, and wicker carriages, its Frog [[Pond]] for boats and skating, its hills for coasting, its new cut grass, its training days and military parades, and ﬁreworks, the governor taking his chair at ‘artillery election,’ and all its varied entertainments, contributes as largely as any place can do to the formation of those youthful impressions which make childhood happy, and the remembrances of it pleasant. . . .
:“The '''Common''' with its varied surface is admirably ﬁtted for military exhibitions. . . .
:“One of the most interesting exhibitions that ever took place on the '''Common''' was that of the Indians of the Sacs and Fox, the Sioux and Iowa tribes, who visited us in the fall of 1837. They held a war dance on the '''Common''' in the presence of seventy thousand spectators. . . .
:“The centre of the '''Common''' is obstructed by rows of young but thrifty and fast increasing trees. They were planted along the principal paths, for the benevolent purpose of affording shade to those who cross the '''Common'''. Their usefulness even in this respect is doubtful, and there is more than a doubt respecting their good inﬂuence upon the '''Common''' as a [[public ground]]. Our summers are so short, the air of the '''Common''' is generally so cool or in such good circulation, that the use of shaded [[walk]]s through its centre is very small compared with the desirableness of having one large open place, as the '''Common''' has always been, in a crowded city. We do not need the whole '''Common''' as a mere parasol; its wide and free grounds and [[prospect]] are its chief beauty, and the shaded [[mall]]s are sufﬁcient as places of resort from the heat. . . . There will soon be an end to great public exhibitions on the '''Common''', if the trees now in the centre should thrive.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1848; repr., 1988: 318)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (1848; repr., Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Boston '''Common''' is the most spacious public [[pleasure-ground]] in the United States. Seventy-ﬁve acres were appropriated by the early ‘fathers of the town’ to this purpose, on the condition that it should ever remain devoted in this way to public convenience and comfort. The same venerable elms which shaded the patriots of the Revolution, still wave over the heads of their successors, and fresh young trees are planted from year to year by the side of the new-gravelled [[walk]]s, rendered necessary by the rapidly increasing population of the city. The undulating ground of the '''Common''' gives it a pleasing diversity of hill and vale, and the little [[lake]] or [[pond]] near the centre, adds to its [[picturesque]] beauty.”

*Loudon, J. C., 1850, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. Loudon, ''An Encyclopeaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, and Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG/q/encyclopaedia view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. [[Public Garden]]s. . . .

:“At Boston there are extensive public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] called the '''Common''', consisting of seventy-five acres, in the very heart of the city. This piece of ground is well laid out, and contains many fine trees. The state-house, and the handsome houses of the city, surround it on three sides.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, describing the planting of trees in Boston Common, Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17 (February 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-[[walk]]s. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''[[walk]]'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-walks and the carriageway. . . .

:“Take as an example '''Boston Common'''. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-[[walk]]s, and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances from each other. But suppose no tree or [[walk]] were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">

File:0068.jpg|John Bonner, ''The Town of Boston in New England'', 1722.

File:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728.

File:0481_detail|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'' [detail], 1728.

File:0480.jpg|Francis Dewing after John Bonner, ''A New Plan of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0134.jpg|thumb|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of Part of the [[Common]]s'', c. 1768.

File:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

File:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on Boston Common'', 1837.

Image:0478.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''[[View]] of the Water Celebration, on Boston Common October 25th 1848'', 1849.

File:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye View of Boston'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==

{{#display_map:
42.355, -71.065556
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
https://www.boston.gov/parks/boston-common

http://www.thefreedomtrail.org/freedom-trail/boston-common.shtml

http://friendsofthepublicgarden.org/our-parks/the-common/

https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/massachusetts_conservation/boston_common.html

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Places]]

File:0481 detail.jpg

2018-04-18T13:41:53Z

C-cole:

<br>
William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'' [detail], 1728, engraving, 10 2/5 x 14 2/5 in. (26 x 36 cm). Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C.

File:0481 detail.jpg

2018-04-18T13:40:58Z

C-cole:

Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground

2018-04-18T13:36:39Z

C-cole: /* Inscribed */

==History==

[[File:0983.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Richard Upjohn (attributed), ''Trinity Church, bird’s eye view'', 1837.]]
[[File:1030.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Joseph Meigs, Copy of the Plan of the New Haven Burying Ground, 1797.]]

In the late 18th century, three primary types of burial places existed: land adjoining a church (often termed the “churchyard,” but also called a cemetery or burial ground) [Fig. 1], the family plot at one’s home (the burying ground), and public space that was unaffiliated with any specific denomination.<ref>For a discussion about early American cemeteries and burial grounds, including both church and family plots, see John R. Stilgoe, ''Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), 219–31. Stilgoe associates family plot–type burial grounds in the 17th and 18th centuries with southern culture. He argues that “Tidewater settlers confronted death and burial . . . in a manner different from New Englanders,” and points to, for example, the southern practice of maintaining plots and gravestones in contrast to Puritan neglect that was more common in the north (229), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/A7HSIRGH view on Zotero]. </ref> This latter type was also denoted as a “burying ground” but most commonly was labeled as a cemetery.<ref>David Charles Sloane provides a useful chart of the characteristics of American cemeteries, including date, design, location, grave marker style and material, type of manager of the cemetery, distinctive features, paradigms, and examples. See David Charles Sloane, ''The Last Great Necessity: Cemeteries in American History'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 4–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/972MSSSH view on Zotero]. </ref> Initially located in central urban areas such as [[common]]s, by the 19th century public burial grounds were increasingly located in suburban precincts. As late as 1724 (and perhaps long after) New Englanders “valued graveyards more as [[meadow]]s than as sacred spaces,” and, in the public’s mind, graveyards were regarded as “common, if not hallowed ground,” according to historian David Charles Sloane.<ref>Sloane 1991.</ref> The word “cemetery,” which “derived from the Greek word for ‘dormitory’ and implied that death was but a tranquil sleep,” reflected the increasing sentimentalization of death and the Protestant theological shift from punitive to redemptive interpretations of death.<ref>Blanche Linden-Ward and David C. Sloane, “Spring Grove: The Founding of Cincinnati’s Rural Cemetery, 1845–1855,” ''Queen City Heritage'' 43 (Spring 1985): 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H33IR6NI view on Zotero]. Note that most of the evidence collected for this project concentrates upon Protestant burial areas. This bias appears to be inherent in primary cemetery/burying ground/burial ground accounts of the American landscape. Future research needs to be conducted with regard to the burial practices between 1492 and 1850 of other faiths, especially Catholicism and Judaism, in America. </ref> Notably, the terms “burying ground” and “churchyard” were not completely phased out with the introduction of rural cemeteries and continued to be used interchangeably.<ref>The evidence collected here does not support David Sloane’s argument, in his otherwise illuminating study, that the term “cemetery” became the standard in the early 19th century. Sloan writes, “Although used sporadically by Europeans for centuries, the term became the standard one for a burial place in the 19th century. Rural cemeteries were different than previous burial places, and their founders believed that they deserved a distinct name.” Sloane 1991, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/972MSSSH view on Zotero]. </ref> Although the term “cemetery” was often associated with rural park-like spaces, it also referred to enclosed burial grounds, such as the one described in 1796 by [[Timothy Dwight]] in New Haven, Connecticut.

[[File:1026.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anonymous, “Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.]]
The New Haven Burying Ground, as it was originally named, was one of the earliest burial places to be located out side the main commercial district of a town [Fig. 2]. Concerns about public health stemming from overcrowded urban burial places, the development of romantic discourse on the emotional impact of natural scenery, and anxieties about appropriate veneration of the dead resulted in a movement to relocate burial grounds from congested urban sites to more rural settings.<ref>For more about Romantic literature and its effect upon the rural cemetery movement, see David Schulyer’s chapter about rural cemeteries in his book ''The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CFGQ8QT3 view on Zotero]. </ref> Observers of the New Haven Burying Ground, including Dwight, praised the proprietors for their orderly and well laid out grounds based upon a geometric plan, with each fenced lot fashioned in the shape of a parallelogram. The division of the landscape was carried over into the placement of the city’s various populations—the poor, Yale affiliates, strangers, and “negroes”—into clearly defined, separate spaces. As such, New Haven Burying Ground became a model for other cities. Nevertheless, some writers, such as Rev. Nehemiah Adams (1842), continued to argue for the use of urban plots in the belief that the dead should be permitted to commune with the “joyous events” of the city.

[[File:1027.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “View of Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.]]
The archetypal 19th-century burial ground, however, was Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, founded in 1831 on the grounds of a former estate called “Sweet Auburn.”<ref>For more about the history of Mount Auburn Cemetery, see Blanche Linden-Ward, ''Silent City on a Hill: Landscapes of Memory and Boston’s Mount Auburn Cemetery'' (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K5AS42UI view on Zotero], and Barbara Rotundo, “Mount Auburn: Fortunate Coincidences and an Ideal Solution,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 4 (July–September 1984): 223–56. </ref> The founders of the so-called rural cemetery originally envisioned combining an “experimental” or [[botanic garden]] with a burying ground. Given the precedent for a garden cemetery that was set by the famed Père Lachaise (founded in Paris in 1804) and the influence of English landscape gardens upon [[botanic garden]] designs of this period, it is not surprising that the planners of Mount Auburn Cemetery desired a rural, naturalistic design.<ref>For further information about the development of Père Lachaise, see Richard A. Etlin, ''The Architecture of Death: The Transformation of the Cemetery in Eighteenth-Century Paris'' (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984), 299–301, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G6QIFAZT view on Zotero].</ref> They left much of the original grounds and vegetation intact and landscaped the grounds with the introduction of avenues, walks, and waterways [Figs. 3 and 4]. The boundaries of the cemetery were intended to blend into the grounds of the experimental garden through intermingled vegetation and meandering [[avenue]]s. Throughout the grounds, [[picturesque]] [[view]]s rewarded the visitor. Instead of the regimented landscape at the New Haven Burying Ground, Mount Auburn Cemetery embraced openness, created by the use of serpentine pathways and carefully placed vegetation, which could both screen and create [[vista]]s. The actual grave sites, however, were still bounded by iron railings to mark a zone of respect for the dead [Fig. 5].
[[File:1031.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “Tomb and obelisk of ‘George W. Coffin,‘” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), p. 147.]]

[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, [[John Notman]], ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.]]
Although the Mount Auburn Cemetery planners quickly were forced to discard their plans for an experimental garden, they fulfilled their vision of a rural, [[picturesque]], [[park]]-like landscape.<ref>Mount Auburn Cemetery also marked a new period in the financing of cemeteries. Instead of being treated as the property of the city or a church, Mount Auburn Cemetery was run by a corporation of private, civic-minded individuals and lots were sold to the public. </ref> It became the model for a number of subsequent cemeteries, such as Spring Grove Cemetery (Cincinnati), Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia), and Greenwood Cemetery (Brooklyn), and it earned the praise of such critics as [[A. J. Downing]].<ref>For further details about the history of Spring Grove Cemetery, see Blanche Linden-Ward and David C. Sloane, “Spring Grove,” 17–32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H33IR6NI view on Zotero]. For more about Laurel Hill, see Keith N. Morgan, “The Emergence of the American Landscape Professional: John Notman and the Design of Rural Cemeteries,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 4 (July–September 1984): 269–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/99NMZBA9 view on Zotero]. Also, see Donald Simon, “Green-Wood Cemetery and the American Park Movement,” in ''Essays in the History of New York City: A Memorial to Sidney Pomerantz'', ed. Irwin Yellowitz (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1978), 61–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X2G3SFEZ view on Zotero]. </ref> Even without the existence of a [[botanic garden]], the superintendents of Mount Auburn Cemetery were able to lavish much attention on ornamental plantings. It is worth noting that extensive discussions about the ornamentation of burial places with plant material and other landscape features did not generally appear in treatise literature about the sites until the popularization of rural cemeteries in the 19th century.

[[File:0700.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, [[Lewis Miller]], “The Prospect Hill Cemetery” [detail], n.d., in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (York, PA: The Historical Society of York County, 1966), p. 109.]]
As Downing pointed out in his 1849 essay “Public Cemeteries and Public Gardens,” Mount Auburn Cemetery also had “the double wealth of rural and moral associations . . . it awakens, at the same moment, the feeling of human sympathy and the love of natural beauty.” The rural setting, with its suggestions of the sublime, enhanced the experience of mourning for one’s loved ones. The space was also an educational tool, providing exemplary taste in planting arrangements, as well as a guide to American history through the monuments to “illustrious men,” as described by H. A. S. Dearborn (1832).

Burial monuments found on the grounds contributed to the emotional impact of Mount Auburn Cemetery’s “romantic” and “[[picturesque]]” scenery. [[Obelisk]]s and other [[ancient style]] markers, for example, gave rise to associations with classical heroes (see [[Column]]). The entrance [[gate]]s, executed in the Egyptian style, were associated with the notion that “eternity was evoked by the massive forms.” Such grand [[gateway]]s were also found at the New Haven Burying Ground.<ref>James Curl, ''A Celebration of Death: An Introduction to Some of the Buildings, Monuments, and Settings of Funerary Architecture in the Western European Tradition'' (London: Constable, 1980), 274, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/84K24TRS view on Zotero].</ref>

By the time Downing wrote his 1849 essay about public cemeteries and gardens, Greenwood Cemetery, Mount Auburn Cemetery, and Laurel Hill Cemetery had established a norm in cemetery design that influenced later designs [Figs. 6 and 7]. Although burial grounds did not require natural scenery to be effective places for “solemn meditation,” in Downing’s words, rural cemeteries fulfilled a vital niche in American life. They created rural [[pleasure ground]]s where Americans could witness the beauty of nature enhanced by art. In the absence of [[public garden]]s or [[park]]s, cemeteries were the next best thing—educating “the popular taste in rural embellishment.”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Oldmixon, John, 1741, describing Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 67)<ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[An act established that Charleston was to] be a distinct Parish, by the Name of St. Philip’s in Charles-Town: And the Church and '''Cemetery''' of this Town were enacted to be the Parish Church and Church-[[yard]] of St. Philip’s in Charles-Town.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 25)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].
</ref>

:“. . . choose out for a '''Burying place''' some unfrequented vale in the [[park]], where is, ‘no sound to break the stillness but a brook, that bubbling winds among the weeds; no mark of any human shape that had been there, unless the skeleton of some poor wretch, Who sought that place out to despair and die in.’ let it be among antient [''sic''] and venerable oaks; intersperse some gloomy evergreens. the area circular, abt. 60 f. diameter, encircled with an untrimmed hedge of cedar, or of stone [[wall]] with a holly hedge on it in the form below. in the center of it erect a small Gothic [[temple]] of antique appearance. appropriate one half to the use of my own family, the other of strangers, servants, etc. erect pedestals with urns, etc., and proper inscriptions. the passage between the [[wall]]s, 4 f. wide. on the grave of a favorite and faithful servant might be a pyramid erected of the rough rock-stone; the pedestal made plain to receive inscription. let the exit of the spiral . . . look on a small and distant part of the blue mountains. in the middle of the [[temple]] an altar, the sides of turf, the top of plain stone. very little light, perhaps none at all, save only feeble ray of an half extinguished lamp.”

*Anonymous, 1789 , describing in the Christ Church Parish Book plans for expanding the public cemetery in Savannah, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 67)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:“[Plans have been made] for enlarging the present '''Cemetery''' or Public '''Burial Ground'''.”

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:191)<ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“While the Romish apprehension concerning consecrated '''burial-places''', and concerning peculiar advantages, supposed at the resurrection to attend those, who are interred in them, remained; this location of '''burial-grounds''' [or yards located behind a church that was set in a public [[square]]] seems to have been not unnatural. But, since this apprehension has been perceived by common sense to be groundless and ridiculous, the impropriety of such a location forces itself on every mind. It is always desirable, that a '''burial-ground''' should be a solemn object to man; because in this manner it easily becomes a source of useful instruction and desirable impressions. But, when placed in the centre of a town, and in the current of daily intercourse, it is rendered too familiar to the eye to have any beneficial effect on the heart. From its proper, venerable character, it is degraded into a mere common object; and speedily loses all its connection with the invisible world, in a gross and vulgar union with the ordinary business of life.” [See Fig. 2]

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing the New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:190–92)<ref name="Dwight"></ref>

:“Indubitable proofs of the enterprise of the inhabitants are seen in the Institutions already mentioned. . . . Of these, levelling and enclosing the [[green]], accomplished by subscription, at an expense of more than two thousand dollars, and the establishment of a new public '''cemetery''', accomplished at a much greater expense, are particularly creditable to their spirit.
:“The original settlers of New-Haven, following the custom of their native country, buried their dead in a Church-[[yard]]. Their Church was erected on the [[green]], or public [[square]]; and the [[yard]] laid out immediately behind it in the North-Western half of the [[square]]. . . . It is always desirable, that a '''burial-ground''' should be a solemn object to man; because in this manner it easily becomes a source of useful instruction and desirable impressions. But, when placed in the centre of a town, and in the current of daily intercourse, it is rendered too familiar to the eye to have any beneficial effect on the heart. From its proper, venerable character, it is degraded into a mere common object; and speedily loses all its connection with the invisible world, in a gross and vulgar union with the ordinary business of life.
:“Besides these disadvantages, this ground was filled with coffins, and monuments, and must either be extended farther over the beautiful tract, unhappily chosen for it, or must have its place supplied by a substitute. To accomplish these purposes, and to effectuate a removal of the numerous monuments of the dead, already erected, whenever the consent of their survivors could be obtained; the Honourable James Hillhouse, one of the inhabitants, to whom the town, the State, and the country, owe more than to almost any of their citizens, in the year 1796, purchased, near the North-Western corner of the original town, a field of ten acres; which, aided by several respectable Gentlemen, he levelled, and enclosed. The field was then divided into parallelograms, handsomely railed, and separated by alleys of sufficient breadth to permit carriages to pass each other. . . . Each parallelogram is sixty-four feet in breadth, and thirty-five feet in length. Each family '''burying-ground''' is thirty-two feet in length and eighteen in breadth: and against each an opening is made to admit a funeral procession. At the divisions between the lots trees are set out in the [[alley]]s: and the name of each proprietor is marked on the railing. The monuments in this ground are almost universally of marble; in a few instances from Italy; in the rest, found in this and neighbouring States. A considerable number are [[obelisk]]s; others are tables; and others, slabs, placed at the head and foot of the grave. The [[obelisk]]s are placed, universally, on the middle line of the lots; and thus stand in a line, successively, through the parallelograms. The top of each post, and the railing, are painted white; the remainder of the post, black. . . .
:“It is believed, that this '''cemetery''' is altogether a singularity in the world. I have accompanied many Americans, and many Foreigners, into it; not one of whom had ever seen, or heard, of any thing [''sic''], of a similar nature. It is incomparably more solemn and impressive than any spot, of the same kind, within my knowledge; and, if I am to credit the declarations of others, within theirs. An exquisite taste for propriety is discovered, in every thing belonging to it; exhibiting a regard for the dead, reverential, but not ostentatious, and happily fitted to influence the [[view]]s, and feelings of succeeding generations.” [See Fig. 2]

*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing Norfolk County, VA (1799: 101–2)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A custom prevails in Norfolk, of private individuals holding grave [[yard]]s, which are looked upon as a very lucrative kind of property, the owners receiving considerable fees annually for giving permission to people to bury their dead in them. It is very common also to see, in the large [[plantation]]s in Virginia, and not far from the dwelling house, '''cemeteries''' walled in, where the people of the family are all buried. These '''cemeteries''' are generally built adjoining the garden.”

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Stockbridge, MA (1822: 3:408)<ref name="Dwight"></ref>

:“On our way to Stockbridge we went to the Indian monument, mentioned in a former part of these letters; and, to our great regret, found it broken up in the same manner, as that at New-Milford.
:“I ought, in my account of that, to have added, that this mode of erecting monuments was adopted only on peculiar occasions. The common manner of Indian burial had nothing in it of this nature. The remains of the dead, who died at home, were lodged in a common '''cemetery''', belonging to the village, in which they had lived.”

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1800, describing Guilford, CT (Solomon, ed., 1969: 2:360)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', ed. Barbara Miller Solomon, 4 vols. (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/52S4K4Z7 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“This [[square]], like that in New Haven, is deformed by a '''burying ground''', and to add to the deformity is unenclosed. . . .
:“The design of locating places of burial in this manner was probably good. In its execution, however, it evidently defeats itself, while it is also a plain violation of propriety. Instead of producing those solemn thoughts and encouraging those moral propensities which it was intended to inspire, it renders death and the grave such familiar objects to the eye as to prevent them from awakening any serious regard . . . Nor is it unreasonable to suppose that the proximity of these sepulchral fields to human habitations is injurious to health. Some of them have, I believe, been found to be offensive and will probably be allowed to have been noxious. Even in cases where nothing of this nature is perceptible, it is far from being clear that effluvia, too subtle to become an object of sense, do not ascend in sufficient quantities to affect with disease, or at least with a predisposition to disease, those who by living in the neighborhood are continually breathing this mischievous exhalation.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing New York, NY (1816: 2:88)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The church-[[yard]]s and vaults are also situate [''sic''] in the heart of the town, and crowded with the dead. If they are not prejudicial to the health of the people, they are at least very unsightly exhibitions. One would think there was a scarcity of land in America, by seeing such large pieces of ground in one of the finest streets of New York occupied by the dead. But even if no noxious effluvia were to arise (and I rather suspect there must in the months of July, August, and September), still the continual [[view]] of such a crowd of white and brown tomb-stones and monuments which is exhibited in the Broadway, must at the sickly season of the year tend very much to depress the spirits, when they should rather be cheered and enlivened, for at that period much is effected by the force of imagination. There is a large '''burying-ground''' a short distance out of town; but the '''cemeteries''' in the city are still used in certain periods of the year.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Savannah, GA (1816: 2:267)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>

:“A large '''burying-ground''' is judiciously situated out of town, upon the [[common]]. It is inclosed by a brick [[wall]], and contains several monuments and tomb-stones, which are shaded by willows and pride of India; and have a very pretty effect. This '''cemetery''', though now a considerable distance from the town, will, in time, most probably, be surrounded by the dwellings of the inhabitants, like those of New York and Charleston.”

*Anonymous, 1823, describing in the St. Philips Parish Vestry Book a burial request made to the St. Philips Parish, Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 67)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:“[At a meeting of the vestry] a letter from E. S. Garden & B. Bamfield (persons of Colour) were presented . . . wishing to know whether the Vestry would permit their remains to be interred in the '''Cemetery''' of the Church at some future day.”

*Fessenden, Thomas Green, January 25, 1823, “National Burying Ground” (''New England Farmer'' 1: 206)

:“This '''cemetery''' is in a remote and lonely situation, being something more than a mile in a southeasterly direction from the Capitol. It lies immediately upon the bank of East Branch, at the distance of only a few yards from the water’s edge, but elevated considerably above it, and commanding an extensive [[view]] of the river. The winding path leading to it is over a wide and barren [[common]]—there are no houses in the vicinity—and it will be long before it will be in the midst of the city. Had the [[churchyard]]s of New-York been laid out with the same precaution, they would not now have formed a subject of legislation for the Common Council, nor for newspaper discussion. This grave-[[yard]] contains an area of two or three acres, enclosed by a plain wooden [[fence]], and sprinkled with copses of native cedar, stinted in their growth and many of them withered, either from the poverty of the soil, or from having their roots broken by the spade of the grave-digger. There are however, enough living to conceal many of the graves; and their verdure, contrasted with the grey tomb stones produces an agreeable effect.”

*Anonymous, September 29, 1825, describing in the ''St. Philip’s Parish Vestry Book'' meeting resolutions made in Charleston, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“That social feeling & sense of propriety which induce the Vestry to keep their '''Cemetery''' neat & private, require them also to consult appearances, even in such solemn matters as the burial of Memorials of the dead, for the inscriptions perish long before the wood itself & then unseemly Appearances is a sufficient reason for excluding them. . . .
:“The practice of appropriating certain portions of the Church [[yard]] as Family burial grounds, by means of Vaults and palings, seems to be of very ancient date & probably was almost with the use of the church. In order to abolish the latter mode the Vestry ordered on the 14th October 1767 (that persons who had enclosures in the church [[yard]] should not be allowed to repair them.) . . . On the 27th July 1800 the Vestry resolved that should application be made for leave to erect a Monument in the Churchyard, the vestry shall only allow a tablet against the wall, or a headstone not exceeding 4 1/2 feet in length-1 foot 10 inches in breadth and 3 1/2 inches in thickness.”

*Douglass, Frederick, 1825, describing Wye House, estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (1987: 48)<ref>Frederick Douglas, ''My Bondage and My Freedom'', ed. William L. Andrews (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q764CVCK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A short distance from the great house, were the stately mansions of the dead, a place of somber aspect. Vast tombs, embowered beneath the weeping willow and the fir tree, told of the antiquities of the Lloyd family, as well as of their wealth. Superstition was rife among the slaves about this family '''burying ground'''. Strange sights had been seen there by some of the older slaves. Shrouded ghosts, riding on great black horses, had been seen to enter; balls of fire had been seen to fly there at midnight, and horrid sounds had been repeatedly heard. Slaves know enough of the rudiments of theology to believe that those go to hell who die slaveholders; and they often fancy such persons wishing themselves back again, to wield the lash. Tales of sights and sounds, strange and terrible, connected with the huge black tombs, were a very great security to the grounds about them, for few of the slaves felt like approaching them even in the day time. It was a dark, gloomy and forbidding place, and it was difficult to feel that the spirits of the sleeping dust there deposited, reigned with the blest in the realms of eternal peace.”

*Anonymous, April 17, 1829, “Neglected Grave Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 307)<ref>Anonymous, “Neglected Grave Yards,” ''The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7 (1829): 307, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BRBQGV63 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“I wish to call your attention to the subject of repairing, clearing, and ornamenting the '''burial grounds''' of New England. These enclosures are commonly neglected by the sexton, and present to the curious traveller, an ugly collection of slate slabs, of weeds, and rank or dried grass. A small effort in each sexton or clergyman, would suffice to awaken attention, to bring to the recollection of some, and to the fancy of all, a scene which every village should present, a [[grove]] sacred to the dead and to their recollection, to calm religious conversation, and to melancholy musing—inclosed with [[shrubbery]], and evergreen, and dignified by the lofty maple, and elm, and oak, and guarded by a living hedge of hawthorn.
:“Every sexton should procure some oak, elm, and locust seed, and make it a part of his vocation to scatter it for chance growth.”

*Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (1831: 16–17)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A rural '''Cemetery''' seems to combine in itself all the advantages, which can be proposed to gratify human feelings, or tranquillize human fears; to secure the best religious influences, and to cherish all those associations, which cast a cheerful light over the darkness of the grave.
:“And what spot can be more appropriate than this for such a purpose? Nature seems to point it out with significant energy, as the favorite retirement for the dead. There are around us all the varied features of her beauty and grandeur—the forest-crowned height; the abrupt acclivity; the sheltered valley; the deep glen; the grassy glade; and the silent [[grove]]. Here are the lofty oak, the beech, that ‘wreaths its old fantastic roots so high,’ the rustling pine, and the drooping willow; —the tree, that sheds its pale leaves with every autumn,a fit emblem of our own transitory bloom; and the evergreen, with its perennial shoots, instructing us, that ‘the wintry blast of death kills not the buds of virtue.’ Here is the thick [[shrubbery]] to protect and conceal the new-made grave; and there is the wild-flower creeping along the narrow path, and planting its seeds in the upturned earth. All around us there breathes a solemn calm, as if we were in the bosom of a wilderness, broken only by the breeze as it murmurs through the tops of the forest, or by the notes of the warbler pouring forth his matin or his evening song.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 63–65, 67–68)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“With the Experimental Garden it is recommended to unite a Rural '''Cemetery'''; for the period is not distant, when all the '''burial grounds''' within the city will be closed, and others must be formed in the country,—the primitive and only proper location. There the dead may repose undisturbed, through countless ages. There can be formed a public place of sepulture, where monuments can be erected to our illustrious men, whose remains, thus far, have unfortunately been consigned too obscure and isolated tombs, instead of being collected within one common depository, where their great deeds might be perpetuated and their memories cherished by succeeding generations.Though dead, they would be eternal admonitors to the living,—teaching them the way which leads to national glory and individual renown. . . .
:“For the accommodation of the Garden of Experiment and '''Cemetery''', at least seventy acres of land are deemed necessary; and in making the selection of a site, it was very important that from forty to fifty acres should be well or partially covered with forest trees and shrubs, which could be appropriated for the latter establishment; and that it should present all possible varieties of soil, common in the vicinity of Boston; be diversified by hills, valleys, plains, brooks, and low [[meadow]]s and bogs, so as to afford proper localities for every kind of tree and plant, that will flourish in this climate;—be near to some large stream or river; and easy of access by land and water; but still sufficiently retired.
:“To realize these advantages it is proposed, that a tract of land called ‘Sweet Auburn,’ situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, shrubs, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of [[Landscape_gardening|landscape]] or [[picturesque]] gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society. . . .
:“The establishment of rural '''cemeteries''' similar to that of Pere La Chaise, has often been the subject of conversation in this country, and frequently adverted to by the writers in our scientific and literary publications. . . .
:“That part of the land which has been recommended for a '''Cemetery''' may be circumvallated by a spacious [[avenue]] bordered by trees, [[shrubbery]], and perennial flowers; rather as a line of demarcation than of disconnexion; for the ornamental grounds of the Garden should be apparently blended with those of the '''Cemetery''', and the [[walk]]s of each so intercommunicate as to afford an uninterrupted range over both, as one common domain.
:“Among the hills, glades, and dales, which are now covered with evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, may be selected sites for isolated graves, and tombs, and these, being surmounted with [[column]]s, [[obelisk]]s, and other appropriate monuments of granite and marble, may be rendered interesting specimens of art; they will also vary and embelish the scenery embraced within the scope of the numerous sinuous [[avenue]]s, which may be felicitously opened in all directions and to a vast extent, from the diversified and [[picturesque]] features which the topography of the tract of land presents.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1834, describing a cemetery in New Orleans, LA (1838: 2:228–29)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Before visiting Mount Auburn I had seen the Catholic '''cemetery''' at New-Orleans, and the contrast was remarkable enough. I never saw a city [[churchyard]], however damp and neglected, so dreary as the New-Orleans '''cemetery'''. It lies in the swamp, glaring with its plastered monuments in the sun, with no shade but from the tombs. Being necessarily drained, it is intersected by ditches of weedy stagnant water, alive with frogs, dragonflies, and moscheto-hawks [''sic'']. Irish, French, and Spanish are all crowded together, as if the ground could scarcely be opened fast enough for those whom the fever lays low; an impression confirmed by a glance at the dates. The tombs of the Irish have inscriptions which provoke a kind of smile, which is no pleasure in such a place. Those of nuns bear no inscription but the monastic name—Agathe, Seraphine, Thérèse—and the date of death. Wooden crosses, warped in the sun or rotting with the damp, are in some places standing at the heads of graves, in others are leaning or fallen. Glass boxes, containing artificial flowers and tied with faded ribands, stand at the foot of some of these crosses. Elsewhere we saw pitchers with bouquets of natural flowers, the water dried up and the blossoms withered. One enclosure surrounding a monument was adorned with cypress, [[arbour]] vitae, roses, and honeysuckles, and this was a relief to the eye while the feet were treading the hot dusty [[walk]]s or the parched grass. The first principle of a '''cemetery''' was here violated, necessarily, no doubt, but by a sad necessity. The first principle of a '''cemetery'''—beyond the obligation of its being made safe and wholesome—is that it should be cheerful in its aspect.”

*B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine,” describing Mount Hope Cemetery, Bangor, ME (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 386)<ref>J. B., “Horticulture in Maine,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mount Hope '''cemetery''' is in imitation of Mount Auburn, and was consecrated the present season. It contains thirteen acres mostly on a steep, conical hill, ornamented by nature with evergreen and other trees. The [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s have been laid out under the direction of Dr Barstow and are either completed or in a state of forwardness. At the foot of the hill is a small run or brook, across which a dam has been built and a pond raised. Passing thus by a neat [[bridge]], we enter another lot of ten acres, which has been purchased by the city for a public '''burial ground''', and the whole is about to be inclosed by a substantial [[fence]] in one piece.”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1838, describing Copp’s Hill Burying Ground, Boston, MA (1838: 24)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“And were it not for the fact, that '''cemeteries''' are very injudiciously allowed in cities, we should advert with pleasure to the [[walk]]s afforded by the Copp’s Hill '''burying-ground'''—wanting only a [[grove]] of ancient trees to render it delightful.”

*Anonymous, 1839, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (1839: 3)<ref>Anonymous, ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitor’s Guide through Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Otis, Broader, 1839), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TFW4IVDB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The celebrity attained by Mount Auburn, pronounced by European travellers the most beautiful '''Cemetery''' in existence, and which, perhaps, without assuming too much, may be called the ''Père la Chaise'' of America,—the extraordinary natural loveliness of the spot,—the admirable character of the establishment which is there maintained,—the fact that this was the first conspicuous example of the kind in our country.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1840: 220)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To the enterprise of the same public-spirited gentleman [Honorable James Hillhouse], New Haven owes one of the most beautiful '''cemeteries''' in the world. The [[square]] in the rear of the churches was formerly, according to the English custom, used as a [[churchyard]], and encumbered with graves, which soon threatened to overrun its limits. Mr. Hillhouse, some years since, purchased a field in the western skirt of the town, laid it out and planted it, and subsequently removed to it all the tombstones and remains from the [[Green]]; among them the headstone of the regicide Goffe. It is now one of the most beautiful of '''burial-places'''. The monuments are of white marble, or of a very rich ''verd antique'' found in the neighbourhood; and the natural elegance of the place has induced a taste and elegance into these monuments for the dead, found in no other spot of the same character.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Vermont (1841: 2:275)<ref name="Buckingham">James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We observed, also, that to many of the isolated dwelling-houses in the country there were private '''burial-grounds''' attached, in which one or two members of the family had been interred; and the place of their repose was marked by a neat monument within an enclosure, just as if it had been included within consecrated ground.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Rochester, NY (1841: 2:215)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A large piece of ground on the east of the river and south of the city, seated on a pleasing [[eminence]], has also been recently devoted to the purpose of a public '''cemetery''', to supersede all the smaller ones; and the intention is to plant it with ornamental shrubs and lay it out in [[walk]]s, so as to make it as agreeable as Laurel Hill at Philadelphia, or Mount Auburn at Boston.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (1841: 2:382)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A comparison has been often made between the Père la Chaise of Paris and the Mount Auburn of Boston, and the similarity of their situation and their purpose naturally forces this comparison on the mind. Having seen both, I may venture to offer an opinion on this subject, with great deference, however, to those who may think otherwise. In many respects, then, I think Mount Auburn superior to Père la Chaise. Its natural scenery of hill and dale, of river, [[lake]], and forest-trees, with other surrounding objects, presents a combination which is not to be found in the '''cemetery''' of Paris, and which is far more in harmony with the repose of the dead than the most sumptuous monuments, without these combinations, can be. In this last respect Père la Chaise is perhaps unrivalled.”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1842, describing Boston Common, Boston, MA (1842: 57)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''burying-places''' in the vicinity of the Common, with that in its southern [[border]], are fast becoming desolate places in appearance by the rapid growth of wild bushes and rank grass amongst the headstones. The sumac, and larch, and willow, and elm saplings, and running vines, are tangling the granary burying-ground in beautiful confusion. It is good taste to let it be so, and we thank those who suffer this wild pall of nature to rest upon those graves. If interments must continue to be made in the city, let the places of burial be veiled as much as possible with spontaneous verdure; it is due to the feelings of those who live in a city that the exposed places of the dead should be divested of their hideous appearance. . . . But the tendency of the public taste is evidently towards such places as Mount Auburn. Yet there is something pleasant in the thought of being interred in a city. We cannot help associating the dead who lie in the '''burial-place''' on the Common with the exciting and joyous events which take place around their graves. It seems as though they were witnesses of things which interest the world about them, while they are free from any share in human labors and sorrows. Their quiet resting places, responsive to no sights or sounds, are in impressive contrast with the multitudes who throng the Common on public days, and pour along the malls on Sabbath evenings, in busy conversation about their plans and sorrows and joys.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1842, describing Wythe County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“Soon after our setting out, we observed in the fields a large sycamore-tree, with wide-spreading branches, enclosed with a neat palisade, and was told that this was a very usual way of forming a [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''cemetery''', which was confirmed by our seeing several graves within the enclosure.”

*W. [pseud.], February 1842, “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery,” Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 47–48)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8 (1842), 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Lowell '''Cemetery''' contains an area of about forty-four acres of land, retired, and pleasantly situated on the southern [[slope]] of ‘Fort Hill,’ and at the distance of about three quarters of a mile from the city, and a mile and half from the City Hall. The surface of the ground is beautifully diversified with hill and valley. . . .
:“With such variety of surface, this ground possesses a high degree of adaptation as a place of sepulture; and ornamented both by nature and art, this '''cemetery''' must have attractions for the most unobserving and the least reflecting. There are many historical associations connected with this spot, and its former, but now long deceased, occupants.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 7, 1843, describing Savannah, GA (quoted in Clarke 1993: 2:155)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the same neighborhood [south of the town], just without the town, lies the public '''cemetery''', surrounded by an ancient [[wall]], built before the Revolution, which in some places shows the marks of shot fired against it in the skirmishes of that period. . . . At a little distance, near a forest, lies the burial-place of the black population. A few trees, trailing with long moss, rise above hundreds of nameless graves, overgrown with weeds; but here and there are scattered memorials of the dead, some of a very humble kind, with a few of marble, and half a dozen spacious brick tombs like those in the '''cemetery''' of the whites.”

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Chambersburg, PA (1843: 249)<ref name="Trego">Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Presbyterian church is much admired on account of its beautiful situation in a retired quiet spot, enveloped with trees and surrounded by a delightful [[green]], at the west end of which is the '''burying ground''' of the congregation, and adjoining it, an ancient '''burying ground''' of the Indians.”

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Philadelphia (1843: 319)<ref name="Trego"></ref>

:“Washington square, on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was for many years used as a public '''burial ground''' for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters’ field.”

[[File:1011.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous (artist) and H. Austin (architect), ''Entrance to the Cemetery at New Haven'', in Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture'' (1848), opp. 337, pl. 33.]]
*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT ([1848; repr. 1988: 337)<ref name="Tuthill">Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (1848; repr. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ‘'''burying-ground'''’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron [[fence]] in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. (Plate XXXIII.) H. Austin architect.” [Fig. 8]

[[File:1975.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[James Smillie]] (artist), “View from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.]]

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, NY (1848; repr., 1988: 337)<ref name="Tuthill"></ref>

:“Greenwood '''Cemetery''' near New York, is beautifully situated, and contains many magnificent monuments.” [Fig. 9]

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia (1848; repr. 1988: 337–38)<ref name="Tuthill"></ref>

:“Laurel Hill, on the banks of the Schuylkill, is another rural '''cemetery''', consecrated to the repose of the dead, by the citizens of Philadelphia. ‘Every mind capable of appreciating the beautiful in nature, must admire its gentle declivities, its expansive [[lawn]]s, its hill beetling over the [[picturesque]] stream, its rugged ascents, its flowery dells, its rocky ravines, and its river-washed [[border]]s.’”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], July 1849, “Public Cemeteries and Public Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 9–10)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Public Cemeteries and Public Gardens,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (1849): 9–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EI9BER3I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The great attraction of these '''cemeteries''', to the mass of the community, is not in the fact that they are burial places, or solemn places of meditation for the friends of the deceased, or striking exhibitions of monumental sculpture, though all these have their influence. All these might be realized in a '''burial ground''', planted with straight lines of willows, and sombre avenues of evergreens. The true secret of the attraction lies in the natural beauty of the sites, and in the tasteful and harmonious embellishment of these sites by art. Nearly all these '''cemeteries''' were rich portions of forest land, broken by hill and dale, and varied by [[copse]]s and glades, like Mount Auburn and Greenwood, or old country [[seat]]s, richly wooded with fine planted trees, like Laurel Hill. Hence, to the inhabitant of the town, a visit to one of these spots has the united charm of nature and art,—the double wealth of rural and moral associations. It awakens, at the same moment, the feeling of human sympathy and the love of natural beauty, implanted in every heart. His must be a dull or a trifling soul that neither swells with emotion, or rises with admiration, at the varied beauty of these lovely and hallowed spots.
[[File:0751.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[John Notman]], “Ground Plan of Laurel Hill Cemetery,” in ''Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' (1844), pl. opp. 17.]]
:“Indeed, in the absence of great [[public garden]]s, such as we must surely one day have in America, our rural '''cemeteries''' are doing a great deal to enlarge and educate the popular taste in rural embellishment. They are for the most part laid out with admirable taste; they contain the greatest variety of trees and shrubs to be found in the country, and several of them are kept in a manner seldom equalled in private places. . . .
:“The character of each of the three great '''cemeteries''' is essentially distinct. ''Greenwood'', the largest, and unquestionably the finest, is grand, dignified, and [[park]]-like. It is laid out in a broad and simple style, commands noble ocean [[view]]s, and is admirably kept. ''Mount Auburn'' is richly [[picturesque]], in its varied hill and dale, and owes its charm mainly to this variety and intricacy of sylvan features. ''Laurel Hill'' is a charming [[pleasure-ground]], filled with beautiful and rare shrubs and flowers; at this season, a wilderness of roses, as well as fine trees and monuments.” [Fig. 10]

*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1850, describing cemeteries in America (1850; repr. 1968: 333)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York: D. Appleton; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“857. '''''Cemeteries'''''. . . .
:“''A public '''cemetery''''' was formed in 1831 at Mount Auburn, about three miles from Boston, and is easily approached either by the road, or the river which washes its [[border]]s. . . . ‘This romantic and [[picturesque]] '''cemetery''',’ says Dr. Mease, ‘is the fashionable place of interment with the people of Boston.’ . . .
:“''Cemeteries at Philadelphia''. ‘Laurel Hill is about three miles and a half north of the city, on the river Schuylkill. The part devoted to interments embraces about twenty acres, and is laid out in the most tasteful manner. The entrance is a specimen of Doric architecture, through which is a pleasing [[vista]], and on each side are lodges for the accommodation of the gravedigger and gardener; and within is a neat cottage for the superintendent, a Gothic chapel for funeral service, a large dwelling-house for visiters ''[sic''], a handsome receiving tomb, stabling for forty carriages, and a [[greenhouse]]. Besides the native forest trees on the place, several hundred more, and many ornamental shrubs, have been planted. The lots are enclosed by iron railings.’ . . . (''Dr. Mease in the Gard. Mag.'', for 1843, p. 666.) . . .
:“''The '''cemetery''' of the Episcopal church of the town of Guildford'' is in a public [[square]], and uninclosed. The graves are, therefore, trampled upon, and the monuments injured, both by men and cattle.”

*Anonymous, May 13, 1850, describing in the ''St. Stephen’s Parish Vestry Book'' the preservation of burial grounds in Berkeley County, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“7th Resolved that out of the first money accruing from the interest of the church fund or from the benevolence of Individual Donors, it shall be the duty of the Trustees then in office to enclose the church and all the ground about it for the purpose of a Public Burying [[yard]] with a wide & deep ditch & a high and well-formed embankment on three sides of the Church, leaving the side bounding on the public river road open and free of access to the public, and such '''cemetery''' shall always be free to the uses of such persons as may desire to use it for that purpose, &c.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CE’METERY'''. ''n.s''. . . . A place where the dead are reposited. . . .
:“CHURCHYARD. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a '''cemetery'''. . . .
:“'''BURYING-PLACE'''. n.s. A place appointed for the sepulture of dead bodies.”

*Anonymous, May 25, 1791, “Utility of planting Willow Trees in Burying Grounds” (''Gazette of the United States'')

:“FOR many years past, the philosophers and physicians of Europe have borne a testimony against the internment of the dead in the center of large cities. But since the discovery of the usefulness of trees in absorbing putrid air, and discharging it in a pure state, much less evil than formerly is to be apprehended from this practice. To derive and extend the utmost possible benefit from this discovery, would it not be an act of humanity in each of our religious societies, to surround their grave-[[yard]]s with trees? They would afford a shade to a considerable part of our city, and would add to its coolness and ornament in the summer. The weeping willow would accord most with the place.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 187)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., The New American Gardener, 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to tombs and '''cemeteries''', I should wish to banish them entirely from gardens. They always awaken melancholy reflections in old people, for they remind them of their approaching end; and a regard for their feelings should, I think, exclude from their places of resort every object which could have such an effect.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr. 1991: 237)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“To these offices of pensive melancholy, it [the Weeping willow] appears to be dedicated in almost all countries. The Chinese and other Asiatic nations, and the Turks, as well as the enlightened Europeans, universally plant it in their '''cemeteries''' and last places of repose.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], December 1851, “The State and Prosperity of Horticulture” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 540)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The State and Prospects of Horticulture,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6 (1851): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XR68IJEG view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“A peculiar feature of what may be called the scenery of ornamental grounds in this country, at the present moment is, as we have before remarked, to be found in our rural '''cemeteries'''. They vary in size from a few, to three or four hundred acres, and in character from pretty [[shrubberies]] and [[pleasure ground]]s, to wild sylvan [[grove]]s, or superb [[park]]s and [[pleasure ground]]s—laid out and kept in the highest style of the art of [[landscape gardening]].”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0700.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “The Prospect Hill Cemetery” [detail], n.d., in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (York, PA: The Historical Society of York County, 1966), 109.

File:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728.

File:0480.jpg|Francis Dewing after John Bonner, ''A New Plan of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

File:0796.jpg|Nicholas Scull, ''To the mayor recorder aldermen common council and freemen of Philadelphia this plan of the improved part of the city. . . .'', 1762.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

File:0572.jpg|Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, ''Plan of Fort Niagara'', in ''Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale'' (Paris: A. Bertrand, 1826).

File:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1147.jpg|William Strickland, Plan of the walks and avenues of Laurel Hill cemetery, c. 1836.

File:1149.jpg|Thomas U. Walter, ''Plan of Entrance to Laurel Hill Cemetery'', May 14, 1836.

File:1142.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia'', 1838.

File:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844.

File:1170.jpg|E. J. Pinkerton, ''General View of Laurel Hill Cemetery'', 1844.

File:1712.jpg|[[John Notman]], “East Window of Chapel,” in ''Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' (1844), title page.

File:0751.jpg|[[John Notman]], “Ground Plan of Laurel Hill Cemetery,” in ''Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' (1844), pl. opp. 17.

File:1304.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Entrance to Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), 361.

File:1159.jpg|Noyes, C. J., ''A Plan of Brunswick Village'', September 1846.

File:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

File:1080.jpg|James Smillie, “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

File:1081.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “The Tour from Ocean Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 63.

File:1082.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Rice & Buttre (engraver), “Ocean Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 73.

File:1084.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “The German, The Odd Fellows and the Public Burial Grounds,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 94.

File:1085.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Bay-Side Avenue, Fern Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 42.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.

File:1087.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay-Grove Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 26.

File:1088.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Indian Mound,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 19.

File:1908.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Entrance to the Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), frontispiece.

File:1909.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “The Keeper’s Lodge,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 10.

File:1910.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Poets Mound. Monument to McDonald Clarke,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 13.

File:1911.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Ocean Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 15.

File:1912.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “View from Ground Appropriated for the Clinton Monument,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 27.

File:1913.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Sylvan Cliff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 63.

File:1914.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “The Grounds of the Church of Our Savior,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 65.

File:1915.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Monument to Thos Freeborn, Pilot. Lost in the Ship John Minturn, February 15, 1846,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 92.

File:1011.jpg|Anonymous (artist) and H. Austin (architect), ''Entrance to the Cemetery at New Haven'', in Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture'' (1848), p. 336, opp. 337, pl. 33.

File:1135.jpg|[[John Notman]], ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.

File:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.

File:1064.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Rice & Buttre (engravers), “View of Oxnard’s Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 116.

File:1069.jpg|James Smillie (artist), C. G. Hanks (engraver), “View of the Monument to Channing, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 84.

File:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “View of the Central Square, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 61.

File:1071.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “View of the Appleton Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 76.

File:1072.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “View of the Tomb to Spurzheim, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 40.

File:1073.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Alfred Jones (engraver), “The Chapel, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 36.

File:1074.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “Central Avenue, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” The Naval Monument, in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 22.

File:1968.jpg|James Smillie, “View of Oxnard’s Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 114.

File:1969.jpg|James Smillie and Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “View of Gossler’s Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 116.

File:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E.G. Dunnel (engraver), “View from Mount Auburn, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 112.

File:1971.jpg|James Smillie, “The Bowditch Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. 105.

File:1972.jpg|James Smillie, “View of the Consecration Dell, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 100.

File:1973.jpg|James Smillie and John A. Rolph (etcher), “View of the Pilgrim Path, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 10.

File:1974.jpg|James Smillie, “Entrance to the Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), title page.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “View from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Forest Pond, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. 94.

File:1089.jpg|James Smillie (artist), W. W. Rice (engraver), “Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''The Rural Cemeteries of America'' (1855 [1847]), opp. 8.

File:0704.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, September 15” [detail], September 15, 1856.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1030.jpg|Joseph Meigs, Copy of the Plan of the New Haven Burying Ground, 1797.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

File:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of Mount Auburn,” November 1831.

File:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.

File:1031.jpg|Anonymous, “Tomb and obelisk of ‘George W. Coffin,’” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), 147.

File:1033.jpg|Anonymous, “Forest Pond,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through Mount Auburn'' (1839), 171.

File:1146.jpg|John T. Hammond (engraver), ''Plan of the Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia'' [detail], c. 1845.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0983.jpg|Richard Upjohn (attributed), ''Trinity Church, bird’s eye view'', 1837.

File:0439.jpg|Anonymous, ''Family Burying Ground'', c. 1840.

File:2101.jpg|James M. Hart, ''Albany Rural Cemetery'', 1849.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

File:0481.jpg

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C-cole:

William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728, engraving, 10 2/5 x 14 2/5 in. (26 x 36 cm). Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C.

Inscription: To / His Excellency / William Burnet, Esqr., / This Plan of / Boston in New England / is humbly Dedicated / by His Excellencys / most obedient and / humble servant / Will Burgiss

File:0481.jpg

2018-04-18T13:30:52Z

C-cole: C-cole uploaded a new version of File:0481.jpg

William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728, engraving, 10 2/5 x 14 2/5 in. (26 x 36 cm). Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C.

Inscription: To / His Excellency / William Burnet, Esqr., / This Plan of / Boston in New England / is humbly Dedicated / by His Excellencys / most obedient and / humble servant / Will Burgiss

Vase/Urn

2018-04-16T20:28:26Z

C-cole: /* History */

==History==

[[File:1175.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “A fine terra-cotta vase,” [[A. J. Downing]], “Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture,” ''American Gardener's Magazine'', vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.]]

[[File:1728.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.]]

The term vase typically referred to a freestanding, symmetrical vessel having a wider mouth than foot [Fig. 1], although some British pattern books included types with narrow mouths and elaborate lids [Fig. 2]. If fitted with a foot or pedestal set on either a small base or plinth, the vessel sometimes was referred to as an urn. Throughout history, ashes of the dead have been deposited in urns, giving them symbolic importance. Frequently urns were used for memorials and monuments, especially in [[cemetery|cemeteries]]. In the context of the designed landscape, treatise writers often strongly recommended that the vase be placed on top of a pedestal or plinth so that it would be easily visible. [[A. J. Downing]] elaborated upon this point in an 1836 article about architecture and at greater length in his 1849 treatise, when he explained that without such a placement, the vase would appear as a temporary, accidental introduction to the landscape. A permanent base, in his opinion, gave the vase the “character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability” [Fig. 3].

[[File:1840.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[J. C. Loudon]], “Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage,” in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.]]

[[File:0251.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.]]

Vases functioned primarily as ornamentation and were associated with a number of garden features. In his eighteenth-century treatise, [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] suggested that vases could be used to decorate [[parterre]]s, placed amidst planting features (such as [[grove]]s) or in water features (such as [[basin]]s), situated at the termination of [[walk]]s and [[vista]]s, or housed within structures (such as [[portico]]s and [[arbor]]s).

[[File:0852.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.]]

[[File:0218.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.]]

Vases continued to be featured in ornamental landscapes well into the nineteenth century, despite many changes in garden design. A painting of Kalorama, for example, depicts a vase at the center of the [[view]] [Fig. 4]. The connection between vases and water features continued as well. [[A. J. Downing|Downing’s]] texts, for example, contain numerous references to vases as [[fountain]]s. The strategic placement of vases in [[pleasure ground]]s also endured. At the early 19th-century estate of [[Blithewood]] in Dutchess County, New York, vases of grey Maltese stone (which [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] praised for its ability to harmonize with vegetation) were used throughout the [[pleasure ground]]s and, in particular, at the corners of adjoining [[walk]]s. Vases were also used at the termination of [[walk]]s, where they served as visual focal points as in a suburban garden design described in 1848 in the ''Horticulturist''.

Treatise authors from different periods agreed that the vase should never be placed far from the house. [[Thomas Whately]], in his 1770 treatise, insisted that the vase “attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden.” In 1849 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] reiterated [[Thomas Whately|Whately]]’s idea, explaining that since the vase was a “highly artificial and architectural” object, it must be situated in the [[pleasure ground]] in such a manner that it would always “appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character.” He cautioned further that vases be used judiciously. If placed “indiscriminately . . . where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature,” vases ran the danger of destroying the “unity of expression” that [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and others sought.

The function and placement of the vase was closely connected to its style and form. As several treatise writers counseled, vases should be stylistically consistent with their settings and, when placed near the house, should reflect the architectural character of the structure, such as Gothic, Grecian, Roman, or Italianate styles. In nineteenth-century treatises, vases in the classical or [[ancient style]] emerged as the most popular. A favored model was the Warwick Vase, a carved and decorated white marble vase from Hadrian’s Villa. The vase was recovered from the Roman site in 1770 by the Englishman [[William Hamilton]] and was subsequently taken to England by his nephew, George, Earl of Warwick. At [[Montgomery Place]], designed by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in the 1840s, a Warwick-style vase was placed in the center of the flower garden [Fig. 5]. In 1849, [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the popular option of the [[Rustic_style|rustic-style]] vase, in which the vessel was made out of the “branches and sections of trees with the bark attached.”

Outdoor vases were usually large in scale, two to three feet in height. They could be composed of a variety of materials, such as cast-brass, lead gilt, marble, stone and stucco, according to [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville|Dézallier d’Argenville]]. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], writing nearly one hundred and fifty years later, gave an equally wide-ranging list, including stone, artificial stone, plaster, and Roman cement. He also cited inexpensive materials intended to imitate luxury materials, such as terra-cotta and English Staffordshire, which could be treated to emulate marble. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s allusion to Staffordshire pottery suggests the near-dominant presence of refined British pottery in America. Nevertheless, he mentioned several American manufacturers that produced vases and noted especially such New York manufacturers as the Salamander Works, the Garnick Company, and Coffee’s Manufactory.

Vases were also used as plant containers, as indicated in Augustus Weidenbach’s c. 1858 painting of the garden at [[Belvedere]] in Baltimore [Fig. 6], or in [[C. M. Hovey]]’s 1839 description of a greenhouse or conservatory. Nevertheless, large-scale, ornamental vases were often regarded as works of art, and, therefore, as [[J. C. Loudon]] argued, cited by [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] in 1849, they should not be reduced to the level of “a mere garden flower-[[pot]].”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

==Texts==

===Usage===

[[File:1190.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Samuel McIntire, ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799. ]]
* McIntire, Samuel, June 8, 1795, describing a statement of account with Elias Hasket Derby (quoted in Kimball 1940: 74)<ref>Fiske Kimball, ''Mr. Samuel McIntire, Carver, the Architect of Salem'' (Portland, ME: Southworth-Anthoensen, 1940), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I9J3RBHB view on Zotero].</ref>
:{|
|“1793 ''Dec 4th'' || to Sundrie Drawings for <br /> [[Summer House]]s @ 24/ || £1: 4:
|-
|1794 ''Apl 25'' || to Carving 4 '''Vases''' for <br /> the [[Summer House]] at 18/s each || 3: 18:
|-
|July || to Building the Summer <br /> House at the Farm @ 100:0:0 <br />to Extra work on the Same, <br />Viz., finishing four Closets <br />@20/each 4: 0:0” [Fig. 7]"
|}

* Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, LA (1:243)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing from this [[plantation]] scene through the airy hall of the dwelling, which opened from [[piazza]] to piazza through the house, to the front gallery, whose light columns were wreathed with the delicately leaved Cape-jasmine, rambling woodbine and honeysuckle, a lovelier and more agreeable scene met my eye. I stood almost embowered in the foliage of exotics and native plants, which stood upon the gallery in handsome '''vases''' of marble and China-ware. The main avenue opened a [[vista]] to the river through a paradise of althea, orange, lemon, and olive trees, and [[grove]]s and [[lawn]]s extended on both sides of this lovely spot, ‘Where Flora’s brightest broidery shone,’ terminating at the villas of adjoining plantations.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
* Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, seat of General George P. Morris, near Cold-Spring, NY (1840; repr. 1971: 233)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian '''vase''', and encircled by ornamental [[shrubbery]]; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left [[slope]] of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 8]

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], November 1841, describing [[Highland Place]], estate of [[A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 405)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds", ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7 (1841), 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “7. Large palms in pots, or Maltese '''vases''', or '''vases''' made of artificial stone, set on the turf. In the introduction of '''vases''', it should always be remembered that the '''vase''' should not be set down immediately on the turf, but upon a ''plinth''. . . .
: “8. [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] basket, for flowers, as represented in the engraving just referred to. These are very easily made. Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]] has given a figure of one, in his ''Treatise on Landscape Gardening'', where he states they may be made in the following manner:—An octagon box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel, (small split limbs, covered with the bark,) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
: “THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].
: “In the centre of the garden stands a large '''vase''' of the Warwick pattern; others occupy the centres of [[parterre]]s in the midst of its two main divisions, and at either end is a fanciful light [[summer-house]], or [[pavilion]], of Moresque character.”

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece. ]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Blithewood]], seat of Robert Donaldson, Dutchess County, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 425)<ref name="Downing 1849"> A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “At [[Blithewood]], the seat of R. Donaldson, Esq., on the Hudson, a number of exquisite '''vases''' may be seen in the [[pleasure-ground]]s, which are cut in Maltese stone. These were imported by the proprietor, direct from Malta, at very moderate rates, and are not only ornamental, but very durable. Their color is a warm shade of grey which harmonizes agreeably with the surrounding vegetation.” [Fig. 9]

* Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, "The Fairmount Waterworks", ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We arrived at Fairmount. . . . Seeing a park at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about. Fat marble Cupids, in big marble '''vases''', squirted water upward incessantly.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* [[[Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 75–76)<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “STATUES and '''Vases''' contribute very much to the Embellishment and Magnificence of a Garden, and extremely advance the natural Beauties of it. They are made of several Forms, and different Materials; the richest are those of Cast-Brass, Lead gilt, and Marble; the ordinary Sort are of common Stone, or Stucco. . . .
: “THE usual Places of Figures and '''Vases''' are along the Palisades, in the Front, and upon the Sides of a [[Parterre]]; in the Niches and Sinkings of Horn-beam, or of Lattice-work made for that Purpose. In [[Grove]]s, they are placed in the Center of a Star, or S. ''Andrew’s'' Cross; in the Spaces between the [[Walk]]s of a Goose-foot, in the Middle of Halls and Cabinets, among the Trees and [[Arch]]es of a Green-Gallery, and at the Head of a Row of Trees, or Palisades, that stand free and detached. They are also put at the lower End of [[Walk]]s and [[Vista]]s, to set them off the better; in [[Portico]]s, and [[Arbor]]s of [[Trellis]]-work; in [[Bason]]s, [[Cascade]]s, &c. In general, they do well every where; and you can scarce have too many of them in a Garden: But, as in the Business of Sculpture, it should be excellent, as well as in Painting and Poesy [''sic''] (which are its two Sisters).”

[[File:1727.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.]]
* [[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xxi, xxv)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Three Designs for Columns, proper for publick Places or private Gardens; ''viz''. a plain Dorick [[Column]] upon its Pedestal with a '''Vase''' a top, a fluted [[Column]] properly adorn’d, and a [[Rustic_style|Rustick]] frosted [[Column]], with a Figure a-top, as I have made them for several Gentlemen. The Proportions of them are mark’d upon an upright Line, divided into so many Diameters of the [[Column]] for the Height. . . .
: “Three Designs for '''Vases''', done for the Right Honourable the Earl of ''Oxford''. There are two '''Vases''' well executed in Portland Stone according to the middle Draught, which are set upon two large Peers on each side of the principal [[Walk]] in the Garden at ''Wimpole'' in ''Cambridgeshire''. . . . [Fig. 10]
: “Fifty four Draughts of '''Vases''', &c. in the Antique manner, made for several persons at different times. Many of them have been executed both in Marble and Metal.”

* [[Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''vases''', [[statue]]s, and termini, are usual appendages to a considerable edifice; as such they may attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''URN''' . . . A kind of vase of a roundish form, largest in the middle; used as an ornament. ''Cyc''. . . .
: “'''VASE''', ''n''. [Fr. from L. ''vas'', ''vasa'', a vessel; It. ''vaso''.]
: “1. A vessel for domestic use, or for use in [[temple]]s; as a '''''vase''''' for sacrifice, an '''urn''', &c.
: “2. An ancient vessel dug out of the ground or from rubbish, and kept as a curiosity.
: “3. In ''architecture'', an ornament of sculpture, placed on socles or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients, as incense-pots, flower-[[pot]]s, &c. They usually crown or finish facades or frontispieces. ''Cyc''.
: “4. The body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambor or drum.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 285–86)

: “It will not be inadvertent to the present hasty remarks to hint at the additional charm which may be produced in highly finished places, especially where the buildings are in the Grecian style, by introducing into the [[lawn]]s and gardens the classic '''''vase''''' in its different forms, and, if thought desirable, [[statue]]s also. They serve as it were as a connecting link between so highly artificial an object as a modern villa, and the verdant [[lawn]]s and gay gardens which surround it. Elevated upon pedestals, and placed at suitable points in the [[view]]—on the parapets of [[terrace]]s near the house—before a group of foliage upon the [[lawn]], and at proper intervals in the garden, they give a classic and elegant air to the whole, which adds greatly to its value. Beautiful in their forms, contrasting finely with the deep green of vegetation, and leading the eye gradually from their own sculptured beauty to the architectural symmetry of the building, of which they form as it were a continuous though detached part, amalgamating it with the grounds in which it is placed—their effect can only be appreciated beforehand by those who have studied the excellent effect produced by their introduction into the scene.
: “Another reason which may be offered for the introduction of '''vases''' into architectural and garden scenery is ‘the gratification which such objects afford to the man of intelligence and taste. There are, perhaps, few objects, next to the human figure, which afford as many interesting historical associations as the '''vase'''. It may truly be said to be the first and last production of the plastic art. The first utensil formed by man, in the dawn of civilization in every country, is a vessel or '''vase''' for holding water; and that on which the highest resources of art are bestowed, in ages of the greatest refinement, is a '''vase''' or vessel for holding wine. In the first case, it is hollowed out of a gourd, or rudely shaped of clay, and dried in the sun; and, in the latter case, it is manufactured of costly metals or precious stones; or, if of common materials, such as stone, earthenware or glass, it is rendered valuable by the taste and skill bestowed on its form and ornaments. The history of every country may be traced by its '''vases''' no less than by its coins; and the history of all countries is set before us in the '''vases''' of all countries.’ [Loudon, X. 494.]”

* [[Hovey, C. M.]], January 1839, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 29)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, "Notes on Gardens and Nurseries", ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5 (1839): 59–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EQ6ZIWR4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The beauty of '''vases''' in garden scenery has been already urged by our correspondent, Mr. [[A.J. Downing|Downing]], (Vol. II, p. 281,) and we had intended to add something to his remarks, ourselves, by the way of impressing the subject more upon the attention of our readers. . . .
: “Surely we need not say any thing further to show how much they would add to the beauty of the garden, or the elegance of the [[conservatory]]. In either place, they are objects too inviting not to be found in every garden. These '''vases''' are easily filled with handsome plants, well suited to the situation, and the following might compose, in part, the group for the [[green-house]].”

* Rusticus [pseud.], August 1846, “Design for a Rustic Gate” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 72)<ref>Rusticus [pseud]., “Design for a Rustic Gate,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1 (1846): 72–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DPX658P3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Indeed, [[Rustic_style|rustic work]] of all kinds is extremely pleasing in any situation where there is any thing like a wild or natural character; or even where there is a simple and [[Rustic_style|rustic character]]. In the immediate proximity of a highly finished villa, it strikes me that [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], such as [[arbor]]s, [[fence]]s, flower baskets and the like, are rather out of place. The sculptured '''vase''' of marble, or terra cotta, would appear to be the most in keeping with an elegant place of the first class; that is to say, for all situations very near the house. In wooded [[walk]]s, or secluded spots, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] work looks well always.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], July 1848, “Ornamental Vases and Chimney Tops” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 40)

: “There are few objects that may, with so much good effect, be introduced into the scenery of [[pleasure ground]]s, surrounding a tasteful villa, as the '''''vase''''', in its many varied forms. The terra cotta '''vases''' of the Garnkirk company exhibit pleasing forms, and a soft mellow shade of colour, which harmonizes admirably with the hue of foliage and turf. From among the variety manufactured by them, we have selected a few, of which we here present engravings. . . .
: “To set down a '''vase''' upon the earth, or the [[lawn]], without any pedestal, is to give it a temporary character, and to rob it of that dignity and importance which it gains, both to the eye and the reason, by being placed on a firm and secure pedestal. . . .
: “Looking at the '''vase''' in an artistical point of view, it is considered as performing the office of uniting the architecture and the grounds of a complete country residence. It is the architectural idea, carried a little beyond the house, and shows that the same feeling of taste and embellishment reigns in both departments of the residence. It will be easily understood from this, that the most suitable place for '''vases''' is in highly kept portions of the [[pleasure ground]], near the house, where the '''vases''' may be seen in connexion with it; or, at least, where the architecture of the building harmonizes with the highly artificial forms of the '''vase'''. The simplest cottage may have its '''vase'''; but, where the building is small, the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''', made of bits of wood, and filled with flowering plants, is in better keeping than those made of any more highly artificial materials.”

[[File:1819.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, "A Gothic vase," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.]]
* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 423–27, 471, 473) <ref name="Downing 1849"></ref>

: “Where there is a [[terrace]] ornamented with '''urns''' or '''vases''', and the proprietor wishes to give a corresponding air of elegance to his grounds, '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, etc., may be placed in various appropriate situations, not only in the architectural [[flower-garden]], but on the [[lawn]], and through the [[pleasure-ground]]s in various different points ''near the house''. We say near the house, because we think so highly artificial and architectural an object as a sculptured '''vase''', is never correctly introduced unless it appear in some way connected with buildings, or objects of a like architectural character. To place a beautiful '''vase''' in a distant part of the grounds, where there is no direct allusion to art, and where it is accompanied only by natural objects, as the overhanging trees and the sloping turf, is in a measure doing violence to our reason or taste, by bringing two objects so strongly contrasted, in direct union. But when we see a statue or a '''vase''' placed in any part of the grounds where a near [[view]] is obtained of the house (and its accompanying statues or '''vases'''), the whole is accounted for, and we feel the distant '''vase''' to be only part of, or rather a repetition of the same idea,—in other words, that it forms part of a whole, harmonious and consistent.
: “'''Vases''' of real stone, as marble or granite, are decorations of too costly a kind ever to come into general use among us. '''Vases''', however, of equally beautiful forms, are manufactured of artificial stone, of fine pottery, or of cast iron, which have the same effect, and are of nearly equal durability, as garden decorations.
: “A '''vase''' should never, in the open air, be set down upon the ground or grass, without being placed upon a firm base of some description, either a ''plinth'' or a ''pedestal''. Without a base of this kind it has a temporary look, as if it had been left there by mere accident, and without any intention of permanence. Placing it upon a pedestal, or square plinth (block of stone), gives it a character of art, at once more dignified and expressive of stability. Besides this, the pedestal in reality serves to preserve the vase in a perpendicular position, as well as to expose it fairly to the eye, which could not be the case were it put down, without any preparation, on the bare turf or gravel.
: “Figure 69 is . . . Gothic. . . . These with many other elegant '''vases''' and '''urns''' are manufactured in an artificial stone, as durable as marble, by Austin of London, and together with a great variety of other beautiful sculpturesque decorations, may be imported at very reasonable prices. . . . [Fig. 11]
: “These '''vases''', when colored to imitate marble or other stone, are extremely durable and very ornamental. As yet, we are unable to refer our readers to any manufactory here, where these articles are made in a manner fully equal to the English; but we are satisfied, it is only necessary that the taste for such articles should increase, and the consequent demand, to induce our artisans to produce them of equal beauty and of greater cheapness. . . .
: “Large '''vases''' are sometimes filled with earth and planted with choice flowering plants, and the effect of the blossoms and green leaves growing out of these handsome receptacles, is at least unique and striking [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] objects to it in the case of an elegant sculptured '''vase''', ‘because it is reducing a work of art to the level of a mere garden flower-[[pot]], and dividing the attention between the beauty of the form of the '''vase''' and of its sculptured ornaments, and that of the plant which it contains.’ This criticism is a just one in its general application, especially when '''vases''' are considered as architectural decorations. Occasional deviations, however, may be permitted, for the sake of producing variety, especially in the case of vases used as decorations in the [[flower-garden]].
[[File:0389.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase”" in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.]]
: “A very pretty and fanciful substitute for the sculptured '''vase''', and which may take its place in the [[picturesque]] landscape, may be found in '''vases''' or baskets of ''rustic work'', constructed of the branches and sections of trees with the bark attached. Figure 74 is a representation of a pleasing [[Rustic_style|rustic]] '''vase''' which we have constructed without difficulty. A tripod of branches of trees forms the pedestal. An octagonal box serves as the body or frame of the '''vase'''; on this, pieces of birch and hazel (small split limbs covered with the bark) are nailed closely, so as to form a sort of mosaic covering to the whole exterior. Ornaments of this kind, which may be made by the amateur with the assistance of a common carpenter, are very suitable for the decoration of the grounds and [[flower-garden]]s of cottages or [[picturesque]] villas. An endless variety of forms will occur to an ingenious artist in [[Rustic_style|rustic work]], which he may call in to the embellishment of rural scenes, without taxing his purse heavily. . . . [Fig. 12]
[[File:0403.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.]]
: “Weeping, or ''Tazza [[Fountain]]s'', as they are called, are simple and highly pleasing objects, which require only a very moderate supply of water compared with that demanded by a constant and powerful [[jet]]. The conduit pipe rises through and fills the '''vase''', which is so formed as to overflow round its entire margin. Figure 93 represents a beautiful Grecian '''vase''' for tazza [[fountain]]s. The ordinary [[jet]] and the tazza [[fountain]] may be combined in one, when the supply of water is sufficient, by carrying the conduit pipe to the level of the top of the '''vase''', from which the water rises perpendicularly, then falls back into the '''vase''' and overflows as before. . . . [Fig. 13]
: “''Unity of expression'' is the maxim and guide in this department of the art, as in every other. Decorations can never be introduced with good effect, when they are at variance with the character of surrounding objects. A beautiful and highly architectural villa may, with the greatest propriety, receive the decorative accompaniments of elegant '''vases''', [[sundial]]s, or [[statue]]s, should the proprietor choose to display his wealth and taste in this manner; but these decorations would be totally misapplied in the case of a plain square edifice, evincing no architectural style in itself.
: “In addition to this, there is great danger that a mere lover of fine '''vases''' may run into the error of assembling these objects indiscriminately in different parts of his grounds, where they have really no place, but interfere with the quiet character of surrounding nature. He may overload the grounds with an unmeaning distribution of sculpturesque or artificial forms, instead of working up those parts where art predominates in such a manner, by means of appropriate decorations, as to heighten by contrast the beauty of the whole adjacent landscape.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1727.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Three Designs for Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.
File:1728.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of Vases,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.
File:1190.jpg|[[Samuel McIntire]], ''South Front of the Green house in the East Building'', Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1799.
File:1293.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Designs for Urns,” in ''The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter'' (1830), pl. 26.
File:1758.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Rustic arch and vase,” in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 581, fig. 231.
File:1827.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Hermit's Seat, and Classical Vase,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 664, fig. 172.
File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing's Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. "16. Green-house"
File:0941.jpg|Anonymous, “A pair of ''tozza'' [''sic''] vases, for a fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848): p. 42, fig. 13.
File:0948.jpg|Anonymous, Ornamental Vases, ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 1 (July 1848), p. 40, figs. 7–11.

File:1819.jpg|Anonymous, “A Gothic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 424, fig. 69.

File:0388.jpg|Anonymouse, Vase, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 425, fig. 72.

File:0389.jpg|Anonymous, “A pleasing rustic vase,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 526, fig. 74.

File:0403.jpg|Anonymous, “Tazza Fountain,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 471, fig. 93.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:1175.jpg|Anonymous, "A fine terra-cotta vase," [[A. J. Downing]], "Remarks on the Different Styles of Architecture," American Gardener's Magazine, vol. 2 (August 1836), p. 286, fig. 11.
File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.
File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.
File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, "Plan of a Suburban Garden," in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.
File:0583.jpg|Lewis Miller, "For a Lady's Album ...," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 125.
File:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "View in the Grounds at Blithewood," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.
File:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0259.jpg|The Gansevoort Limner (possibly Pieter Vanderlyn), ''Young Lady with a Fan'', 1737.

File:0191.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Margaret Tilghman Carroll'', c. 1770.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0001.jpg|[[George Ropes]], ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', 1821.

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East View of Greenvill[e], S.C.'', possibly 1825.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], Mount Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], "Front View of Mount Airy, Virginia," 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:1247.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Villa for David Codwise, near New Rochelle, NY (project; elevation and four plans)'', 1835.

File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

File:1840.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Garden Front of Cheshunt Cottage," in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 669, fig. 174.

File:1477.jpg|Anonymous, Honorary membership certificate for Nicholas Biddle in “The Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson” [detail], June 1839.

File:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], "The Conservatory," Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

File:0520.jpg|Anonymous, ''Beehives in the Garden'', c. 1840.

File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.

File:0891.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Joseph H. Jennings’ House, 1841–44.

File:0704.jpg|Lewis Miller, "Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, September 15" [detail], September 15, 1856.

File:0218.jpg|[[Augustus Weidenbach]], ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:49:31Z

C-cole: /* Citations */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[arbor|Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[meadow|Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[gate|Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 [[shrub|Shrubs]] (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[plantation|Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[walk|Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[walk|Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[walk|Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[walk|Walk]]s in my [[grove|Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of [[shrub]]s. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[hedge|Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[parterre|Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[wall|Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[walk|Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[grove|Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[grove|Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[prospect|Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[avenue|Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[avenue|Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[arbor|Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[walk|Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[walk|Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a [[plantation]] of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel [[alley]]s. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[grove|GROVE]], [[labyrinth|LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[prospect|Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the [[plantation|Plantation]] which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[square|Square]]s or [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[prospect|Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[prospect|Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[plantation|Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[square|Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small [[shrub|Shrub]]s, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[border|Border]]s of the [[plantation|Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[border|Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[walk|Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[walk|Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[walk|Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in [[walk|Walks]]: nor should the grand [[walk|Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[walk|Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[pleasure garden|Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[walk|Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[walk|Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[view|View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[square|Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[walk|Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s with [[hedge|Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[quarter|Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[hedge|Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[hedge|Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[walk|Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[plantation|Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[walk|Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these [[walk|Walk]]s are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[obelisk|Obelisk]], [[statue|Statue]], or [[fountain|Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[plot|Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[view|View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[plantation|Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[walk|Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[quarter|Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[walk|Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[walk|Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[view|View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in [[view|View]] from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[plantation|Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[walk|Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[slope|Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[clump|Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[clump|Clump]]s or little [[quarter|Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[slope|Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the [[view|View]], bounded on each Side with these rising [[clump|Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering [[shrub|Shrubs]], according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[quarter|Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[hedge|Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[plantation|Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of [[plantation|Plantation]]s. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown [[wood|Wood]]s near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[wood|Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[plantation|Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[wood|Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:47:55Z

C-cole: /* Citations */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[arbor|Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[meadow|Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[gate|Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 [[shrub|Shrubs]] (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[plantation|Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[walk|Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[walk|Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[walk|Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[walk|Walk]]s in my [[grove|Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of [[shrub]]s. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Richard Bradley|Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[hedge|Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[parterre|Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[wall|Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[walk|Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[grove|Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[grove|Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[prospect|Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[avenue|Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[avenue|Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[arbor|Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[walk|Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[walk|Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a [[plantation]] of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel [[alley]]s. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[grove|GROVE]], [[labyrinth|LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[prospect|Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the [[plantation|Plantation]] which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[square|Square]]s or [[quarter|Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[prospect|Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[prospect|Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[plantation|Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[square|Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small [[shrub|Shrub]]s, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[border|Border]]s of the [[plantation|Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[border|Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[walk|Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[walk|Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[walk|Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in [[walk|Walks]]: nor should the grand [[walk|Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[walk|Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[pleasure garden|Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[walk|Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[walk|Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[view|View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[square|Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[walk|Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s with [[hedge|Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[quarter|Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[hedge|Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[hedge|Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[walk|Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[plantation|Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[walk|Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[labyrinth|Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these [[walk|Walk]]s are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[obelisk|Obelisk]], [[statue|Statue]], or [[fountain|Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[plot|Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[view|View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[plantation|Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[walk|Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[quarter|Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[walk|Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[quarter|Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[walk|Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[view|View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in [[view|View]] from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[plantation|Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[walk|Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[walk|Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[slope|Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[clump|Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[clump|Clump]]s or little [[quarter|Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[slope|Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the [[view|View]], bounded on each Side with these rising [[clump|Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering [[shrub|Shrubs]], according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[quarter|Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[hedge|Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[plantation|Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of [[plantation|Plantation]]s. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown [[wood|Wood]]s near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[wood|Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[plantation|Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:21:47Z

C-cole: /* Usage */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[arbor|Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[meadow|Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[gate|Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 [[shrub|Shrubs]] (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[plantation|Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[walk|Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[walk|Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[walk|Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[walk|Walk]]s in my [[grove|Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of [[shrub]]s. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[Walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a plantation of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel alleys. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[GROVE]], [[LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the Plantation which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[Square]]s or [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small Shrubs, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[Border]]s of the [[Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in Walks: nor should the grand [[Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the Walks with [[Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these Walks are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[Obelisk]], [[Statue]], or [[Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in View from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[Clump]]s or little [[Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the View, bounded on each Side with these rising [[Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering Shrubs, according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of Plantations. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown Woods near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:17:56Z

C-cole: /* History */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my walks, groves, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 Shrubs (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and Shrubberies to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[Walk]]s in my [[Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of shrubs. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[Walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a plantation of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel alleys. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[GROVE]], [[LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the Plantation which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[Square]]s or [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small Shrubs, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[Border]]s of the [[Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in Walks: nor should the grand [[Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the Walks with [[Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these Walks are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[Obelisk]], [[Statue]], or [[Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in View from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[Clump]]s or little [[Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the View, bounded on each Side with these rising [[Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering Shrubs, according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of Plantations. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown Woods near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:16:49Z

C-cole: /* Images */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my walks, groves, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 Shrubs (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and Shrubberies to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[Walk]]s in my [[Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of shrubs. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[Walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a plantation of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel alleys. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[GROVE]], [[LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the Plantation which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[Square]]s or [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small Shrubs, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[Border]]s of the [[Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in Walks: nor should the grand [[Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the Walks with [[Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these Walks are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[Obelisk]], [[Statue]], or [[Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in View from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[Clump]]s or little [[Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the View, bounded on each Side with these rising [[Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering Shrubs, according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of Plantations. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown Woods near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Wilderness

2018-04-16T16:15:55Z

C-cole: /* History */

See also: [[Copse]], [[Grove]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:1828.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.]]
When used in the context of 17th-and 18th-century gardens, the term wilderness generally referred to a planned arrangement of trees that contained an understory of vegetation, often set within a regularly defined space [Fig. 1].<ref>Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3/ view on Zotero]. In investigating the planting features of the 18th-century landscape garden, Laird’s text examines the historical development of the wilderness and its relationship to such related features as shrubbery. </ref> According to [[Batty Langley]] (1728), usually this feature was located in a remote region of the garden. [[Philip Miller]], in his 1754 treatise, insisted that wildernesses be located some distance from the house, so that moisture from the trees would not harm the dwelling. He also believed that the feature should not “obstruct any distant [[prospect|Prospect]] of the Country” and recommended that it be developed on a scale proportionate with the rest of the garden.

Elaborately patterned [[walk]]s helped establish the internal design of the wilderness and encouraged strolling. These [[walk]]s, typically framed by vegetation, could range from rectilinear to serpentine, as [[Langley]]’s designs demonstrate. [[Philip Miller|Miller]] maintained that wilderness [[walk]]s should meander and contain quick turns to surprise the visitor with hidden features. In ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754), American plants were listed under the category “wilderness,” a garden type that [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended be laid out with serpentine walkways as if re-creating the untamed environment in which the plants were found originally.<ref>Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden'', 97–98. Laird notes that the wilderness was seen as the appropriate “home away from home” for American shrubs and trees. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero]</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, wilderness [[walk]]s were typically bordered by dense, high [[hedge]]s, as suggested by [[Richard Bradley]] (1719). Increasingly, these [[hedge]]s were either trimmed to a low height or removed altogether in favor of [[shrub]]s underplanted with flowers. This shift in taste is indicated by [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s treatise, in which he criticized high [[hedge]]s and recommended lining the [[walk]]s of the wilderness with irregularly disposed “Wood-flowers” (such as violets and daffodils), backed by low flowering [[shrub]]s (such as roses and honeysuckles). This method created a graduated [[slope]] of [[shrub]]s culminating in the grouping of trees. Eventually, this manner of arranging a wilderness became more commonly known as [[shrubbery]] in horticultural manuals. <ref>Laird 1999, 101, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0048.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the plan. ]]
[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.]]
The emergence of such [[shrubbery]], however, did not mean the immediate demise of the wilderness, nor did it mean that the new use of the term “[[shrubbery]]” correlated precisely with the old. <ref>Laird 1999, 101–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero view on Zotero].</ref> [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] were typically characterized by decorative plantings arranged with respect to height in graduated [[slope]]s, and it is clear from [[Philip Miller|Miller]]’s account that wildernesses could be similarly arranged. Nonetheless, some differences distinguish the two features. Most significantly, a wilderness (unlike a [[shrubbery]]) was often arranged in [[geometric style|geometrical]] fashion, with regularized plantings punctuated by a centrally placed decorative object, such as a [[fountain]] or [[statue]]. The illusion of density in wilderness vegetation often was created by planting trees in a quincunx pattern (resembling the arrangement of a five-face on a die), a plan not generally used in [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

[[File:0358.jpg|thumb|left|fig. 4, Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
A few colonial wildernesses were constructed in a manner roughly comparable to that described by [[Philip Miller|Miller]] and [[Batty Langley|Langley]].<ref>Barbara Paca-Steele and St. Clair Wright have identified a wilderness garden at the William Paca house and garden in Annapolis, MD Barbara Paca-Steele with St. Clair Wright, “The Mathematics of an Eighteenth-Century Wilderness Garden,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 6, no. 4 (1986): 299–320, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BXR4J256 view on Zotero].</ref> A 1734 real estate advertisement for a South Carolina island, for example, noted a shady wilderness filled with [[walk]]s and [[arbor]]s. [[John Penn]] and [[George Washington]] each built a wilderness on his estate, placing the feature at a distance from the main house, in keeping with [[Batty Langley|Langley]]’s prescriptions. In John Nancarrow’s c. 1784 plan of [[John Penn]]’s estate in Philadelphia, the wilderness is labeled at “c” [Fig. 2]. In his plan for [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3], [[Samuel Vaughan]] in 1787 depicted wildernesses flanking the serpentine [[walk]]s and eventually merging at some distance from the main house. In practice, [[George Washington|Washington]] did not follow [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s recommendation but kept the area clear to form a [[view]] framed by wildernesses, as his contemporaries [[Langley]] and [[Philip Miller|Miller]] recommended. According to [[George Washington|Washington]]’s diaries, the wildernesses at [[Mount Vernon]] were also intersected with [[walk]]s, although such details are not noted on [[Samuel Vaughan|Vaughan]]’s plan of the estate. In keeping with the elision between the terms “wilderness” and “[[shrubbery]]” in this period, [[George Washington|Washington]] sometimes referred to these planting features as [[shrubbery|shrubberies]].

The term “wilderness” persisted in early 19th-century American horticultural manuals. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806), for example, emphasized winding [[walk]]s framed by closely planted vegetation and occasionally leading to open spaces also bounded by [[plantation]]s. By this date, however, the term already was waning in importance. The ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798) denounced the “stars and other ridiculous figures” that sometimes appeared in wilderness plans. When [[Noah Webster]] defined wilderness in his dictionary of 1828, the landscape definition term was listed last and was explained only briefly as “a [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.” When [[A. J. Downing]] in 1847 referred to “The Wilderness” at [[Montgomery Place]], in Dutchess County, NY, he referred to the recreation of a native woodland [Fig. 4] and not to a feature consistent with discussions found in earlier gardening treatises. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]’s evocative description of a “richly wooded valley,” where one could imagine oneself “in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization,” reflects a central trope in 19th-century American culture, representing the wilderness as a primeval forest. The later definition shaped not only aesthetics but also the nation’s sense of self-identity. Thus the wilderness in American gardens evolved from an artificially constructed space set apart from the natural landscape to an unimproved natural landscape included within the conception of the garden.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, February 9, 1734, describing a property for sale on Hog-Island, near Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “On the Island is a New Dwelling House [with] . . . A delightful '''Wilderness''' with shady [[Walk]]s and [[Arbour]]s, cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees.”

* Fisher, Daniel, May 25,1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:801–2)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Proprietor’s tho’ much smaller, was laid out with more Judgement, tho’ it seems to have been pretty much neglected, a pretty [[pleasure garden ]]. . . a small '''Wilderness''', and other shades, shows that the contrivor was not without Judgement.”

* [[Washington, George]], 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:75, 103–7)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington,'' ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[January 12] Road to my Mill Swamp, where my Dogue run hands were at work & to other places in search of the sort of Trees I shall want for my walks, groves, & '''Wildernesses'''.
: “At the Sein Landing & between that & the point at the old Brick kiln I found about half a dozn. young Elm trees, but not very promising ones. Many thriving ash trees on high (at least dry) ground of proper size for transplanting and a great abundance of the red-bud of all sizes. In the field which I bought of Barry & Miss Wade along the drain, & prongs of it, are one or two more; but rather of large size—but in the latter (a prong of the drain in Barry’s field) there are great abundance of the white thorn (now full of the red Berries in clusters). Within the [[Meadow]] [[fence]] at the Mill, & within that Inclosure next Isaac Gates’s are some young Crab apple trees and young Pine trees in the old field of all sizes. And in the Branch of Hell hole betwn. the [[Gate]] & its mouth are a number of very fine young Poplars—Locusts— Sasafras and Dogwood. Some Maple Trees on high ground & 2 or 3 Shrubs (in wet ground) wch. I take to be of the Fringe tree. . . .
: “[March 17] Laid out a [[walk]] for the '''Wilderness''' intended on the South of the Serpentine road on the left. . . .
: “[March 18] I went to my Dogue run [[Plantation]] to make choice of the size, & to direct the taking up of Pine trees, for my two '''wildernesses'''. Brought 3 waggon load of them home, and planted every other hole round the [[Walk]]s in them. Began with that on the right, which was planted before the wet fell, & better planted; that is with more pains the other (on the left) being hurried more and the ground wet and sticky. . . .
: “[March 21] Staked up the largest of my Trees in the [[avenue]]s and '''Wilderness''' and Shrubberies to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning. . . .
: “[March 22] Mrs. Grayson sent me 8 Yew & 4 Aspan trees & Colo. Mason some Cherry Grafts. Planted the intermediate holes round the [[Walk]] in the '''Wilderness''' on the right and filled the spaces between with young Pines. . . .
: “[March 24] Finding the Trees round the [[Walk]]s in my '''wildernesses''' rather too thin I doubled them by putting (other Pine) trees between each.
: “Laid off the [[Walk]]s in my [[Grove]]s, at each end of the House.”

* Constantia [pseud.], June 24, 1790, “Description of [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Gardens]], Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414–15)<ref>Constantia, "Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania", ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3 (1790), 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “this, as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the '''wilderness''', into which we enter, passing over a neat [[Chinese_manner|chinese]] [[bridge]], preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a '''wilderness''' of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing labyrinth is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

* [[Jefferson, Thomas]], September 4, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 112)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Broom '''wilderness''' on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, & spread before the sun. a temple with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

* [[Martineau, Harriet]], May 4, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1838: 1:274)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In returning, we alighted at one of these delicious retreats [villas], and wandered about, losing each other among the thorns, the ceringas, and the '''wilderness''' of shrubs. We met in a [[grotto]], under the [[summer-house]], cool with a greenish light, and veiled at its entrance a tracery of creepers. There we lingered, amid singing or silent dreaming. There seemed to be too little that was real about the place for ordinary voices to be heard speaking about ordinary things.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 47–48)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Leaving the morning walk, we enter at once into ‘The '''Wilderness'''.’ This is a large and long wooded valley. It is broad, and much varied in surface, swelling into deep ravines, and spreading into wide hollows. In its lowest depths runs a large stream of water, that has, in portions, all the volume and swiftness of a mountain torrent. But the peculiarity of ‘The '''Wilderness''',’ is in the depth and massiveness of its foliage. It is covered with the native growth of trees, thick, dark and shadowy, so that once plunged in its recesses, you can easily imagine yourself in the depths of an old forest, far away from the haunts of civilization. . . .
: “But the '''Wilderness''' is by no means savage in the aspect of its beauty; on the contrary, here as elsewhere in this demesne, are evidences, in every improvement, of a fine appreciation of the natural charms of the locality. The whole of this richly wooded valley is threaded with [[walk]]s, ingeniously and naturally conducted so as to penetrate to all the most interesting points; while a great variety of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[seat]]s, formed beneath the trees, in deep secluded [[thicket]]s, by the side of the swift rushing stream, or on some inviting [[eminence]], enables one fully to enjoy them.” [See Fig. 4]
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For there may be therein [the garden] [[Walk|walkes]] eyther open or close, eyther publike or private, a maze or '''wildernesse'''.”

* [[Bradley, Richard]], 1719, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719: 1.2:17, 18, 43)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants.,'' 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [the Yew-Tree] is of great use for [[Hedge]]s, and make most agreeable Divisions in Gardens; it is customary to [[fence]] in the [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness''' Works with these Plants, where they have a very good Effect. . . .
: “[the Laurus-tinus] is often train’d up to a headed Plant, and introduced among Hollys and Yews into the [[Parterre]]. But I should rather direct that it be planted against a [[Wall]] or in '''Wildernesses''', where it may avoid the Knife for the sake of its Flowers. . . .
: “Small [[Walk]]s of these [Lilac] ''Trees'' are very pleasant, and they are no less Ornamental in the [[Quarter]]s of '''''Wilderness''''' ''Works'', especially if the ''White'' flowering Kind be judiciously intermix’d with them.”

[[File:1378.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.]]
* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xi, xi [page numbers are not distinctively sequential], 195–200)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Their '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Grove]]s'' [of the nobility and gentry] (when they planted any) were always placed at the most remote Parts of the Garden: So that before we can enter them, in the Heat of Summer, when they are most useful, we are obliged to pass thro’ the ''scorching Heat of the Sun.''
: “Indeed, ’tis oftentimes necessary to place ''[[Grove]]s'' and open '''''Wildernesses''''' in such remote Parts of Gardens, from whence ''pleasant [[Prospect]]s are taken''; but then we should always take care to plant ''proportionable [[Avenue]]s'' leading from the House to them, under whose ''Shade'' we might with Pleasure pass and repass at any time of the Day. . . .
: “Plate V. is a third Design of an ''[[Avenue]]'' with its '''''Wildernesses''''' on each Side, wherein is contain’d great Variety of Walking. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1380.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.]]
: “Plate VII. consists of four several Designs for '''''Wildernesses''''' and ''[[Labyrinth]]s'' wherein A A, ''&c''. are ''[[Arbor]]s'', or Places of Repose. [Fig. 6]
: “''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c....
: “X. That all those Parts which are out of [[View]] from the House, be form’d into '''Wildernesses''', [[Labyrinth]]s, &c. . . .
: “XVI. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.
: “XVII. That the [[Walk]]s of a '''Wilderness''' be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country. . . .
: “XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to. . . .
: “These agreeable surprizing Entertainments in the pleasant Passage thro’ a '''Wilderness''', must, without doubt, create new Pleasures at every Turn. . . .
: “XXIII. In the Planting of a '''Wilderness''', be careful of making an equal Disposition of the several Kinds of Trees, and that you mix therewith the several Sorts of Ever-Greens; for they not only add a very great Beauty thereunto, by their different Leaves and Colours, in the Summer; but are a great Grace to a Garden in the Winter, when others have stood the Strip of their Leaves.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “QUINCUNX is chiefly used in gardening, for a plantation of trees, disposed originally in a [[square]]; consisting of five trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which disposition repeated again and again, forms a regular [[grove]], [[wood]], or '''wilderness''', and then viewed by an angle of the square, or parallelogram, presents equal and parallel alleys. . . .
: “'''WILDERNESS''', See DESART, [[GROVE]], [[LABYRINTH]], &c.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1523–33)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESSES''', if rightly situated, artfully contrived, and judiciously planted, are very great Ornaments to a fine Garden; but it is rare to see these so well executed in Gardens as could be wish’d, nor is it often they are judiciously situated: for either they are so situated as to hinder a distant [[Prospect]], or else are not judiciously planted: the latter of which is scarce ever to be found in any of our most magnificent Gardens, very few of their Designers ever studying the natural Growth of Plants, so as to place them in such manner, that they may not obstruct the Sight from the several Parts of the Plantation which are presented to the View. . . .
: “1. '''Wildernesses''' should always be proportion’d to the Extent of the Gardens in which they are made, that they may correspond in Magnitude with the other Parts of the Garden; for it is very ridiculous to see a large '''Wilderness''' planted with tall Trees in a small Spot of Ground; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more absurd, than to see little paltry [[Square]]s or [[Quarter]]s of '''Wilderness'''-work, in a magnificent large Garden.
: “2. As to the Situation of '''Wildernesses''', they should never be placed too near the Habitation; because the great quantity of Moisture which is perspired from the Trees, will cause a damp unwholesome Air about the House, which is often of ill Consequence: nor should they be situated so as to obstruct any distant [[Prospect]] of the Country; which should always be preserved wherever it can be obtained; there being nothing so agreeable to the Mind as an unconfined [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country. But where the Sight is confined within the Limits of the Garden from its Situation, then there is nothing so agreeable to terminate the [[Prospect]], as a beautiful Scene of the various Kinds of Trees judiciously planted; and if it is so contrived, that the Termination is planted circularly, with the Concave toward the Sight, it will have a much better Effect, than if it end in strait Lines or Angles, which are never so agreeable to the Mind.
: “3. The Plants should always be adapted to the Size of the [[Plantation]]; for ’tis very absurd to see tall Trees planted in small [[Square]]s of a little Garden; and so likewise, if in large Designs are planted nothing but small Shrubs, it will have a mean Appearance. It should also be observed, never to plant Ever-greens amongst deciduous Trees; unless it be toward the Front or [[Border]]s of the [[Plantation]] chiefly in Sight; because these afford a continual Pleasure both in Summer and Winter, when in the latter Season the deciduous Trees do not appear so agreeable: therefore, if the [[Border]]s of the '''Wilderness'''-quarters are skirted with Ever-green, they will have a good Effect.
: “4. The [[Walk]]s must also be proportion’d to the Size of the Ground, and not make large [[Walk]]s in a small '''Wilderness''' (nor too many [[Walk]]s, though smaller), whereby the greatest Part of the Ground is employ’d in Walks: nor should the grand [[Walk]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' be too small, both of which are equally faulty. These [[Walk]]s should not be enter’d immediately from those of the [[Pleasure-Garden]]; but rather be led into by a small private [[Walk]], which will render it more entertaining: or if the large [[Walk]] be turned in Form of a Serpent, so as not to shew its whole Extent, the Mind will be better pleas’d, than if the Whole were open to the [[View]].
: “The usual Method of contriving '''Wilderness''' is, to divide the whole Compass of Ground, either into [[Square]]s, Angles, Circles, or other Figures, making the [[Walk]]s correspondent to them; planting the Sides of the Walks with [[Hedge]]s of Lime, Elm, Hornbeam, &c. and the [[Quarter]]s within are planted with various Kinds of Trees promiscuously without Order. But this can by no means be esteemed a judicious Method; because hereby there will be a great Expence in keeping the [[Hedge]]s of a large '''Wilderness''' in good Order, which, instead of being beautiful, are rather the reverse; for as these Parts of a Garden should, in a great measure, be design’d from Nature, so whatever has the stiff Appearance of Art does by no means correspond therewith. Besides, these [[Hedge]]s are generally trained up so high, as to obstruct the Sight from the Trees in the [[Quarter]]s, which ought never to be done.
: “In the next place, the [[Walk]]s are commonly made to intersect each other in Angles; which also shews too formal and trite for such [[Plantation]]s, and are by no means comparable to such [[Walk]]s as have the Appearance of Meanders or [[Labyrinth]]s, where the Eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty Yards in Length; and the more these Walks are turn’d, the greater Pleasure they will afford. These should now and-then lead into an open circular Piece of Grass; in the Centre of which may be plac’d either an [[Obelisk]], [[Statue]], or [[Fountain]]; and if in the middle Part of the '''Wildernesses''' there be contrived a large Opening, in the Centre of which may be erected a Dome or Banqueting-house, surrounded with a green [[Plot]] of Grass, it will be a considerable Addition to the Beauty of the Place.
: “From the Sides of the [[Walk]]s and Openings, the Trees should rise gradually one above another to the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing Trees, so that the Heads of all the Trees will appear to the [[View]]; but their Stems will be hid from Sight, which will have a vastly different Effect from the common Method, where the Trees are planted large and small without any Order; so that many times the largest are next the Sight, and small ones behind them, just according as it happens; in which manner the small ones, being overhung and shaded, seldom thrive well.
: “But in order to plant a '''Wilderness''' with Judgment, the usual Growth of all the different Sorts of Trees should be well consider’d, that each may be placed according to the Magnitude to which they generally grow; otherwise, if they are at first planted one above another, as before directed, they will not continue to grow in this Order many Years; for some Sorts will greatly outgrow the others, and thereby render the [[Plantation]]s less beautiful; but when they are placed according to their usual manner of growing, they will always continue nearly in the same Order, which renders them very entertaining to the Sight.
: “By this Distribution you will have the Pleasure of the flowering Shrubs near the Sight, whereby you will be regaled with their Scent, as you pass through the [[Walk]]s; which is seldom observed by those who plant '''Wildernesses'''; for nothing is more common than to see Roses, Honeysuckles, and other small flowering Shrubs, placed in the Middle of large [[Quarter]]s, under the Dropping and Shade of large Trees, where they seldom thrive; and if they do, the Pleasure of them is lost, because they are secluded from the Sight. . . .
: “But, beside these grand [[Walk]]s and Openings (which should always be laid with Turf, and kept well mowed), there should be some smaller Serpentine-[[walk]]s through the Middle of the [[Quarter]]s, where Persons may retire for Privacy. . . . By the sides of these private [[Walk]]s may also be scattered some Wood-flowers and Plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good Effect.
: “In the general Design for these '''Wildernesses''', it should not be studied to make the several Parts correspondent; for that is so formal and stiff, as to be now quite rejected: the greater Diversity there is in the Distribution of these Parts, the more Pleasure they will afford: and since, according to this Method of Designing and Planting, the different Parts never present themselves to the same [[View]]s, it is no matter how different they are varied asunder; that Part of them which is most in View from the House, or other Parts of the Garden, may be planted with Evergreens; but the other Parts may be planted with deciduous Trees in the foregoing manner.
: “By what I have said concerning the Planting of the Trees in Rows, one behind another, according to their different Growths, I would not have it understood, that I mean the placing them in strait Lines, which is too stiff and formal for these [[Plantation]]s: all that is intended is, to place the front Rows of Trees on each Side the [[Walk]]s, at an equal Distance from the Sides of the [[Walk]]s; so that the Lines of Trees (especially the three first) will turn in the same manner as the Walks. Those behind may be placed after the same manner, provided Care be taken to allow each sufficient room to grow, and that there may appear no uneven Gaps in the Distance of their Heads; but that they may all rise gradually, so as to form an handsome [[Slope]].
: “In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent '''Wildernesses''', there may be some rising [[Clump]]s of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its size. These [[Clump]]s or little [[Quarter]]s of Evergreens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[Slope]] of Evergreens, to the great Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the View, bounded on each Side with these rising [[Clump]]s, which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several Kinds of flowering Shrubs, according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of Plantations. . . .
: “Where Persons have the Convenience of grown Woods near the Habitation, so as that there may be an easy Communication from one to the other, there will be little Occasion for '''Wildernesses''' in the Garden; since the natural [[Wood]]s may be so contriv’d, as to render them much pleasanter than any new [[Plantation]] can possibly arrive to within the Compass of twenty Years . . . there is not only the Pleasure of enjoying a present Shade from these [[Wood]]s, but also a great Expence saved in the planting of '''Wildernesses'''.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WILDERNESS''', wil’-der-nis. s. A desart, a tract of solitude and savageness; the state of being wild or disorderly. . . .
: “'''WILDNESS''', wi’ld-nis. s. Rudeness, disorder like that of uncultivated ground . . . irregularity.”

* Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:542)<ref>Anonymousa, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When '''wildernesses''' are intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, which in a great design appear trifling.”

* M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57–58, 67)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year. . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “This ground must be more contracted as it approaches, near the mansion, that company may the sooner arrive in the [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]], '''wilderness''', &c. under the shade and shelter of trees; but the outward extension on each boundary, should widen gradually towards the extreme termination, to give an air of grandeur, and admit of a full [[prospect]] from and to the mansion. . . .
: “Another division sometimes to diversify the scenery, presents a '''''Wilderness''''', in irregular partitions of [[plantation]]s, having intervening spaces of grass-ground, and gravel-[[walk]]s, extending in various directions; some by winding mazes or [[labyrinth]]s, into openings formed in different parts; the boundary [[plantation]] of this division, being generally planted in close assemblage, with serpentine [[walk]]s between; some leading in private meanders towards the interior parts, or breaking out sometimes into other [[walk]]s that are open and spacious, both of grass, and gravel occasionally; conducted in serpentine turns, to cause the greater variety; some places being closely bordered with tall trees, to effect a gloominess and perfect shade: the different [[walk]]s leading now and then into circular openings, each being surrounded with [[plantation]]s as aforesaid; making the principal walks terminate in a grand opening in the centre of the '''wilderness''', in which may be some ornamental edifice, or fine piece of water, &c. . . .
: “A ''[[Labyrinth]]'', is a maze or sort of intricate '''wilderness'''-[[plantation]], abounding with [[hedge]]s and [[walk]]s, formed into many windings and turnings, leading to one common centre, extremely difficult to find out; designed in large [[pleasure-ground]]s by way of amusement.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WIL’DERNESS''', ''n''. [from ''wild''.] A desert; a tract of land or region uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide barren plain. In the United States, it is applied only to a forest. In Scripture, it is applied frequently to the deserts of Arabia. The Israelites wandered in the '''''wilderness''''' forty years.
: “2. The ocean. . . .
: “3. A state of disorder. . . .
: “4. A [[wood]] in a garden, resembling a forest.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1828.jpg|Stephen Switzer, Plan for “The Mannour of Paston,” in ''Ichnographia rustica'' (1718), fig. XII. “Wilderness” is marked in the densely planted quadrant at right.

File:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III.

File:1380.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Several Designs for Wildernesses and Labyrinths,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. VII.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun:<sup>r</sup> Esq:<sup>r</sup> in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785. “The Wilderness” is noted at “c.,” in the upper-left portion of the pan.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Mount Vernon, 1787.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking to the North'', July 17, 1796

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, "The Father of His Country"'', 1797.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The Lake,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Yard

2018-04-16T16:06:24Z

C-cole: /* Citations */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well [[fence|fenced]] in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* [[William Penn|Penn, William]], August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* [[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg, VA]] (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . . One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing [[Mount Clare]], [[plantation]] of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''[[terrace|Terrace]]'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg, VA]] (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[walk|Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[portico|Portico]] is supported by Stone [[pillar|Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[kitchen garden|Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial [[mount]]s, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high [[mount]]s and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and [[shrub]]s; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell,_Maine|Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “[[Hallowell,_Maine|Hallowell]] is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[plat]]s, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a [[lawn]] & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[park|Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[yard|Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a [[wall]] in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a [[plantation]] in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Martha Forman Ogle|Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friend’s Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Margaret Bayard Smith|Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire [[flower garden|flower Gardens]] as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and [[shrub]]s. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine [[promenade]] at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[park|Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer park|deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . . .
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower garden|flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . . . ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . . On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or [[fence]], painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[William H. Ranlett|Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, [[shrub]]s and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental [[shrub]]s, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785–90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Square

2018-04-16T13:53:13Z

C-cole: /* Inscribed */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Common]], [[Green]], [[Park]], [[Quarter]]

==History==

[[File:0245.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 1, Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.]]

In landscape design vocabulary, the term square had three distinct usages derived from its definition as a geometric shape with four right angles and four equal sides. First, "square" referred to square- or rectangular-shaped [[bed]]s and cultivated areas and was often used to describe the divisions within [[nursery|nurseries]], [[kitchen garden]]s, and [[flower garden]]s. This usage was apparent in 1799 when John Latta described the [[flower garden]] at [[Mount Vernon]], and also in 1800 when the ''Federal Gazette'' noted [[Adrian Valeck's garden]] in Baltimore. Used in thissense, the term generally came to be subsumed under the wider terms "[[bed]]" and "[[plot]]" during the early nineteenth century. Second, the square represented a division of property within a city or town in a grid or orthogonal pattern, as reflected in descriptions of New Haven, Conn., by [[Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] (1787) and Jedidiah Morse (1789), and a report on Washington, D.C., by [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]] (1791). J.-P. Brissot de Warville in 1788 used both senses of the term in his description of the [[bed]]s in the [[State House Yard]] and the grid plan of the entire city of Philadelphia.

[[File:0462.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Samuel Vaughan]], "Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia," 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.]]

Third, and most significantly, square was used to denote a public space. An early and important example is [[William Penn|William Penn's]] 1683 plan for the city of Philadelphia, which broke from a strict grid to preserve public spaces, called squares, which would remain open for communal use. In 1734, Savannah, Ga., was laid out with reserved open squares around which building lots were arranged [Fig. 1]. Imported from European urban planning traditions, the open square was a feature in the settlements throughout the New World. Although Spanish, French, Dutch, and German colonies designated the spaces as ''plaza'', ''place d’arms'', ''platz'', and so forth, English-speaking visitors generally described these spaces as squares. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>They even extended application of the term to Native American settlements, as attested by [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] 1791 description of a town in Cuscowilla, Ga. ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). Furthermore, in the English colonies, writers often used the term "square" to refer to an area that elsewhere was described as a [[green]], [[yard]], or [[common]]. [[New Haven Green]], University of Virginia, and [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia are all examples of this broader application of the term.

[[File:0974.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Joseph Jacques Ramée, "Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore," 1813.]]

[[File:0412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.]]

Squares marked the termination of major streets and [[avenue]]s and provided visual focal points at intersections [Fig. 2]. <ref>For an in-depth treatment of early American squares, see John W. Reps, The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG view on Zotero,] and Carl Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” in Town and Square, from the Agora to the Village instruments of social reform. Green, ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 237–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero.]</ref> Urban squares were often the setting for monuments, as in Joseph Jacques Ramée's design
for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore)| Washington Monument]] in Baltimore
[Fig. 3], and for public buildings, such as
court houses, meeting houses, market
houses, and magazines. As [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant]] noted,
the [[statue]]s, [[column]]s, and [[obelisk]]s that
ornamented many squares not only commemorated
celebrated heroes of the past,
but also served as instructive examples to
the present generation of proper patriotic
behavior. Squares often became centers of
neighborhood or civic identity, as was the
case with Union Square in New York and Rittenhouse Square in Philadelphia. A 1704 resolution
of the House of Burgesses of Virginia
in Williamsburg suggested that the scale and
openness of squares were ideally suited to
position institutions of authority. As a result,
squares were used as sites for civic displays,
such as a parade of the Salem, Mass., regiment held in 1808. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] in 1800 indicated a square in his plan for a
military school, a space that could be used
for drilling and exercises, and that could be
kept easily under surveillance [Fig. 4].
[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]

[[File:0521.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[William Rush]], ''North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia'', 1824.]]

In addition to public squares, American
towns occasionally included smaller residential
versions of the same feature. Surrounded
by private houses and intended for
the recreation and enjoyment of immediate
residents, these often-gated residential
squares were included in the early plan of
Bloomsbury Square in Annapolis, Md., as
seen in James Stoddert's plan of 1718 [Fig. 5].
Similar residential squares, such as
Gramercy Square in New York and Louisburg Square in Boston, continued to be constructed throughout the period under study,
although they never reached the popularity
of their London counterparts developed
after the Great Fire of 1666. <ref> Feiss, "Early American Public Squares," 245, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

Both residential and public squares provided
a venue for garden or landscape design
within the city. Many squares were initially
grass lots, divided by [[walk]]s or paths, and
planted with trees in fairly simple configurations,
as at [[New Haven Green]]. In the nineteenth
century more elaborate designs
became common. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]]
1819 design for [[Place d’Armes]] (renamed Jackson
Square) in New Orleans [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]], and
William Rush's 1824 plan for Franklin Public Square in Philadelphia [Fig. 6], exemplify the
inclusion of intricate [[walk]]s and planting [[bed]]s,
statuary, and ironwork [[fence]]s and [[gate]]s that
marked these squares as ornamental—clearly
intended for leisure and recreation and not as
pastures for cows or drilling militia. Of particular
note is the installation of [[fountain]]s made
possible by the introduction of pressurized
water systems. These [[fountain]]s set in public
squares and [[park]]s became prominent symbols
of civic achievement and pride.

An account of the improvements planned
for Richmond’s [[Capitol Square]] in 1851 conveys
the appeal of a "delightful resort" in a
growing urban center, typical of mid-
nineteenth-century public landscape design
projects. The attraction of these urban
cases, however, went beyond aesthetics.
Writers such as William A. Alcott (1838) and
[[Louisa C. Tuthill]] (1848) argued that the
healthful and moral benefits of these public
spaces should be available to all classes. The
opportunity that squares afforded for recreation, light, fresh air, and a mixing of the citizenry propelled these landscapes into instruments of social reform.

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===
[[File:0144.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Thomas Holme, "A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America," 1681.]]
*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], August 16, 1683, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Blome 1687: 110) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"There are also in each [[Quarter]] of the City, a '''Square''' of eight Acres to be for the like uses, as the ''Moor-fields'' in ''London''." [Fig. 7]

[[File:0882.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman's Plan), after 1800.]]
*House of Burgesses of Virginia, May 8, 1704, describing resolutions pertaining to construction in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"The House took into consideration the report of the Committee appointed to view the '''Square''' markt out belonging to the Capitol and after some time spent therein came to these resolutions following. Resolved. That the Public Prison be included within the Bounds appropriated to the Capitol and that the said bounds already ascertained for the said Capitol be continued from the main road just before the door of One of the Capitol houses to the extent of forty one poles to the Post on the West side of the spring, thence fourteen poles to the corner of the ditch, thence along the said Ditch thirty poles and a half to a post by the said Ditch and from thence to the beginning place." [Fig. 8]

*Ross, George, March 1, 1727, describing Newcastle, Del. (CWF)

:"In the middle of the Town lies a spacious [[green]] in form of a '''square''', in a corner whereof stood formerly a Fort &c."

*Prentis, Joseph, 1784, describing his garden in Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 344) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zorero.]</ref>

:"sowed Pease in the '''Square''' next Chimney . . .Glory of England, sowed same Day in '''Square''' next Street."

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], February 12, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:89) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976-79), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places—viz.</p>
:<p>"2 Orange Burgamots in the No. Garden, under the back [[wall]]—3d. tree from the Green House at each end of it.</p>
:<p>"1 Burgamot at the Corner of the [[border]] in the South Garden just below the necessary.</p>
:<p>"2 St. Germians, one in each [[border]] (middle thereof) of the upper '''Square'''s by the Asparagas [[Bed]] & Artichoake Ditto upper bordr.</p>
:"3 Brown Beuries in the west '''square''' in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the [[border]] (middle thereof) next the [[Fall]] or [[terrace/slope|slope]]—the other two an the [[border]] above the [[walk]] next the old Stone [[Wall]]."

*[[Rev. Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 3, 1787, describing New Haven, Conn., and his plans for the Ohio Company (1987: 1:218, 330–31) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The city of New Haven covers a large piece of ground, a little descending toward the sea, with a southern aspect. It is laid out in regular '''square'''s, with a public '''square''' near the center. Its streets are tolerably wide, and some of them ornamented with rows of trees. There is a row of trees set round the public '''square''', which were small while I was at college, but are now large, and add much to its beauty; a row across the center has been very lately set out, in a line with the State House, two large Meeting Houses and the Grammar School. Within the '''square''', and on the [[border]]s of others adjoining, are six steeples and cupolas on public buildings, within a very small compass of ground.</p>
:"You will see, by the inclosed, that our ideas of streets, and the width of front lots, nearly correspond with yours. I am not, however, pleased with the size nor form of our '''squares'''. It is proposed that there should be nine lots on a side, and four at the end, which I think will have too much of the oblong. Were the ends increased, though, I should prefer an oblong to a '''square'''; the effect would be more pleasing to the eye, and not less convenient. The rear, which I think is now too scanty, might be increased, and the whole of the lots more uniform. The plan we have formed was, unavoidably, done in a hasty manner, without drawing it on paper, and will, I think, be somewhat altered. It is our intention to set rows of mulberry trees, immediately, on each side of the streets, at the distance of ten or fifteen feet from the line on which the houses are to be built. They will make an agreeable shade, increase the salubrity of the air, add to the beauty of the streets, and, what we have principally in view, afford food for an immense number of silk-worms."

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (1792: 316–17) <ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America, Performed in 1788'', ed. by Durand Echeverria, trans. by Maro S. Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Behind the State-house is a [[public garden]]; it is the only one that exists in Philadelphia. It is not large; but it is agreeable, and one may breathe in it. It is composed of a number of verdant '''squares''', intersected by [[alley]]s.</p>
:"All the space from Front-street on the Delaware to Front-street on the [[Skuylkill]], is already distributed into '''squares''' for streets and houses."

[[File:1010.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, James Wadsworth, "Plan of the City of New Haven," 1748.]]
*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing New Haven, Conn. (quoted in Morse 1970: 221)

:"The town was originally laid out in '''squares''' of sixty rods. Many of these '''squares''' have been divided by cross streets. . . . Near the centre of the city is the public '''square'''; on and around which are the public buildings. . . .The public '''square''' is encircled with rows of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful. Its beauty, however, is greatly diminished by the [[burial ground]], and several of the public buildings, which occupy a considerable part of it." [Fig. 9]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing an Indian town in Cuscowilla, Ga. (1928: 167–68) <ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Upon our arrival we repaired to the public '''square''' or council-house, where the chiefs and senators were already convened. . . .</p>
:"The banquet succeeded; the ribs and choicest fat pieces of the bullocks, excellently well barbecued, were brought into the apartment of the public '''square''', constructed and appointed for feasting."

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing [[Pleasant Hill]], seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, Mass. (1962: 1:264) <ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. . . . The '''Squares''' are decorated with Marble figures as large as life. No expense is spared to render the whole amusing, instructive, & friendly."

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], August 19, 1791 and January 4, 1792, describing his plans for Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 157, 165) <ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, D.C.: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The grand [[avenue]] connecting the palace and the Federal House will be magnificent . . . as also the several '''squares''' which are intended for the Judiciary Courts, the National Bank, the grand Church, the play house, markets and exchange, offering a variety of situations unparallelled for beauty, suitable for every purpose, and in every point convenient, calculated to command the highest price at a sale.</p>
:<p>"The '''Squares''' colored yellow, being fifteen in number, are proposed to be divided among the several States of the Union, for each of them to improve, or subscribe a sum additional to the value of the land; that purpose and the improvements around the '''Square''' to be completed in a limited time.</p>
:<p>"The center of each '''Square''' will admit of [[Statue]]s, [[Column]]s, [[Obelisk]]s, or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose counsels or Military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation, to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those sages, or heroes whom their country has thought proper to celebrate.</p>
:"The situation of these '''Squares''' is such that they are the most advantageously and reciprocally seen from each other and as equally distributed over the whole City district, and connected by spacious [[avenue]]s round the grand Federal Improvements and as contiguous to them, and at the same time as equally distant from each other, as circumstances would admit. The Settlements round those '''Squares''' must soon become connected." [Fig. 10]

*Tucker, St. George, May 28, 1795, describing Williamsburg, Va. (CWF)

:"Near the center of the town there is a pleasant '''square''' of about ten acres, which is generally covered with a delightful verdure."

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Newburyport, N.H., and Boston, Mass. (1821: 1:439, 489–91) <ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: The Author, 1821-22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHBP7TH2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The ground, on which the former church, belonging to the same congregation [Presbyterian], stood, was purchased for $8,000; and devoted for ever to the purpose of enlarging a small public '''square'''....</p>
:<p>"A handsome lot has been purchased by Moses Brown, Esq. in front of one of the churches, for $13,000; and appropriated for ever, as an open '''square''', to the use of the public; an act of liberality, which needs no comment.</p>
:<p>"Boston contains one hundred and thirty-five streets, twenty-one lanes, eighteen courts, and, it is said, a few '''squares''': although, I confess, I have never seen any thing in it, to which I should give that name. . . .</p>
:"It is remarkable, that the scheme of forming public '''squares''', so beautiful, and in great towns so conducive to health, should have been almost universally forgotten. Nothing is so cheerful, so delightful, or so susceptible of the combined elegancies of nature and art. On these open grounds the inhabitants might always find sweet air, charming [[walk]]s, [[fountain]]s refreshing the atmosphere, trees excluding the sun, and, together with fine flowering shrubs, presenting to the eye the most ornamental objects, found in the country. Here, also, youth and little children might enjoy those sports, those voluntary indulgences, which in fresh air, are, peculiarly to them, the sources of health and the prolongation of life. Yet many large cities are utterly destitute of these appendages; and in no city are they so numerous, as the taste for beauty, and a regard for health, compel us to wish."

*Latta, John, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (quoted in Martin 1991: 143) <ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The garden is very handsomely laid out in '''squares''' and flower knots and contains a great variety of trees, flowers and plants of foreign growth collected from almost every part of the world."

*Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing a Mr. Pratt's garden (exact location undetermined) (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801) <ref>Lewis Beebe, ''Lewis Beebe Journal, 1776-1801,'' [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/V2B6NEAQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Likewise the [[border]] of every '''square''' is impossible for me to describe. The remaining parts of each '''square''' within the [[border]], is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Betes, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuse, Radished, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles."

[[File:0669.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.]]
*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the [[estate of Adrian Valeck]], Baltimore, Md. (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136) <ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, "Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake," ''Journal of Garden History'', 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and '''squares''' bordered with [[espalier]]s, on which...the greatest variety of fruit trees, the choicest fruits from the best nurseries in this country and Europe have been attentively and successfully cultivated . . . Behind the garden in a [[grove]] and [[shrubbery]] or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc."

[[File:0001.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, George Ropes, ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.]]
*Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing Centre Square, Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 25–26) <ref>Joseph A. Scott, ''Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. . . . The water is discharged into a circular aqueduct, extending along Chestnut and Broad streets, into the middle of Market-street, in the centre '''square'''. . . . In the centre '''square''', upon Market-street, is a marble edifice, which receives the water from Schuylkill. It also contains a steam engine, which raises the water to a reservoir, whence it descends into wooden pipes, which convey it through the city. The building in the centre '''square''', is a '''square''' of sixty feet, with a Doric [[portico]] on the east and west fronts." [Fig. 11]

*Anonymous, October 15, 1808, describing Salem, Mass. (''Essex Register'')

:"On Wednesday last the Salem Regiment, the Cadets, the Artillery and the Cavalry, formed a line on Washington '''Square''', and were inspectedand reviewed by the proper officers. The appearance of the whole line was highly gratifying to the spectators. In the afternoon the imitation of battle was performed with spirit and precision; and very much to the satisfaction of the military men." [Fig. 12]

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 128) <ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"About the year 1755 Henry Laurens purchased a lot of four acres in Ansonborough, which is now called Laurens’s '''square''', and enriched it with everything useful and ornamental that Carolina produced or his extensive mercantile connections enabled him to procure from remote parts of the world. Among a variety of other curious productions, he introduced olives, capers, limes, ginger, guinea grass, the alpine strawberry, bearing nine months in the year, red raspberrys, blue grapes; and also directly from the south of France, apples, pears, and plums of fine kinds, and vines which bore abundantly of the choice white eating grape called Chasselates blancs. The whole was superintended with maternal care by Mrs. Elinor Laurens with the assistance of John Watson, a complete English gardener."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing Princeton, N.J. (CWF)

:"In front of it [the College] is a very handsome green '''square''' of about four Acres, enclosed in a railing, & produces very fine herbage. It is attached to the College as a place of recreation & amusement for the students."

*Proceedings of the Corporation, December 10, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, N.Y. (quoted in Hosack 1811: 51) <ref>David A. Hosack, ''Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"that so long as the said grounds are continued as a [[botanic garden]], or as an open '''square''' for any other public use, the streets intersecting the same will not be required to be opened."

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the state capitol in Milledgeville, Ga. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:"[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House '''square''' and [[avenue]]s of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[Promenade|prominade]] [''sic'']."

*Anonymous, 1817, describing Savannah, Ga. (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 144) <ref name="Schwaab">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''Squares''' to the amount of 14 or 16 are judiciously interspersed through the town, relieving the monotony resulting from streets crossing each other at right angles, as those of this city do. Circular enclosures surround the centres of those '''squares''', which together with the side [[walk]]s, are planted with a number of similar ornamental trees."

*Anonymous, October 10, 1817, describing Richmond, Va. (''Richmond Enquirer'')

:"It was but in February, 1816, that the Act passed 'Establishing a Museum on part of the Public '''Square''', in the city of Richmond.' . . . And lo! the building is completed—an ornament to the Public '''Square''', and an ornament to the State which contains it."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], January 13, 1819, describing New Orleans, La. (1951: 23) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818-1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The public '''square''', which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water [[view]] of the city. This '''square''' extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church." [Fig. 13]

*New Orleans City Council, January 16, 1819 (Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University)

:"the Mayor is authorized to have as many young willow trees planted along the length of the City Levee as he deems necessary, and to have a protection placed around them as to insure their growth; That the Mayor is furthermore authorized to have other trees planted in the Public '''Square''' to take the place of those that are missing."

*Anonymous, 1820, describing Memphis, Tenn. (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 179) <ref name="Schwaab"></ref>

:"The streets run to the cardinal points. They are wide and spacious, and, together with a number of [[alley]]s, afford a free and abundant circulation of air. There are, besides, four public '''squares''', in different parts of the town, and between the front lots and the river, is an ample vacant space, reserved as a [[promenade]]; all of which must contribute very much to the health and comfort of the place, as well as to its security and ornament."

*Anonymous, May 26, 1824, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 132) <ref>Therese O’Malley, "Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C., 1791-1852" (unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJ3JTTJB view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1st. The water of Tiber Creek being thus conducted into the Capitol '''square''', will afford ample security against the progress of fire."

*[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, N.J. (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814-1845'' (Wilmington, Del.: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“"Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large '''squares''' of Grass, with its neat white houses and little [[yard]]s in front filled with [[shrubbery]]."

[[File:1141_top.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835-40.]]
*[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa. (1832: 2:48–49) <ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Near this enclosure [at the State House] is another of much the same description, called Washington '''Square'''. Here there was an excellent crop of clover; but as the trees are numerous, and highly beautiful, and several commodious [[seat]]s are placed beneath their shade, it is, spite of the long grass, a very agreeable retreat from heat and dust. It was rarely, however, that I saw any of these [[seat]]s occupied; the Americans have either no leisure, or no inclination for those moments of ''delassement'' that all other people, I believe, indulge in. . . . it is nevertheless the nearest approach to a London '''square''' that is to be found in Philadelphia." [Fig. 14]

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 357) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen Bryant II and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The village of Jacksonville is a remarkably moral place—more so than most villages in New England, and the people seem intelligent. It is a collection of mean little houses about a dirty '''square''', and is one of the ugliest and most unpleasant places I ever saw. It stands in the midst of a prairie and is without a tree, except some very little ones just planted—but these are not on the principal '''square'''."

[[File:1239.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 15, George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.]]
*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, La. (1:81–82) <ref name="Ingraham">Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On the left and diagonally from the dwelling house we noticed a very neat, pretty village, containing about forty small snow-white cottages, all precisely alike, built around a pleasant '''square''', in the centre of which, was a [[grove]] or cluster of magnificent sycamores. Near by, suspended from a belfry, was the bell which called the slaves to and from their work and meals. This village was their residence, and under the shade of the trees in the centre of the '''square''', we could discern troops of little ebony urchins from the age of eight years downward, all too young to work in the field, at their play. . . ." [Fig. 15]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, La. (1:91) <ref name="Ingraham"></ref>

:<p>"Though the water, or shore-line, is very nearly semi-circular, the Levée-street, above mentioned, does not closely follow the shore, but is broken into two angles, from which the streets diverge as before mentioned. These streets are again intersected by others running parallel with the Levée-street, dividing the city into '''squares''', except where the perpendicular streets meet the angles, where necessarily the ‘'''squares'''’ are lessened in breadth at the extremity nearest the river, and occasionally form pentagons and parallelograms, with ''oblique'' sides, if I may so express it.</p>
:"After crossing Levée-street, we entered Rue St. Pierre, which issues from it south of the grand '''square'''. This '''square''' is an open [[green]], surrounded by a lofty iron railing, within which troops of boys, whose sports carried my thoughts away to ‘home sweet home,’ were playing, shouting and merry making."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11)

:"The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a '''square'''. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the '''squares''' occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a [[hedge]].”

[[File:1809.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.]]
*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, N.Y. (1:38–39) <ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson '''Square''', the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington '''Square''', about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed." [Fig. 16]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the '''square''' which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick [[wall]] to serve as a shelter and to secure the various [[hothouse|hot houses]] and other buildings of an inferior character." [Fig. 17]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 318–19) <ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"''Public'' '''''Squares'''''.—It is to the wise and liberal foresight of the great founder of Pennsylvania that we owe most of the public '''squares''' which now ornament our city. In the original plan, as laid out by Thomas Holmes, Penn’s surveyor general in 1682, there was to be a public '''square''' in the centre containing ten acres, and one in each [[quarter]] of the city containing eight acres. . . .</p>
:<p>"Washington '''square''', on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was for many years used as a public [[burial ground]] for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters’ field. . . . Its improvement as a public '''square''' commenced in 1815, when a variety of trees were planted, gravel [[walk]]s laid out, and other steps taken which have led to its present attractive appearance. It is intended to erect, in the centre of this '''square''',a monument to the memory of Washington; the cornerstone having been laid with due ceremony at the celebration of his birth day, on the 22nd of February, 1833.</p>
:<p>"Franklin '''square''' is on Sixth street between Race and Vine, being also laid out with gravel [[walk]]s and planted with trees, affording a public [[promenade]] equally agreeable with Washington '''square'''. A magnificent [[fountain]], surrounded by a marble [[basin]], has been constructed in the centre, supplied with water from the works at [[Fairmount]].</p>
:<p>"Logan '''square''' . . . and Rittenhouse '''square'''... are both enclosed and planted with trees, and promise in a few years to present an appearance similar to Washington and Franklin '''squares''', affording to the inhabitants of the western part of the city, cool and shady [[walk]]s of equal attraction to those now enjoyed in the eastern '''squares'''.</p>
:"Penn '''square''', at the intersection of Market and Broad streets, was, within the recollection of many now living, not a '''''square''''' but a ''circle'', having the street passing round it and enclosing the distributing reservoir of the city water works."

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 7, 1843, describing Savannah, Ga. (Clarke 1993: 2:154) <ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Savannah is beautifully laid out; its broad streets are thickly planted with the Pride of India, and its frequent open '''squares''' shaded with trees of various kinds."

[[File:1429.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp p. 87.]]
*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing Pittsfield, Mass. (pp. 87–88) <ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to the History and Antiquities of Every Town in Massachusetts, with Geographical Descriptions'' (Worcester, Mass.: Warren Lazell, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"There is a public '''square''' in the center, containing about four acres: in the center of this '''square''' is a large elm, which was left standing when the original forest was cleared away." [Fig. 18]

*[[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, describing the public '''squares''' in New York, N.Y., and Philadelphia, Pa. ([1848] 1988: 317, 319) <ref name="Tuthill">Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The citizens of New York have at length become aware of the beauty and salubrity of public '''squares'''. St. John’s Park, Washington '''Square''', Union '''Square''', and several others in recently-built parts of the city, are tastefully ornamented with trees and [[shrubbery]], affording sweet green spots for the eye to rest upon, as a relief from the glare of brick [[wall]]s and dirty pavements.</p>
:"The public '''squares''' of Philadelphia, are incalculably important to the health of the city. Beneath the dense foliage of Washington '''Square''', crowds of merry children enjoy, unmolested, their healthful sports. Within the enclosure of Independence '''Square''', was first promulgated the Declaration of Independence. Franklin '''Square''' has in the centre a [[fountain]], falling into a handsome, white marble [[basin]]. Penn, Logan, and Rittenhouse '''Squares''' are also ornamental to the city."

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, describing West Chester, Pa. (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492–93) <ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public '''Square''', on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and [[shrubbery]]: And whereas it will be convenient and necessary to designate the said '''Square''' by some appropriate name: . . . That the public '''Square''', aforesaid, shall for ever hereafter be designated and known by the name of 'THE MARSHALL '''SQUARE'''.'"

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162) <ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the '''Square''' itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and [[picturesque]] [[lawn]]s. . . .</p>
:<p>"The eastern portion of the '''square''' will likewise undergo considerable change—the rugged features will be materially softened down, a [[fountain]] and [[jet d’eau]] to correspond with those on the western side will be placed in the valley near the state courthouse. . . .</p>
:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the '''Square''', however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the '''Square''' a place of delightful resort."

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' ([1629] 1975: 5) <ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, N.J.: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with '''squares''', knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure '''square''' parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"<p>[[piazza|PIAZZA]], in building, popularly called piache, an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].</p>
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or '''square'''; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico|portico's]] around them."

[[File:1817.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1030, fig. 733.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 1029–30) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"7319. ''Public'' '''''squares''''', of such magnitude as to admit of being laid out in ample [[walk]]s, open and shady, are almost peculiar to Britain. The grand object is to get as extended a line of uninterrupted [[promenade]] as is possible within the given limits. A [[walk]] parallel to the boundary [[fence]], and at a short distance within it, evidently includes the maximum of extent; but if the enclosure is small, the rapid succession of angles and turns becomes extremely disagreeable, and continually breaks in upon the ''pas des promeneurs'', the conversation of a party, or individual contemplation. The angles, therefore, must be avoided, by ''rounding them off'' in a large '''square'''; in a small one, by forming the [[walk]] into a circle; and in a small parallelogram, by adopting an oval form. In laying out a large '''square'''. .. four objects ought to be kept in view. 1. Sufficient open space (''a''), both of lawn and [[walk]], so as the parents, looking from the windows of the houses which surround the '''square''', may not long at a time lose sight of their children: 2. An open [[walk]], exposed to the sun, for winter and spring (''b''): 3. A [[walk]] shaded by trees, but airy for summer (''c''): 4. Resting-places (''d''); and a centrical covered [[seat]] and retreat (''e''), which, being nearly equidistant from every point may be readily gained in case of a sudden shower, &c. The [[statue]]s of eminent public men are obvious and appropriate decorations for '''squares'''." [Fig. 19]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"'''SQUARE''', ''n''....</p>
:<p>"2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.</p>
:"The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large '''''square''''' of the town. ''Addison''."

*[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (p. 1) <ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd edn (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"the centre part of the garden may be divided into '''squares''', on the sides of which a [[border]] may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c."

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)

:"[[Fountain]]s are going out of use, though we think without sufficient reason. In more frequented grounds, such as public '''squares''' in towns, we think them particularly appropriate. We would not, however, propose even for these, such expensive [[fountain]]s as are frequently seen in Europe, where water is poured forth in immense volumes in marble [[basin]]s, amid tritons and sea horses, and cars. A single streak of water would be a more pleasing object."

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–42) <ref>William A. Alcott, "Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages," ''American Annals of Education'', 8 (August) (1838), 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and '''squares''' and public [[walk]]s; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which 'blow soft o’er Ceylon's isle;' or a few public '''squares''', remembrancers though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the 'city of brotherly love' shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . . .</p>
:"We wish to see not only spacious '''squares''' or [[common]]s interspersed with shade, if not with fruit trees, in every village and town and city, but we wish to see [[public garden]]s on an extensive scale. We wish to see these not only for health’s sake, and for the sake of their moral tone and tendency, but as a means of rational amusement—as a means of promoting the public cheerfulness, the public taste, and of consequence, the public happiness."

*[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], June 1, 1838, "The Kitchen Garden" (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 235)

:"In laying a [[Kitchen Garden]] out, it should be done in the most simple manner, both for convenience, and a correspondence of its utility. The most approved method is to have the garden so situated as to be in a '''square''' with the four points of the compass, viz: N. S. E. W., surrounded with either a boarded [[fence]] or brick [[wall]]. The ground will require to be divided into four or six '''squares''', according to its size, if no more than an acre or two, four will be sufficient; if larger, six will be requisite."

*[[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, ''History of Architecture'' ([1848] 1988: 317–20) <ref name="Tuthill"></ref>

:<p>"Every city should make ample provision for spacious public '''squares'''. Trees of every variety, shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, should decorate these grounds, and [[fountain]]s throw up their sparkling waters, contrasting their pure, white marble with the deep green foliage. Here, beneath the shaded [[walk]]s, the inhabitants might enjoy the sweet air, the children sport upon the fresh grass, and all be refreshed and cheered by the sight of beautiful natural objects. Here the young and the old might meet to ‘drive dull care away,’ and lose for a few brief moments the calculating, moneymaking plans that almost constantly usurp American thought and feeling. . . .</p>
:"Gardens and '''squares''' are so necessary to the health, as well as the enjoyment of those who are shut up in the close streets of a city, that it should be considered an imperative duty to provide them for all classes of the inhabitants. It may be urged, that if left open and free, the decorations would soon be destroyed by the populace; some few rude hands might occasionally make sad havoc among them, but when the people had once learnt how much such places of resort contributed to their health and pleasure, they would carefully protect them from injury."

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 154, 161, 231) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public '''squares''' and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine [[avenue]]s of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . . .</p>
:<p>"In [[avenue]]s it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the '''square''' of the Statehouse, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . . .</p>
:"In New York and Philadelphia, the Ailantus is more generally known by the name of the ''Celestial tree'', and is much planted in the streets and public '''squares'''."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0018.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan of Sperenza, N.Y. [detail], n.d.

Image:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman's Plan), after 1800.

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington (artist), William Fletcher Boogher (publisher), "A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia..." [detail], [1698] 1882.

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].

Image:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), "A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne," 1731.

Image:0796.jpg|Nicholas Scull, ''To the mayor recorder aldermen common council and freemen of Philadelphia this plan of the improved part of the city....'', 1762.

Image:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, Plan of the city of New York, c. 1767.

Image:0884.jpg|Thomas Rodney, Plan of Dover, copy of Thomas Noxon’s original from 1740/41, 1768.

Image:0645.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Charles Town, Maryland, 1770.

Image:0462.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], "Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia," 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.

Image:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the ''modern'' Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

Image:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, "Master Plan for Yale College" [detail], 1792.

Image:0802.jpg|A. P. Folie, "Plan of the town of Baltimore and it's environs," 1792.

Image:0973.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, "Plan of Tivoli Laid Out into Town Lots" [detail], 1795.

Image:0488.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), "A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America," 1797.

Image:0236.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "The Light Horseman," 1799.

Image:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman's Plan), c. 1800.

Image:0412.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.

Image:0871.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal, No. 1'', February 5, 1804, in John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (1967), fig. 17.

Image:2062.jpg|George E. Blake, ''Blake's Collection of Duetts for two Flutes, Clarinets, or Violins'', c. 1807.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, Washington Square, Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:1268.jpg|Amos Doolittle, "Plan of New Haven," 1817.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), p. 33, pl. 1.

Image:1240.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Project for the Principal Gates of the Public Square at New Orleans," c. March 1819.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, "North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia," 1824.

Image:1817.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1030, fig. 733.

Image:1267.jpg|Joseph Pilié, "Plan of the Front Part of the City of New Orleans Shewing the additions, alterations and improvements...," November 15, 1827.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, "Plan of Mount Auburn," November 1831.

Image:1141_top.jpg|Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835–40.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, "City of Washington," c. 1836.

Image:1856.jpg|Jeromes, Gilbert, Grant and Company, Shelf Clock, 1839–40.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), "Map of Washington Square, Philadelphia," 1843.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), J.A. Rolph (engraver), "View of the Central Square, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 61.

Image:0987.jpg|George Hayward, "Chatham Square, N.Y. 1812," 1864.

Image:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout's plan, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1996.jpg|Thomas Holme, "A Mapp of Ye Improved Part of Pensilvania in America, Divided into Countyes Townships and Lotts," c. 1687.

Image:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

Image:0867.jpg|Matthaeus Seutter, "Plan von neu Ebenezer," 1747.

Image:1010.jpg|James Wadsworth, "Plan of the City of New Haven," 1748.

Image:0905.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794–95.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794–95.

Image:0543.jpg|James Peale, ''Frederick Graff'', 1804.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, "Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:1117.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "The Gothic Church. (New Haven)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', Vol II (1840), pl. 6.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, "Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven," 1840.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1429.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp p. 87.

Image:0622.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Court Square in Springfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. p. 290.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), "Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York," c. 1845.

Image:0491.jpg|Edward Sachse, "Baltimore," 1850.

Image:1809.jpg|Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0144.jpg|Thomas Holme, "A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America," 1681.

Image:0798.jpg|John Montrésor, New York and its Environs to Greenwich, 1766.

Image:0286.jpg|Franz Xaver Habermann, "La destruction de la statue royale a Nouvelle Yorck," 1776.

Image:1424.jpg|James Thackara, "A View of the New Market from the Corner of Shippen & Second-streets Philada.," 1787, in ''The Columbian magazine, or, Monthly miscellany'' 2, no. 2 (February 1788): opp. p. 53.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0324.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Back of the State House, Philadelphia," 1799.

Image:0183.jpg|Anonymous, Court House Square, Warrenton, 1800.

File:2115.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''Centre Square and the Marble Works, Philadelphia'', 1811 – c. 1813.

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre Square'', 1812.

Image:0974.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, "Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore," 1813.

Image:0172.jpg|Susanna Heebner, ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0709.jpg|William Britton, ''Market Square, Germantown, Pennsylvania'', c. 1820.

Image:0157.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Washington City'', 1821.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:0616.jpg|John Warner Barber, "Western view of Washington Square, Salem," in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 225.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, "View of Hartford, CT. from the Deaf and Dumb Asylum," 1849.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

File:0057.jpg|James Eights, ''Church and Market Sts., Albany, 1805'', 1857–1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Square

2018-04-16T13:52:23Z

C-cole: /* History */

See also: [[Bed]], [[Common]], [[Green]], [[Park]], [[Quarter]]

==History==

[[File:0245.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 1, Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.]]

In landscape design vocabulary, the term square had three distinct usages derived from its definition as a geometric shape with four right angles and four equal sides. First, "square" referred to square- or rectangular-shaped [[bed]]s and cultivated areas and was often used to describe the divisions within [[nursery|nurseries]], [[kitchen garden]]s, and [[flower garden]]s. This usage was apparent in 1799 when John Latta described the [[flower garden]] at [[Mount Vernon]], and also in 1800 when the ''Federal Gazette'' noted [[Adrian Valeck's garden]] in Baltimore. Used in thissense, the term generally came to be subsumed under the wider terms "[[bed]]" and "[[plot]]" during the early nineteenth century. Second, the square represented a division of property within a city or town in a grid or orthogonal pattern, as reflected in descriptions of New Haven, Conn., by [[Rev. Manasseh Cutler]] (1787) and Jedidiah Morse (1789), and a report on Washington, D.C., by [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]] (1791). J.-P. Brissot de Warville in 1788 used both senses of the term in his description of the [[bed]]s in the [[State House Yard]] and the grid plan of the entire city of Philadelphia.

[[File:0462.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Samuel Vaughan]], "Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia," 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.]]

Third, and most significantly, square was used to denote a public space. An early and important example is [[William Penn|William Penn's]] 1683 plan for the city of Philadelphia, which broke from a strict grid to preserve public spaces, called squares, which would remain open for communal use. In 1734, Savannah, Ga., was laid out with reserved open squares around which building lots were arranged [Fig. 1]. Imported from European urban planning traditions, the open square was a feature in the settlements throughout the New World. Although Spanish, French, Dutch, and German colonies designated the spaces as ''plaza'', ''place d’arms'', ''platz'', and so forth, English-speaking visitors generally described these spaces as squares. <span id="Bartram_cite"></span>They even extended application of the term to Native American settlements, as attested by [[William Bartram|William Bartram's]] 1791 description of a town in Cuscowilla, Ga. ([[#Bartram|view citation]]). Furthermore, in the English colonies, writers often used the term "square" to refer to an area that elsewhere was described as a [[green]], [[yard]], or [[common]]. [[New Haven Green]], University of Virginia, and [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia are all examples of this broader application of the term.

[[File:0974.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Joseph Jacques Ramée, "Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore," 1813.]]

[[File:0412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.]]

Squares marked the termination of major streets and [[avenue]]s and provided visual focal points at intersections [Fig. 2]. <ref>For an in-depth treatment of early American squares, see John W. Reps, The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG view on Zotero,] and Carl Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” in Town and Square, from the Agora to the Village instruments of social reform. Green, ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 237–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero.]</ref> Urban squares were often the setting for monuments, as in Joseph Jacques Ramée's design
for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore)| Washington Monument]] in Baltimore
[Fig. 3], and for public buildings, such as
court houses, meeting houses, market
houses, and magazines. As [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant]] noted,
the [[statue]]s, [[column]]s, and [[obelisk]]s that
ornamented many squares not only commemorated
celebrated heroes of the past,
but also served as instructive examples to
the present generation of proper patriotic
behavior. Squares often became centers of
neighborhood or civic identity, as was the
case with Union Square in New York and Rittenhouse Square in Philadelphia. A 1704 resolution
of the House of Burgesses of Virginia
in Williamsburg suggested that the scale and
openness of squares were ideally suited to
position institutions of authority. As a result,
squares were used as sites for civic displays,
such as a parade of the Salem, Mass., regiment held in 1808. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] in 1800 indicated a square in his plan for a
military school, a space that could be used
for drilling and exercises, and that could be
kept easily under surveillance [Fig. 4].
[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]

[[File:0521.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[William Rush]], ''North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia'', 1824.]]

In addition to public squares, American
towns occasionally included smaller residential
versions of the same feature. Surrounded
by private houses and intended for
the recreation and enjoyment of immediate
residents, these often-gated residential
squares were included in the early plan of
Bloomsbury Square in Annapolis, Md., as
seen in James Stoddert's plan of 1718 [Fig. 5].
Similar residential squares, such as
Gramercy Square in New York and Louisburg Square in Boston, continued to be constructed throughout the period under study,
although they never reached the popularity
of their London counterparts developed
after the Great Fire of 1666. <ref> Feiss, "Early American Public Squares," 245, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

Both residential and public squares provided
a venue for garden or landscape design
within the city. Many squares were initially
grass lots, divided by [[walk]]s or paths, and
planted with trees in fairly simple configurations,
as at [[New Haven Green]]. In the nineteenth
century more elaborate designs
became common. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]]
1819 design for [[Place d’Armes]] (renamed Jackson
Square) in New Orleans [<span id="Fig_13_cite"></span>[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]], and
William Rush's 1824 plan for Franklin Public Square in Philadelphia [Fig. 6], exemplify the
inclusion of intricate [[walk]]s and planting [[bed]]s,
statuary, and ironwork [[fence]]s and [[gate]]s that
marked these squares as ornamental—clearly
intended for leisure and recreation and not as
pastures for cows or drilling militia. Of particular
note is the installation of [[fountain]]s made
possible by the introduction of pressurized
water systems. These [[fountain]]s set in public
squares and [[park]]s became prominent symbols
of civic achievement and pride.

An account of the improvements planned
for Richmond’s [[Capitol Square]] in 1851 conveys
the appeal of a "delightful resort" in a
growing urban center, typical of mid-
nineteenth-century public landscape design
projects. The attraction of these urban
cases, however, went beyond aesthetics.
Writers such as William A. Alcott (1838) and
[[Louisa C. Tuthill]] (1848) argued that the
healthful and moral benefits of these public
spaces should be available to all classes. The
opportunity that squares afforded for recreation, light, fresh air, and a mixing of the citizenry propelled these landscapes into instruments of social reform.

-- ''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===
[[File:0144.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Thomas Holme, "A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America," 1681.]]
*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], August 16, 1683, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Blome 1687: 110) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"There are also in each [[Quarter]] of the City, a '''Square''' of eight Acres to be for the like uses, as the ''Moor-fields'' in ''London''." [Fig. 7]

[[File:0882.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman's Plan), after 1800.]]
*House of Burgesses of Virginia, May 8, 1704, describing resolutions pertaining to construction in Williamsburg, Va. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

:"The House took into consideration the report of the Committee appointed to view the '''Square''' markt out belonging to the Capitol and after some time spent therein came to these resolutions following. Resolved. That the Public Prison be included within the Bounds appropriated to the Capitol and that the said bounds already ascertained for the said Capitol be continued from the main road just before the door of One of the Capitol houses to the extent of forty one poles to the Post on the West side of the spring, thence fourteen poles to the corner of the ditch, thence along the said Ditch thirty poles and a half to a post by the said Ditch and from thence to the beginning place." [Fig. 8]

*Ross, George, March 1, 1727, describing Newcastle, Del. (CWF)

:"In the middle of the Town lies a spacious [[green]] in form of a '''square''', in a corner whereof stood formerly a Fort &c."

*Prentis, Joseph, 1784, describing his garden in Williamsburg, Va. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 344) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zorero.]</ref>

:"sowed Pease in the '''Square''' next Chimney . . .Glory of England, sowed same Day in '''Square''' next Street."

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], February 12, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, Va. (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:89) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976-79), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places—viz.</p>
:<p>"2 Orange Burgamots in the No. Garden, under the back [[wall]]—3d. tree from the Green House at each end of it.</p>
:<p>"1 Burgamot at the Corner of the [[border]] in the South Garden just below the necessary.</p>
:<p>"2 St. Germians, one in each [[border]] (middle thereof) of the upper '''Square'''s by the Asparagas [[Bed]] & Artichoake Ditto upper bordr.</p>
:"3 Brown Beuries in the west '''square''' in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the [[border]] (middle thereof) next the [[Fall]] or [[terrace/slope|slope]]—the other two an the [[border]] above the [[walk]] next the old Stone [[Wall]]."

*[[Rev. Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Rev. Manasseh]], July 3, 1787, describing New Haven, Conn., and his plans for the Ohio Company (1987: 1:218, 330–31) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The city of New Haven covers a large piece of ground, a little descending toward the sea, with a southern aspect. It is laid out in regular '''square'''s, with a public '''square''' near the center. Its streets are tolerably wide, and some of them ornamented with rows of trees. There is a row of trees set round the public '''square''', which were small while I was at college, but are now large, and add much to its beauty; a row across the center has been very lately set out, in a line with the State House, two large Meeting Houses and the Grammar School. Within the '''square''', and on the [[border]]s of others adjoining, are six steeples and cupolas on public buildings, within a very small compass of ground.</p>
:"You will see, by the inclosed, that our ideas of streets, and the width of front lots, nearly correspond with yours. I am not, however, pleased with the size nor form of our '''squares'''. It is proposed that there should be nine lots on a side, and four at the end, which I think will have too much of the oblong. Were the ends increased, though, I should prefer an oblong to a '''square'''; the effect would be more pleasing to the eye, and not less convenient. The rear, which I think is now too scanty, might be increased, and the whole of the lots more uniform. The plan we have formed was, unavoidably, done in a hasty manner, without drawing it on paper, and will, I think, be somewhat altered. It is our intention to set rows of mulberry trees, immediately, on each side of the streets, at the distance of ten or fifteen feet from the line on which the houses are to be built. They will make an agreeable shade, increase the salubrity of the air, add to the beauty of the streets, and, what we have principally in view, afford food for an immense number of silk-worms."

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (1792: 316–17) <ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America, Performed in 1788'', ed. by Durand Echeverria, trans. by Maro S. Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Behind the State-house is a [[public garden]]; it is the only one that exists in Philadelphia. It is not large; but it is agreeable, and one may breathe in it. It is composed of a number of verdant '''squares''', intersected by [[alley]]s.</p>
:"All the space from Front-street on the Delaware to Front-street on the [[Skuylkill]], is already distributed into '''squares''' for streets and houses."

[[File:1010.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, James Wadsworth, "Plan of the City of New Haven," 1748.]]
*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing New Haven, Conn. (quoted in Morse 1970: 221)

:"The town was originally laid out in '''squares''' of sixty rods. Many of these '''squares''' have been divided by cross streets. . . . Near the centre of the city is the public '''square'''; on and around which are the public buildings. . . .The public '''square''' is encircled with rows of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful. Its beauty, however, is greatly diminished by the [[burial ground]], and several of the public buildings, which occupy a considerable part of it." [Fig. 9]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing an Indian town in Cuscowilla, Ga. (1928: 167–68) <ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Upon our arrival we repaired to the public '''square''' or council-house, where the chiefs and senators were already convened. . . .</p>
:"The banquet succeeded; the ribs and choicest fat pieces of the bullocks, excellently well barbecued, were brought into the apartment of the public '''square''', constructed and appointed for feasting."

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing [[Pleasant Hill]], seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, Mass. (1962: 1:264) <ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. . . . The '''Squares''' are decorated with Marble figures as large as life. No expense is spared to render the whole amusing, instructive, & friendly."

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], August 19, 1791 and January 4, 1792, describing his plans for Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 157, 165) <ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, D.C.: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The grand [[avenue]] connecting the palace and the Federal House will be magnificent . . . as also the several '''squares''' which are intended for the Judiciary Courts, the National Bank, the grand Church, the play house, markets and exchange, offering a variety of situations unparallelled for beauty, suitable for every purpose, and in every point convenient, calculated to command the highest price at a sale.</p>
:<p>"The '''Squares''' colored yellow, being fifteen in number, are proposed to be divided among the several States of the Union, for each of them to improve, or subscribe a sum additional to the value of the land; that purpose and the improvements around the '''Square''' to be completed in a limited time.</p>
:<p>"The center of each '''Square''' will admit of [[Statue]]s, [[Column]]s, [[Obelisk]]s, or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose counsels or Military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation, to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those sages, or heroes whom their country has thought proper to celebrate.</p>
:"The situation of these '''Squares''' is such that they are the most advantageously and reciprocally seen from each other and as equally distributed over the whole City district, and connected by spacious [[avenue]]s round the grand Federal Improvements and as contiguous to them, and at the same time as equally distant from each other, as circumstances would admit. The Settlements round those '''Squares''' must soon become connected." [Fig. 10]

*Tucker, St. George, May 28, 1795, describing Williamsburg, Va. (CWF)

:"Near the center of the town there is a pleasant '''square''' of about ten acres, which is generally covered with a delightful verdure."

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Newburyport, N.H., and Boston, Mass. (1821: 1:439, 489–91) <ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: The Author, 1821-22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHBP7TH2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The ground, on which the former church, belonging to the same congregation [Presbyterian], stood, was purchased for $8,000; and devoted for ever to the purpose of enlarging a small public '''square'''....</p>
:<p>"A handsome lot has been purchased by Moses Brown, Esq. in front of one of the churches, for $13,000; and appropriated for ever, as an open '''square''', to the use of the public; an act of liberality, which needs no comment.</p>
:<p>"Boston contains one hundred and thirty-five streets, twenty-one lanes, eighteen courts, and, it is said, a few '''squares''': although, I confess, I have never seen any thing in it, to which I should give that name. . . .</p>
:"It is remarkable, that the scheme of forming public '''squares''', so beautiful, and in great towns so conducive to health, should have been almost universally forgotten. Nothing is so cheerful, so delightful, or so susceptible of the combined elegancies of nature and art. On these open grounds the inhabitants might always find sweet air, charming [[walk]]s, [[fountain]]s refreshing the atmosphere, trees excluding the sun, and, together with fine flowering shrubs, presenting to the eye the most ornamental objects, found in the country. Here, also, youth and little children might enjoy those sports, those voluntary indulgences, which in fresh air, are, peculiarly to them, the sources of health and the prolongation of life. Yet many large cities are utterly destitute of these appendages; and in no city are they so numerous, as the taste for beauty, and a regard for health, compel us to wish."

*Latta, John, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, Va. (quoted in Martin 1991: 143) <ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The garden is very handsomely laid out in '''squares''' and flower knots and contains a great variety of trees, flowers and plants of foreign growth collected from almost every part of the world."

*Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing a Mr. Pratt's garden (exact location undetermined) (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801) <ref>Lewis Beebe, ''Lewis Beebe Journal, 1776-1801,'' [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/V2B6NEAQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Likewise the [[border]] of every '''square''' is impossible for me to describe. The remaining parts of each '''square''' within the [[border]], is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Betes, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuse, Radished, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles."

[[File:0669.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.]]
*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the [[estate of Adrian Valeck]], Baltimore, Md. (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136) <ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, "Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake," ''Journal of Garden History'', 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and '''squares''' bordered with [[espalier]]s, on which...the greatest variety of fruit trees, the choicest fruits from the best nurseries in this country and Europe have been attentively and successfully cultivated . . . Behind the garden in a [[grove]] and [[shrubbery]] or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc."

[[File:0001.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, George Ropes, ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.]]
*Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing Centre Square, Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 25–26) <ref>Joseph A. Scott, ''Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. . . . The water is discharged into a circular aqueduct, extending along Chestnut and Broad streets, into the middle of Market-street, in the centre '''square'''. . . . In the centre '''square''', upon Market-street, is a marble edifice, which receives the water from Schuylkill. It also contains a steam engine, which raises the water to a reservoir, whence it descends into wooden pipes, which convey it through the city. The building in the centre '''square''', is a '''square''' of sixty feet, with a Doric [[portico]] on the east and west fronts." [Fig. 11]

*Anonymous, October 15, 1808, describing Salem, Mass. (''Essex Register'')

:"On Wednesday last the Salem Regiment, the Cadets, the Artillery and the Cavalry, formed a line on Washington '''Square''', and were inspectedand reviewed by the proper officers. The appearance of the whole line was highly gratifying to the spectators. In the afternoon the imitation of battle was performed with spirit and precision; and very much to the satisfaction of the military men." [Fig. 12]

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, S.C. (1858: 128) <ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, S.C.: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"About the year 1755 Henry Laurens purchased a lot of four acres in Ansonborough, which is now called Laurens’s '''square''', and enriched it with everything useful and ornamental that Carolina produced or his extensive mercantile connections enabled him to procure from remote parts of the world. Among a variety of other curious productions, he introduced olives, capers, limes, ginger, guinea grass, the alpine strawberry, bearing nine months in the year, red raspberrys, blue grapes; and also directly from the south of France, apples, pears, and plums of fine kinds, and vines which bore abundantly of the choice white eating grape called Chasselates blancs. The whole was superintended with maternal care by Mrs. Elinor Laurens with the assistance of John Watson, a complete English gardener."

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing Princeton, N.J. (CWF)

:"In front of it [the College] is a very handsome green '''square''' of about four Acres, enclosed in a railing, & produces very fine herbage. It is attached to the College as a place of recreation & amusement for the students."

*Proceedings of the Corporation, December 10, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, N.Y. (quoted in Hosack 1811: 51) <ref>David A. Hosack, ''Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"that so long as the said grounds are continued as a [[botanic garden]], or as an open '''square''' for any other public use, the streets intersecting the same will not be required to be opened."

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the state capitol in Milledgeville, Ga. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:"[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House '''square''' and [[avenue]]s of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[Promenade|prominade]] [''sic'']."

*Anonymous, 1817, describing Savannah, Ga. (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 144) <ref name="Schwaab">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''Squares''' to the amount of 14 or 16 are judiciously interspersed through the town, relieving the monotony resulting from streets crossing each other at right angles, as those of this city do. Circular enclosures surround the centres of those '''squares''', which together with the side [[walk]]s, are planted with a number of similar ornamental trees."

*Anonymous, October 10, 1817, describing Richmond, Va. (''Richmond Enquirer'')

:"It was but in February, 1816, that the Act passed 'Establishing a Museum on part of the Public '''Square''', in the city of Richmond.' . . . And lo! the building is completed—an ornament to the Public '''Square''', and an ornament to the State which contains it."

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819. [[#Fig_13_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], January 13, 1819, describing New Orleans, La. (1951: 23) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818-1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The public '''square''', which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water [[view]] of the city. This '''square''' extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church." [Fig. 13]

*New Orleans City Council, January 16, 1819 (Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University)

:"the Mayor is authorized to have as many young willow trees planted along the length of the City Levee as he deems necessary, and to have a protection placed around them as to insure their growth; That the Mayor is furthermore authorized to have other trees planted in the Public '''Square''' to take the place of those that are missing."

*Anonymous, 1820, describing Memphis, Tenn. (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 179) <ref name="Schwaab"></ref>

:"The streets run to the cardinal points. They are wide and spacious, and, together with a number of [[alley]]s, afford a free and abundant circulation of air. There are, besides, four public '''squares''', in different parts of the town, and between the front lots and the river, is an ample vacant space, reserved as a [[promenade]]; all of which must contribute very much to the health and comfort of the place, as well as to its security and ornament."

*Anonymous, May 26, 1824, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, D.C. (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 132) <ref>Therese O’Malley, "Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C., 1791-1852" (unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJ3JTTJB view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1st. The water of Tiber Creek being thus conducted into the Capitol '''square''', will afford ample security against the progress of fire."

*[[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, N.J. (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814-1845'' (Wilmington, Del.: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“"Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large '''squares''' of Grass, with its neat white houses and little [[yard]]s in front filled with [[shrubbery]]."

[[File:1141_top.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835-40.]]
*[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa. (1832: 2:48–49) <ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Near this enclosure [at the State House] is another of much the same description, called Washington '''Square'''. Here there was an excellent crop of clover; but as the trees are numerous, and highly beautiful, and several commodious [[seat]]s are placed beneath their shade, it is, spite of the long grass, a very agreeable retreat from heat and dust. It was rarely, however, that I saw any of these [[seat]]s occupied; the Americans have either no leisure, or no inclination for those moments of ''delassement'' that all other people, I believe, indulge in. . . . it is nevertheless the nearest approach to a London '''square''' that is to be found in Philadelphia." [Fig. 14]

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Jacksonville, Ill. (1975: 357) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen Bryant II and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The village of Jacksonville is a remarkably moral place—more so than most villages in New England, and the people seem intelligent. It is a collection of mean little houses about a dirty '''square''', and is one of the ugliest and most unpleasant places I ever saw. It stands in the midst of a prairie and is without a tree, except some very little ones just planted—but these are not on the principal '''square'''."

[[File:1239.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 15, George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.]]
*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, La. (1:81–82) <ref name="Ingraham">Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"On the left and diagonally from the dwelling house we noticed a very neat, pretty village, containing about forty small snow-white cottages, all precisely alike, built around a pleasant '''square''', in the centre of which, was a [[grove]] or cluster of magnificent sycamores. Near by, suspended from a belfry, was the bell which called the slaves to and from their work and meals. This village was their residence, and under the shade of the trees in the centre of the '''square''', we could discern troops of little ebony urchins from the age of eight years downward, all too young to work in the field, at their play. . . ." [Fig. 15]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, La. (1:91) <ref name="Ingraham"></ref>

:<p>"Though the water, or shore-line, is very nearly semi-circular, the Levée-street, above mentioned, does not closely follow the shore, but is broken into two angles, from which the streets diverge as before mentioned. These streets are again intersected by others running parallel with the Levée-street, dividing the city into '''squares''', except where the perpendicular streets meet the angles, where necessarily the ‘'''squares'''’ are lessened in breadth at the extremity nearest the river, and occasionally form pentagons and parallelograms, with ''oblique'' sides, if I may so express it.</p>
:"After crossing Levée-street, we entered Rue St. Pierre, which issues from it south of the grand '''square'''. This '''square''' is an open [[green]], surrounded by a lofty iron railing, within which troops of boys, whose sports carried my thoughts away to ‘home sweet home,’ were playing, shouting and merry making."

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], November 1839, "Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass," describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, Mass. (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11)

:"The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a '''square'''. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the '''squares''' occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a [[hedge]].”

[[File:1809.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.]]
*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, N.Y. (1:38–39) <ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson '''Square''', the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington '''Square''', about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed." [Fig. 16]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, D.C. (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.) <ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the '''square''' which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick [[wall]] to serve as a shelter and to secure the various [[hothouse|hot houses]] and other buildings of an inferior character." [Fig. 17]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Philadelphia, Pa. (pp. 318–19) <ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"''Public'' '''''Squares'''''.—It is to the wise and liberal foresight of the great founder of Pennsylvania that we owe most of the public '''squares''' which now ornament our city. In the original plan, as laid out by Thomas Holmes, Penn’s surveyor general in 1682, there was to be a public '''square''' in the centre containing ten acres, and one in each [[quarter]] of the city containing eight acres. . . .</p>
:<p>"Washington '''square''', on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was for many years used as a public [[burial ground]] for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters’ field. . . . Its improvement as a public '''square''' commenced in 1815, when a variety of trees were planted, gravel [[walk]]s laid out, and other steps taken which have led to its present attractive appearance. It is intended to erect, in the centre of this '''square''',a monument to the memory of Washington; the cornerstone having been laid with due ceremony at the celebration of his birth day, on the 22nd of February, 1833.</p>
:<p>"Franklin '''square''' is on Sixth street between Race and Vine, being also laid out with gravel [[walk]]s and planted with trees, affording a public [[promenade]] equally agreeable with Washington '''square'''. A magnificent [[fountain]], surrounded by a marble [[basin]], has been constructed in the centre, supplied with water from the works at [[Fairmount]].</p>
:<p>"Logan '''square''' . . . and Rittenhouse '''square'''... are both enclosed and planted with trees, and promise in a few years to present an appearance similar to Washington and Franklin '''squares''', affording to the inhabitants of the western part of the city, cool and shady [[walk]]s of equal attraction to those now enjoyed in the eastern '''squares'''.</p>
:"Penn '''square''', at the intersection of Market and Broad streets, was, within the recollection of many now living, not a '''''square''''' but a ''circle'', having the street passing round it and enclosing the distributing reservoir of the city water works."

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 7, 1843, describing Savannah, Ga. (Clarke 1993: 2:154) <ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Savannah is beautifully laid out; its broad streets are thickly planted with the Pride of India, and its frequent open '''squares''' shaded with trees of various kinds."

[[File:1429.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp p. 87.]]
*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing Pittsfield, Mass. (pp. 87–88) <ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to the History and Antiquities of Every Town in Massachusetts, with Geographical Descriptions'' (Worcester, Mass.: Warren Lazell, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"There is a public '''square''' in the center, containing about four acres: in the center of this '''square''' is a large elm, which was left standing when the original forest was cleared away." [Fig. 18]

*[[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, describing the public '''squares''' in New York, N.Y., and Philadelphia, Pa. ([1848] 1988: 317, 319) <ref name="Tuthill">Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"The citizens of New York have at length become aware of the beauty and salubrity of public '''squares'''. St. John’s Park, Washington '''Square''', Union '''Square''', and several others in recently-built parts of the city, are tastefully ornamented with trees and [[shrubbery]], affording sweet green spots for the eye to rest upon, as a relief from the glare of brick [[wall]]s and dirty pavements.</p>
:"The public '''squares''' of Philadelphia, are incalculably important to the health of the city. Beneath the dense foliage of Washington '''Square''', crowds of merry children enjoy, unmolested, their healthful sports. Within the enclosure of Independence '''Square''', was first promulgated the Declaration of Independence. Franklin '''Square''' has in the centre a [[fountain]], falling into a handsome, white marble [[basin]]. Penn, Logan, and Rittenhouse '''Squares''' are also ornamental to the city."

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, describing West Chester, Pa. (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492–93) <ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public '''Square''', on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and [[shrubbery]]: And whereas it will be convenient and necessary to designate the said '''Square''' by some appropriate name: . . . That the public '''Square''', aforesaid, shall for ever hereafter be designated and known by the name of 'THE MARSHALL '''SQUARE'''.'"

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing [[John Notman|John Notman's]] plans for the [[Capitol Square]], Richmond, Va. (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162) <ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810-1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the '''Square''' itself on the western side thereof . . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument . . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and [[picturesque]] [[lawn]]s. . . .</p>
:<p>"The eastern portion of the '''square''' will likewise undergo considerable change—the rugged features will be materially softened down, a [[fountain]] and [[jet d’eau]] to correspond with those on the western side will be placed in the valley near the state courthouse. . . .</p>
:"The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the '''Square''', however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the '''Square''' a place of delightful resort."

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' ([1629] 1975: 5) <ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (Norwood, N.J.: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with '''squares''', knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure '''square''' parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge."

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th edn, 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al, 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"<p>[[piazza|PIAZZA]], in building, popularly called piache, an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].</p>
:"The word literally signifies a broad open place or '''square'''; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico|portico's]] around them."

[[File:1817.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1030, fig. 733.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 1029–30) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"7319. ''Public'' '''''squares''''', of such magnitude as to admit of being laid out in ample [[walk]]s, open and shady, are almost peculiar to Britain. The grand object is to get as extended a line of uninterrupted [[promenade]] as is possible within the given limits. A [[walk]] parallel to the boundary [[fence]], and at a short distance within it, evidently includes the maximum of extent; but if the enclosure is small, the rapid succession of angles and turns becomes extremely disagreeable, and continually breaks in upon the ''pas des promeneurs'', the conversation of a party, or individual contemplation. The angles, therefore, must be avoided, by ''rounding them off'' in a large '''square'''; in a small one, by forming the [[walk]] into a circle; and in a small parallelogram, by adopting an oval form. In laying out a large '''square'''. .. four objects ought to be kept in view. 1. Sufficient open space (''a''), both of lawn and [[walk]], so as the parents, looking from the windows of the houses which surround the '''square''', may not long at a time lose sight of their children: 2. An open [[walk]], exposed to the sun, for winter and spring (''b''): 3. A [[walk]] shaded by trees, but airy for summer (''c''): 4. Resting-places (''d''); and a centrical covered [[seat]] and retreat (''e''), which, being nearly equidistant from every point may be readily gained in case of a sudden shower, &c. The [[statue]]s of eminent public men are obvious and appropriate decorations for '''squares'''." [Fig. 19]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"'''SQUARE''', ''n''....</p>
:<p>"2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.</p>
:"The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large '''''square''''' of the town. ''Addison''."

*[[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (p. 1) <ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd edn (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"the centre part of the garden may be divided into '''squares''', on the sides of which a [[border]] may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c."

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, "Landscape Gardening" (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)

:"[[Fountain]]s are going out of use, though we think without sufficient reason. In more frequented grounds, such as public '''squares''' in towns, we think them particularly appropriate. We would not, however, propose even for these, such expensive [[fountain]]s as are frequently seen in Europe, where water is poured forth in immense volumes in marble [[basin]]s, amid tritons and sea horses, and cars. A single streak of water would be a more pleasing object."

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–42) <ref>William A. Alcott, "Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages," ''American Annals of Education'', 8 (August) (1838), 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and '''squares''' and public [[walk]]s; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which 'blow soft o’er Ceylon's isle;' or a few public '''squares''', remembrancers though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the 'city of brotherly love' shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . . .</p>
:"We wish to see not only spacious '''squares''' or [[common]]s interspersed with shade, if not with fruit trees, in every village and town and city, but we wish to see [[public garden]]s on an extensive scale. We wish to see these not only for health’s sake, and for the sake of their moral tone and tendency, but as a means of rational amusement—as a means of promoting the public cheerfulness, the public taste, and of consequence, the public happiness."

*[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], June 1, 1838, "The Kitchen Garden" (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 235)

:"In laying a [[Kitchen Garden]] out, it should be done in the most simple manner, both for convenience, and a correspondence of its utility. The most approved method is to have the garden so situated as to be in a '''square''' with the four points of the compass, viz: N. S. E. W., surrounded with either a boarded [[fence]] or brick [[wall]]. The ground will require to be divided into four or six '''squares''', according to its size, if no more than an acre or two, four will be sufficient; if larger, six will be requisite."

*[[Louisa C. Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C.]], 1848, ''History of Architecture'' ([1848] 1988: 317–20) <ref name="Tuthill"></ref>

:<p>"Every city should make ample provision for spacious public '''squares'''. Trees of every variety, shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, should decorate these grounds, and [[fountain]]s throw up their sparkling waters, contrasting their pure, white marble with the deep green foliage. Here, beneath the shaded [[walk]]s, the inhabitants might enjoy the sweet air, the children sport upon the fresh grass, and all be refreshed and cheered by the sight of beautiful natural objects. Here the young and the old might meet to ‘drive dull care away,’ and lose for a few brief moments the calculating, moneymaking plans that almost constantly usurp American thought and feeling. . . .</p>
:"Gardens and '''squares''' are so necessary to the health, as well as the enjoyment of those who are shut up in the close streets of a city, that it should be considered an imperative duty to provide them for all classes of the inhabitants. It may be urged, that if left open and free, the decorations would soon be destroyed by the populace; some few rude hands might occasionally make sad havoc among them, but when the people had once learnt how much such places of resort contributed to their health and pleasure, they would carefully protect them from injury."

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 154, 161, 231) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:<p>"It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public '''squares''' and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine [[avenue]]s of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . . .</p>
:<p>"In [[avenue]]s it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the '''square''' of the Statehouse, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . . .</p>
:"In New York and Philadelphia, the Ailantus is more generally known by the name of the ''Celestial tree'', and is much planted in the streets and public '''squares'''."

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0018.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan of Sperenza, N.Y. [detail], n.d.

Image:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman's Plan), after 1800.

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington (artist), William Fletcher Boogher (publisher), "A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia..." [detail], [1698] 1882.

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis, copy of James Stoddert's map of 1718, [1718] 1743.

Image:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), "A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne," 1731.

Image:0796.jpg|Nicholas Scull, ''To the mayor recorder aldermen common council and freemen of Philadelphia this plan of the improved part of the city....'', 1762.

Image:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, Plan of the city of New York, c. 1767.

Image:0884.jpg|Thomas Rodney, Plan of Dover, copy of Thomas Noxon’s original from 1740/41, 1768.

Image:0645.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Charles Town, Maryland, 1770.

Image:0462.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], "Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia," 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June-September 1787.

Image:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the ''modern'' Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

Image:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private "Habitation," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], "Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States...," August 1791.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, "Master Plan for Yale College" [detail], 1792.

Image:0802.jpg|A. P. Folie, "Plan of the town of Baltimore and it's environs," 1792.

Image:0973.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, "Plan of Tivoli Laid Out into Town Lots" [detail], 1795.

Image:0488.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), "A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America," 1797.

Image:0236.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "The Light Horseman," 1799.

Image:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman's Plan), c. 1800.

Image:0412.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.

Image:0871.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal, No. 1'', February 5, 1804, in John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (1967), fig. 17.

Image:2062.jpg|George E. Blake, ''Blake's Collection of Duetts for two Flutes, Clarinets, or Violins'', c. 1807.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, Washington Square, Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:1268.jpg|Amos Doolittle, "Plan of New Haven," 1817.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), p. 33, pl. 1.

Image:1240.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Project for the Principal Gates of the Public Square at New Orleans," c. March 1819.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, "North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia," 1824.

Image:1817.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1030, fig. 733.

Image:1267.jpg|Joseph Pilié, "Plan of the Front Part of the City of New Orleans Shewing the additions, alterations and improvements...," November 15, 1827.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, "Plan of Mount Auburn," November 1831.

Image:1141_top.jpg|Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835-40.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, "City of Washington," c. 1836.

Image:1856.jpg|Jeromes, Gilbert, Grant and Company, Shelf Clock, 1839-40.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), "Map of Washington Square, Philadelphia," 1843.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, "Mount Auburn Cemetery," in [[Cornelia W. Walter]], ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), J.A. Rolph (engraver), "View of the Central Square, Mount Auburn Cemetery," in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 61.

Image:0987.jpg|George Hayward, "Chatham Square, N.Y. 1812," 1864.

Image:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout's plan, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1996.jpg|Thomas Holme, "A Mapp of Ye Improved Part of Pensilvania in America, Divided into Countyes Townships and Lotts," c. 1687.

Image:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

Image:0867.jpg|Matthaeus Seutter, "Plan von neu Ebenezer," 1747.

Image:1010.jpg|James Wadsworth, "Plan of the City of New Haven," 1748.

Image:0905.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794–95.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794–95.

Image:0543.jpg|James Peale, ''Frederick Graff'', 1804.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem Common on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, "Mount Auburn," in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:1117.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, "The Gothic Church. (New Haven)," in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', Vol II (1840), pl. 6.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, "Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven," 1840.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1429.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp p. 87.

Image:0622.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), "Court Square in Springfield, Mass.," in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. p. 290.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), "Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York," c. 1845.

Image:0491.jpg|Edward Sachse, "Baltimore," 1850.

Image:1809.jpg|Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0144.jpg|Thomas Holme, "A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America," 1681.

Image:0798.jpg|John Montrésor, New York and its Environs to Greenwich, 1766.

Image:0286.jpg|Franz Xaver Habermann, "La destruction de la statue royale a Nouvelle Yorck," 1776.

Image:1424.jpg|James Thackara, "A View of the New Market from the Corner of Shippen & Second-streets Philada.," 1787, in ''The Columbian magazine, or, Monthly miscellany'' 2, no. 2 (February 1788): opp. p. 53.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0324.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Back of the State House, Philadelphia," 1799.

Image:0183.jpg|Anonymous, Court House Square, Warrenton, 1800.

File:2115.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''Centre Square and the Marble Works, Philadelphia'', 1811 – c. 1813.

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre Square'', 1812.

Image:0974.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, "Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore," 1813.

Image:0172.jpg|Susanna Heebner, ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . ." [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0709.jpg|William Britton, ''Market Square, Germantown, Pennsylvania'', c. 1820.

Image:0157.jpg|Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville, ''Washington City'', 1821.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:0616.jpg|John Warner Barber, "Western view of Washington Square, Salem," in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 225.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, "View of Hartford, CT. from the Deaf and Dumb Asylum," 1849.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

File:0057.jpg|James Eights, ''Church and Market Sts., Albany, 1805'', 1857–1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Avenue

2018-04-16T13:51:50Z

C-cole: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Alley]], [[Walk]]

==History==

[[File:0232.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden Grove, The Seat of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.]]
As <span id="Webster_cite"></span>[[Noah Webster|Noah Webster’s]] definition states, the word avenue signifies a passage and is rooted in the French word ''venir'' (L. ''vinio''), to come or go ([[#Webster|view text]]). In landscape design an avenue, which was typically planted with trees, varied in scale from a [[walk]] to a wide street. From [[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] 1712 description of Williamsburg, Virginia, to [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Nehemiah Adams’s]] 1842 account of [[Boston Common]], the avenue has figured prominently in the American designed landscape in a wide range of contexts. An avenue provided an approach to a house, as shown in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser’s]] painting of Golden Grove in South Carolina [Fig. 1]. It served as a public roadway suited to the monumental scale of a governor’s palace, a Native American [[mound]], or a domed capitol. Avenues were also common elements of gardens, public [[park]]s, and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], where they became popular settings for [[promenade]]s and elegant carriage drives.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''View of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:0147.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Door panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.]]

Treatises such as [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley’s]] ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728) and [[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) extolled the benefits of avenues and emphasized the importance of designing them in relative proportion to surrounding architecture. Images of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC [Fig. 2], and Thomas S. Sinclair’s plan of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] in Philadelphia [<span id="Fig_20_cite"></span>[[#Fig_20|See Fig. 20]]] illustrate the variety of American avenues from urban roadways to garden walkways, as well as their corresponding shifts in scale. One of the key characteristics distinguishing avenues from other circulation routes (such as the [[alley]], or path, and road, street, and [[walk]]) was their relative size. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M’Mahon]] noted in his 1806 treatise that avenues in gardens require “some spacious open space” ([[#MMahon|view text]]), and <span id="Ingraham_cite"></span>Joseph Holt Ingraham’s 1835 description of a plantation along the Mississippi River differentiated between the broad main avenue and the branching narrower [[walk]]s ([[#Ingraham|view text]]).

[[File:0106.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover” [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637–1743'' (1743).]]
[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]

The construction of avenues varied; descriptions mention surfaces of dirt, cobblestone, gravel, and brick. In 1829 the <span id="New_England_Farmer_cite"></span>''New England Farmer'' described an avenue in Albany, New York, as “McAdamized in the true English style" ([[#New_England_Farmer|view text]]). The planting of avenues also varied depending on their context. As <span id="Chambers_cite"></span>[[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers’s]] 1741–43 definition suggests, tree plantings were an essential element of an avenue, accentuating its scale and reinforcing its role in directing the gaze ([[#Chambers|view text]]). <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon]] similarly commented in 1806 on the relative merits of deciduous and evergreen trees for avenue plantings ([[#MMahon|view text]]). In the warmer climes, trees such as lemon, orange, live oak, and palm were planted along avenues, while in the mid-Atlantic poplar, cherry, lime [or linden], and cedar were popular choices. New England descriptions mention linden, larch, maple, elm, locust, and chestnut trees. <span id="Downing_1849_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing]] recommended elms, plane trees, horse chestnuts, maples, and tulip trees for avenues ([[#Downing_1849|view text]]). While the spreading branches, such as those described by <span id="Adams_1842_cite"></span> [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams]] on [[Boston Common]] in 1842 ([[#Adams_1842|view text]]), created “ancient shade” and alluded to Gothic architecture, tall narrow trees such as poplar and palm enhanced the straight vistas that avenues created. As <span id="Warden_cite"></span>David Bailie Warden complained of Washington, DC, in 1816, however, this vegetation offered little relief from the oppressive heat ([[#Warden|view text]]).
[[File:0031.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 6, Andrew Ellicott, “Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia,” 1795.]]

[[File:0025.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 7, Robert P. Smith, ''View of Washington'', c. 1850.]]

Avenues were typically planted with trees on both sides in single or double rows, although, as <span id="Deane_cite"></span>[[Samuel Deane]] (1790) noted, trees might also be planted on only one side ([[#Deane|view text]]). In contrast to straight rows of trees, <span id="Complete_Farmer_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] (1759) recommended planting avenues in clumps, or as ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769) identified them, “platoons,” of seven or nine trees grouped at intervals of 300 feet ([[#Complete_Farmer|view text]]). Clumped plantings were extolled further by <span id="Whately_cite"></span>[[Thomas Whately]], who advocated in 1770 that the “modern” winding avenue should be used as an approach to a house because it “commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective” ([[#Whately|view text]]). This style of winding avenues and clumped plantings was rarely employed in America until the 1830s and 1840s, when more naturalistic designs can be seen at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], and later in 1850 at Mrs. Pratt’s residence in Boston. One early exception was the redesign of the garden at [[Mount Vernon]] in the 1780s, in which [[George Washington|Washington]] used serpentine avenues for the approach to the house and planted [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] and [[wilderness|wildernesses]] in the bends of the roadway.<ref>Dennis J. Pogue, “Mount Vernon: Transformation of an Eighteenth-Century Plantation System,” in ''Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake'', ed. Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 101–14. Although Washington and J. P. Brissot de Warville referred to the roadways as “avenues,” other descriptions called them walks, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3EMQF6M/q/Pogue view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0410.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 8, Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795. “Avenue runs N.96E” is inscribed at the center of the drawing.]]

Despite [[Thomas Whately|Whately’s]] criticism that straight avenues have “a tedious sameness" and the buildings to which they are “appropriated . . . [are] seldom shewn to advantage,” most American descriptions praised the effect of tree-lined avenues in directing one’s view to a terminal point. <span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] 1847 discussion of “Avenue” explains how this effect is achieved as the avenue “cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the prospect to a narrow [[vista]]” ([[#Johnson|view text]]). <span id="Fithian_cite"></span> Such adjectives as “elegant,” “grand,” “noble,” and “handsome" were used repeatedly in descriptions of avenues framing a house, such as that at [[Nomini Hall]] in Westmoreland County, Virginia, which was described in 1774 by Philip Vickers Fithian ([[#Fithian|view text]]). The painted door panels of the Thaxter-Lincoln house in Hingham, Massachusetts [Fig. 3], illustrate this framing effect, as do <span id="Mason_cite"></span>John Mason’s recollections (c. 1830) of his father’s avenue at [[Gunston Hall]], Virginia, with its double rows of black heart cherry trees on either side ([[#Mason|view text]]). <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>Jean de La Quintinie (1693) described avenues as “more properly leading to the front of Houses” ([[#Quintinie|view text]]), and some of the earliest landscaping in Virginia was the construction of avenues aligned with houses’ central axes, as in <span id="Byrd_cite"></span>[[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] description of the [[Governor’s Palace]] at Williamsburg (1712) ([[#Byrd|view text]]), or seen on the 1701 plan of his own estate of [[Westover]] [Fig. 4].

[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]

Through the mid-19th century, travelers in the South admired plantation dwelling houses fronted by straight, shaded avenues arched with mature live oaks. It is also interesting to note that despite treatise writers' repeated assertions that avenues were becoming less fashionable, visitors continued to admire plantings of stately trees, and homeowners, such as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, still planted avenues in the 1840s. Their lasting visual appeal and the legacy of mature trees have made avenues an enduring element of American design despite shifts in gardening styles.

Urban avenues—created by designers such as Francis Nicholson in Williamsburg; in Annapolis [Fig. 5], and, possibly, in St. Mary’s City, Maryland; and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]—were direct imports of 18th-century urban design principles.<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965). For a discussion of the design of St. Mary’s City, Maryland, see Henry Miller, “Baroque Cities in the Wilderness: Archaeology and Urban Development in the Colonial Chesapeake,” ''Historical Archaeology'' 22, no. 2 (1988): 57–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/Reps view on Zotero]</ref> <span id="Twining_cite"></span>Thomas Twining’s 1796 account of Washington in the early stages of construction detailed how, from the avenues clear cut through the [[woods]], he knew he was in a “metropolitan city” ([[#Twining|view text]]). <span id="Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite"></span>The imagery of avenues cut through America’s abundant woodlands as a sign of advancing civilization was echoed as late as 1844 in a report about Rochester, New York, in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' ([[#Magazine_of_Horticulture|view text]]). The width and unbroken length in American avenues were not only reminiscent of European models, but the feature also carried the same connotations of authority, monumentality, and status. Such a form, which did not deviate for any obstacle, suggested enormous resources and power. The convergence of avenues on a single point, as with the [[U.S. Capitol]] depicted in Robert P. Smith’s 1850 [[view]] of Washington, DC [Fig. 7], reinforced the centrality of the monument and the authority that it represented by controlling both sight lines and movement within the urban fabric. Whether a visiting diplomat, a parading soldier, or protesting citizen, those who experienced the broad swath of Pennsylvania Avenue leading to the domed capitol had no doubt as to the central authority of the city and the nation that it represented. The scale of avenues also made them suited for larger landscape designs of institutional grounds, where they provided shaded walkways and directed views toward significant structures. Examples include the plan for the University of North Carolina of 1795 [Fig. 8] and the plan for the [[University of Michigan]] of 1838 [Fig. 9].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*<div id="Byrd"></div>[[William Byrd II|Byrd, William, II]], February 2, 1712, describing a visit to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation), [[#Byrd_cite|back up to history]]
:“About 11 o’clock I went to see the Governor’s '''avenue''' and his great house which pleased him.”

*Anonymous, 1737, describing in the ''Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia'' the proposed improvements to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Ordered that there be paid to Mr. Philip Finch the sum of ten pounds for laying and planting the '''Avenue''' to the Governors House.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref> Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I . . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the '''Avenue''' that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Callender Sansom, Hannah]], June 30, 1762, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river. . . . one '''avenue''' gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Contemporary Observer [pseud.], 1767, describing the William Trent House, Trenton, NJ (quoted in Dillon 1987b: 145B)<ref>Clarissa F. Dillon, "‘A Large, an Useful, and a Grateful Field’: Eighteenth-Century Kitchen Gardens in Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Uses of the Plants, and Their Place in Women’s Work” (PhD diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJASV475/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“a genteel brick dwelling house . . . with a large handsome staircase and entry . . . a large handsome '''avenue''' of English cherry trees.”

*Finlay, Hugh, January 2, 1774, describing a journey through South Carolina (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“. . . now and then we see a swamp, consequently a rice [[plantation]] . . . we came sometimes to '''avenues''' leading from the high road terminated by a farm houses at a quarter, half and sometimes three quarters of a mile distant.”

*<div id="Fithian"></div>Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108–9),<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Fithian_cite|back up to history]]
:“Due East of the Great House are two Rows of tall, flourishing, beautiful, Poplars, beginning on a Line drawn from the School to the Wash-House; these Rows are something wider than the House, & are about 300 yards Long, at the Eastermost end of which is the great Road. . . . These Rows of Poplars form an extremely pleasant '''avenue''', & at the Road, through them, the House appears most romantic, at the same time that it does truly elegant.”

*Anonymous, 1778, describing in the ''South Carolina and American General Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>
:“Magnolia or Laurels fit for '''Avenues''' . . . any height from three feet to twenty.”

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], March 21, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:106)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ed., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Staked up the largest of my Trees in the '''avenues''' and [[Wilderness]] and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1792: 427–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . . On this rout traverse a considerable [[wood]], and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grassplats; on one side of the '''avenue''' are the stables, on the other a [[greenhouse|green-house]], and houses for a number of negro mechanics.”

[[File:1815.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, GA, in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.]]
*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1789, describing Mount Royal near Lake George, GA (1853: 57–58)<ref>William Bartram, “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 1789, with Prefatory and Supplementary Notes by E.G. Squier,” ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', 3, part 1 (1853): 1–81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CWNCZI8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Fig. 6, is a perspective plan of this great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', the latter leading off to an expansive savanna or natural [[meadow]]. A, the [[mound]], about forty feet in perpendicular height; B, the highway leading from the [[mound]] in a straight line to the [[pond]] C, about a half mile distant. What may have been the motive for making this pond I cannot conjecture, since they are situated close to the banks of the river San Juan. It could not, therefore, be for the conveniency of water. Perhaps they raised the [[mound]] with the earth taken out of the [[pond]]. The sketch of the [[mound]] also illustrates the character of the [[mound]]s in the Cherokee country; but the last have not the highway or '''avenue''', and are always accompanied by vast square [[terrace]]s, placed upon one side or the other. On the other hand, we never see the square [[terrace]]s accompanying the high [[mound]]s of East Florida.” [Fig. 10]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a residence on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 71–72)<ref name="Bartram_1928">[[William Bartram]], ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Following an old highway, now out of repair, across the Savanna, I ascended the sloping [[green]] bank, and entered a noble forest of lofty pines, and then a venerable [[grove]] of Live Oaks, under whose shady spreading boughs opened a spacious '''avenue''', leading to the former [[seat]] of general Oglethorpe, but now the property of capt. Raimond Demere. . . .</p>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a view of the inlet. A cool area surrounded the low but convenient buildings, from whence, through the [[grove|groves]], was a spacious '''avenue''' into the island, terminated by a large savanna; each side of the '''avenue''' was lined with [[bee-hives]], to the number of fifty or sixty; they seemed to be well peopled, and exhibited a lively image of a colony that has attained to a state of power and affluence, by the practice of virtue and industry.”

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing [[Lake George]], GA (1928: 101, 104)<ref name="Bartram_1928"/>
:<p>“From this place we enjoyed a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the great Lake George, through a grand '''avenue''', if I may so term this narrow reach of the river, which widens gradually for about two miles, towards its entrance into the [[lake]], so as to elude the exact rules of perspective, and appears of an equal width. . . .</p>

:“On the site of this ancient town, stands a very pompous Indian [[mount]], or conical pyramid of earth, from which runs in a straight line a grand '''avenue''' or Indian highway, through a magnificent [[grove]] of magnolias, live oaks, palms, and orange trees, terminating at the verge of a large green level savanna.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, in a report to [[George Washington]] describing L’Enfant’s plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950">H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[I] made the distribution regular with streets at right angle north-south and east west but afterwards I opened others on various directions as '''avenues''' to and from every principal places, wishing by this not merely to contrast with the general regularity nor to afford a greater variety of pleasant [[seat]]s and [[prospect]] as will be obtained from the advantageous ground over the which the '''avenues''' are mostly directed but principally to connect each part of the city with more efficacy by, if I may so express, making the real distance less from place to place in menaging on them a reisprocity of sight and making them thus seemingly connected promot a rapide stellement over the whole.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ,” 1791.]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City” describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 163–65)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950"/>
:<p>“II. Lines or '''Avenues''' of direct communication have been devised, to connect the separate and most distant objects with the principal, and to preserve through the whole a reciprocity of sight at the same time. Attention has been paid to the passing of those leading '''avenues''' over the most favorable ground for [[prospect]] and convenience. . . .</p>

:<p>“Every Grand transverse '''Avenue''', and every principal divergent one, such as the communication from the President’s House to the Congress House etc. are 160 feet in breadth and thus divided:</p>

::10 feet of pavement on each side . . . . . . 20

::30 feet of gravel [[walk]] planted

::with trees on each side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

::80 feet in the middle for carriage way . . . 80

::::<p>160 feet. . . .</p>

:<p>“H. Grand '''Avenue''', 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a [[terrace/slope|slope]] from the houses on each side. This '''Avenue''' leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the</p>

:<p>“I. President’s [[park]] and the</p>

:“K. well-improved field.” [Fig. 11]

*Bailey, Francis, 1796, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1965: 257)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The truth is, that not much more than one-half the city is ''cleared'':—the rest is ''in [[woods]]''; and most of the streets which are laid out are cut through these [[wood]]s, and have a much more pleasing effect now than I think they will have when they shall be built; for ''now'' they appear like broad '''avenues''' in a [[park]], bounded on each side by thick [[wood]]s; and their being so many of them, and proceeding in so many various directions, they have a certain wild, yet uniform and regular appearance, which they will lose when confined on each side by brick [[wall]]s.”

*<div id="Twining"></div>Twining, Thomas, April 27, 1796, describing Washington, DC (1894: 100–2)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Twining_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“After some time this indistinct way assumed more the appearance of a regular '''avenue''', the trees here having been cut down in a straight line. Although no habitation of any kind was visible, I had no doubt but I was now riding along one of the streets of the metropolitan city. I continued in this spacious '''avenue''' for half a mile, and then came out upon . . . the centre of the city. . . . Looking from where I now stood I saw on every side a thick [[wood]] pierced with '''avenues''' in a more or less perfect state . . . all the '''avenues''' converged to that point.”

*Davis, John, 1798–1802, describing Ocean Plantation, property of Thomas Drayton, Jasper County, SC (quoted in Jones 1957: 79)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To form an idea of Ocean Plantation, let the reader picture to his imagination an '''avenue''' of several miles, leading from the Savannah road, through a continued forest, to a wooden-house, encompassed by rice-grounds, corn and cotton fields.”

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the Capitol in Milledgeville, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"/>
:“[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House square and '''avenues''' of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[promenade|prominade]] [''sic''].”

*<div id="Warden"></div>Warden, David Bailie] 1816, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 100),<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Warden_cite|back up to history]]
:“It is deeply to be regretted that the government or corporation did not employ some means for the preservation of the trees which grew on places destined for the public [[walk]]s. How agreeable would have been their shade along the Pennsylvania '''Avenue''' where the dust so often annoys, and the summer sun, reflected from the sandy soil, is so oppressive. The Lombardy poplar, which now supplies their place, serves more for ornament than shelter.”

*Anonymous, 1825, describing South Carolina (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 184)<ref name="Schwaab_1973">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many of the country [[seat]]s of the rich planters are elegant; the beautiful '''avenues''' of live-oak, which lead from the road to the doors of the mansions tend to give a grand and beautiful effect to the whole.”

*S., J. W., September 1829, describing [[André Parmentier’s horticultural and botanical garden]], Brooklyn, NY (quoted in ''Gardener’s Magazine'', 8: 2)
:“To the left of the garden, an '''avenue''' leads to a rustic [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss.”

*<div id="New_England_Farmer"></div>Anonymous, September 4, 1829, “Country Seats Near New York,” describing a farm near Albany, NY (''New England Farmer'' 8: 53), [[#New_England_Farmer_cite|back up to history]]
:“An '''avenue''', ''McAdamized'' in the true [[English style]], leads through a rich and extensive [[lawn]] to the mansion, which is finely shaded with aged elms, locust and chestnut.”

*[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing New York, NY, in ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 2:158)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From hence [the battery] commences the splendid Broadway, as the fine '''avenue''' is called, which runs through the whole city.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Several native lime trees (Tilia Americana and Tilia Europaea) are planted along the '''avenue''', exhibiting a remarkable difference in appearance; the first retaining its foliage in full vigour until the 15th of October, whilst the latter sheds its leaves as early as the 10th of August, and some years even in July.”

*<div id="Mason"></div>Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing [[Gunston Hall]], seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98),<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mason_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive [[lawn]] kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious '''avenue''', girded by long double ranges of that hardy and stately cherry tree, the common black heart, raised from the stone, and so the more fair and uniform in their growth, commencing at about two hundred feet from the house and extending thence for about twelve hundred feet; the carriage way being in the centre and the footways on either side, between the two rows, forming each a double range of trees, and under their shade.</p>
:“But what was remarkable and most imposing in this '''avenue''' was that the four rows of trees being to be so alligned as to counteract that deception in our vision which, in looking down long parallel lines makes them seem to approach as they recede; advantage was taken of the circumstance and another very pleasant delusion was effected. A common centre was established exactly in the middle of the outer doorway of the mansion, on that front, from which were made to diverge at a certain angle the four lines on which these trees were planted, the [[plantation]] not commencing but at a considerable distance therefrom (about two hundred feet as before mentioned) and so carefully and accurately had they been planted, and trained and dressed in accordance with the other, as they progressed in their growth, that from the point described as taken for the common centre, and when they had got to a great size, only the first four trees were visible.”

[[File:0598.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, Alexander Wadsworth, Plan of Mount Auburn Cemetery, November 1831.]]
*Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1831: 29)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds of the [[Cemetery]] have been laid out with intersecting '''avenues''', so as to render every part of the [[wood]] accessible. These '''avenues''' are curved and variously winding in their course, so as to be adapted to the natural inequalities of the surface. By this arrangement, the greatest economy of the land is produced, combining at the same time the [[picturesque]] effect of [[landscape gardening]]. Over the more level portions, the '''avenues''' are made twenty feet wide, and are suitable for carriage roads.” [Fig. 12]

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 47)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As the tract which has been solemnly consecrated, by religious ceremonies, as a burial-place forever, is so abundantly covered with forest trees, many of which are more than sixty years old, it only requires the '''avenues''' to be formed . . . to put the grounds in a sufficiently complete state for the uses designed, and to render them at once beautiful and interesting.”

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 76)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach from the main road leading to Watertown, was by a broad and umbrageous '''avenue''' to the foot of the hill, which closes the dale of consecration on the north. . . . In the rear, under the shade of a stately [[grove]] of walnuts, where the main '''avenue''' divides and gracefully sweeps round the lofty hills to the east and west, the company [attending the consecration] descended from their carriages, and entered the secluded and romantic silvan theatre, by two foot paths, which wound through lonely vales of arching verdure.”

*Legare, John, 1833, describing southern Georgia (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 254)<ref name="Schwaab_1973"/>
:“We were much pleased with the construction and arrangement of the negro houses, they are built on parallel rows, facing each other, and extending some distance, forming a wide '''avenue''' or street, which if we recollect aright, is planted throughout with trees. In the rear of the houses are the small gardens and hen houses of the occupants.”

*<div id="Ingraham"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1:230–31)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ingraham_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column|columns]] and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose [[fence]]s were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence situated at the head of a broad, gravelled '''avenue''', bordered by lemon and orange trees, forming in the heat of summer, by arching naturally overhead, a cool and shady [[promenade]]. We drew up at the massive [[gateway|gate-way]] and alighted. . . .</p>

:“From this point [around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the [[piazza]] of the dwelling] the main '''avenue''' branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering shrubs, completely encircled the cottage.”

*[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], February 1, 1836, “Gardens, Hothouses, &c., in the vicinity of Boston,” describing [[Bellmont Place]], residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding '''avenue''' through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first view of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

[[File:1431.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.]]
*MacDonald, James, October 1839, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the view, the extent of the grounds, the various '''avenues''' gracefully winding through so large a [[lawn]]; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of landscape gardening.” [Fig. 13]

*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], c. 1841, describing the proposed Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, in a letter to Robert Dale Owen (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990">Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Three spacious '''avenues''' (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting [[vista]]s.”

[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, [[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Mall,” 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing a design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990"/>
:“The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed building for the [[Smithsonian Institution|Institution]]; the adjacent streets and '''avenues''' are also shown, with the line of the [[Canal]] which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island.” [Fig. 14]

*<div id="Adams_1842"></div>[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 14–15)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Adams_1842_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The trees on the eastern side of the [[Boston Common|Common]]. . . . The [[walk]] through their ancient shade is not surpassed in interest by any place of public resort, it is not too much to say, in this or any land. When their limbs are bare, a perspective [[view]] of them gives as good a representation of Gothic architecture as man ever copied. . . . It requires no history to show the most unpractised eye that Gothic architecture was borrowed from such places as the '''avenue''' under those arching elms.”

*W., February 1842, “An Account of [[Lowell Cemetery]],” Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)
:<p>“Of the architectural department there is much to admire. One of the '''avenues''', called "Washington '''Avenue''',” embraces a circuit round the ground, and the whole extent of [[drive]] is a mile and a half.</p>

:“Directly opposite the [[gateway]], and winding along the side of a natural ridge, leading to the chapel, is "Fenelon '''Avenue'''.” From the chapel, the '''avenues''' diverge, one extending along the central parts, and intersects with others at right angles: these '''avenues''', for the most part, are bordered by fine forest trees, of a variety of kinds and sizes.”

[[Image:0548.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 15, Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.]]
*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, & c.,” describing the [[U.S. Capitol]], Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)
:<p>“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an [[eminence]] which commands a fine view of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad '''avenues''' of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol. The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania '''Avenue''', where the grounds form a semicircle, of which the '''avenue''' is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular [[terrace]]. . . .</p>

:“The grounds on the other side, or east front, form nearly a [[square]], laid out with two '''avenues''' through the centre, and a broad [[walk]] running round the whole, with a belt of trees, which forms the boundary line. On each side of the centre '''avenues''' rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass [[lawn]]s which intervene between the centre and outer [[walk]]s, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrubbery|shrubs]], dahlias, and other flowers.” [Fig. 15]

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. Fanny Longfellow described a “linden avenue . . . [which] runs along the northern boundry.”]]
*Longfellow, Fanny, c. 1844, describing the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', vol. 1 (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“They [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Alexander W. Longfellow] contrived together to plant a linden '''avenue''' in which my poet intends to pace in his old age, and compose under its shade, resigning to me all the serpentine [[walk]]s, where, in the abstraction of inspiration, he might endanger his precious head against a tree. This runs along the northern boundary, and it is to be hoped will be useful, moreover, in screening us from any unsightly buildings Mr. Wyeth may adorn his grounds with.” [Fig. 16]

*<div id="Magazine_of_Horticulture"></div>B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17), [[#Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite|back up to history]]
:“[[Flower garden|Flower gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] are no longer objects of amazement; '''avenues''' of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

[[File:1077.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[James Smillie]], “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''[[Green]]-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.]]
*[[Nehemiah Cleaveland|Cleaveland, Nehemiah]], 1847, describing [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], Brooklyn, NY (1847: iii, v)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''[[Green]]-Wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Its numerous '''avenues''' furnish a long and delightful drive, presenting, continually, scenes of varied beauty.</p>

:“'''Avenues''' have been opened through every part of the ground, and converted, at great expense, into broad and durable carriage-roads.” [Fig. 17]

[[File:1063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, James Smillie, “Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.]]
*Walter, Cornelia W., 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1850 [1847]: 14)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“The '''avenues''' are winding in their course and exceedingly beautiful in their gentle circuits, adapted picturesquely to the inequalities of the surface of the ground, and producing charming landscape effects from this natural arrangement, such as could never be had from straightness or regularity. . . .</p>

:“The [[gateway]] of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]] opend from what is known as the north boundary line of the Cemetery. This '''avenue''' forms a wide carriage-road, and is one of the most beautiful openings ever improved for such a purpose. With the exception of the necessary grading, levelling, and cutting done of the brushwood, and the planting of a few trees, it has been left as Nature has made it. On either side it is overshadowed by the foliage of forest-trees, firs, pines, and other evergreens; and here you first begin to see the monuments starting up from the surrounding verdure, like bright remembrances from the heart of earth.” [Fig. 18]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 45)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the east it [the natural boundary of the estate] touches the post road. Here is the entrance [[gate]], and from it leads a long and stately '''avenue''' of trees, like the approach to an old French chateau. Halfway up its length, the lines of planted trees give place to a tall [[wood]], and this again is succeeded by the [[lawn]], which opens in all its stately dignity, with increased effect, after the deeper shadows of this vestibule-like [[wood]].”

[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[John Notman]], ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 143)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have not named on the plan the roads or '''avenues''', as it is common to do, after trees and plants, such as Elm '''Avenue''', Magnolia '''Avenue''' and so on; this has been done at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], and I think in [[Green-wood Cemetery|Green-Wood]] and also Greenmount Cemeteries; but would suggest that they be called after the name of the first person who shall erect a handsome monument or family tomb, or to whom such shall be erected.” [Fig. 19]

<div id="Fig_20"></div>[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 20, Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): n.p. [[#Fig_20_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)
:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer park|deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine [[grove]] of large trees, several detached [[clump]]s of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in '''avenues''' along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The [[grove]]s are fitted up with [[seat]]s and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them.” [Fig. 20]

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (Autumn 1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion . . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar—the most admired of all trees in the palmy days of old Virginia—and this row reached to another double row or '''avenue''' which skirted one side of the [[lawn]], dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing the residence of Mrs. Pratt, near Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 53)
:“The house is approached by a very beautiful drive, winding gracefully through the trees, forming a sort of serpentine '''avenue''', after the Reptonian fashion.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 444)
:“The approach from the [[gate]], on reaching this [[conservatory]], diverges east and west at right angles. That on the left entering an '''avenue''' of maples, about thirty feet high, and hung to the very ground with branches, so that their stems are entirely hidden by the umbrageous foliage. This '''avenue''' runs through the [[nursery]], about a quarter mile in length. . . . This extremity of the '''avenue''' opens on another broad street to the city, and forms another entrance to the grounds. Nothing can exceed the beauty of this '''avenue'''; and I am astonished that the landed proprietors of this country do not take the example which is here given them, and adorn their demesnes with '''avenues''' like this. But they like better to cut down '''avenues''' here than to plant them. To tell you the truth, I have never seen anything so grand as this in the middle of a [[nursery]], either here or in England.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing a residence in Cambridge, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 462)
:“The main '''avenue''' has been planted with a row of fine Scotch larch, on each side, and the effect, when they get well established, will be excellent.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Wilton, property of Joseph Turner, near Philadelphia (1857: 2:478)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many [[statue]]s of fine marble [sold from a Spanish prize] were distributed through the grounds and '''avenues'''.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia (1857: 2:479)<ref name="Watson_1857"/>
:“In the rear were '''avenues''' of stately cedars—some few still remaining; and in the front was a charmingly graceful descending [[green]] [[lawn]], gradually sloping down to Vine street.”

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.),<ref>La Quintinie, Jean de, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''''Avenues''''', are certain [[alley|Allies]] or [[Walk]]s in Gardens larger than ordinary, but more properly leading to the front of Houses, which are commonly accompanied with two Bye-[[Walk]]s, commonly call’d Counter-[[Walk]]s, which are both Bordered with great Trees, either ''Elms'', ''Linden Trees'', or ''Oaks'', and sometimes Standard Fruit-Trees.”

*[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .</p>

:<p>“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of '''Avenues''' to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.</p>

:“The entire Breadth of every '''Avenue''' should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand [[Walk]], must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-[[Walk]]s on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of '''Avenues''' fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand [[Walk]] be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*<div id="Chambers"></div>[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.),<ref>[[Ephraim Chambers]], ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences...'', 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Chambers_cite|back up to hiscussion]]
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', in gardening, is a [[walk]], planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE.</p>

:“All '''''avenues''''', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an '''''avenue''''' to an house, whatever the length of the [[walk]] is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better.”

*[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Avenues''' are [[walk]]s of trees leading to a house, and are generally terminated by some distant object. There were formerly much more in request than at present, there being a few old [[seat]]s in the country that had one or more of these '''avenues'''. . . . Whenever the situation of a house will admit of a large open [[lawn]] in front, the road to the house should be carried round at a proper distance; and if it be carried sometimes through trees, and serpented in an easy natural way, it will be much more beautiful than any stiff formal '''avenue'''.”

*<div id="Complete_Farmer"></div>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.),<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Complete_Farmer_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', a [[walk]] planted on each side with trees, leading to an house, [[wood]], &c. . . .</p>

:“The old method of planting '''avenues''' was with regular rows of trees, and this has been always kept till of late; but we have now a much more magnificent way of planting '''avenues''': this is by setting the trees in [[clump]]s or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the [[clump]]s of trees about three hundred feet distant from one other. In each of these [[clump]]s there should be planted either seven or nine trees; but it is to be observed, that this is only to be practised where the '''avenue''' is to be of some considerable length, for, in short [[walk]]s, this will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The '''avenues''' made by [[clump]]s are fittest of all for [[park]]s. . . . ''Miller’s Gard. Dict.''"

*<div id="Whately"></div>[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138–40),<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Whately_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“in the ''approach'' . . . the idea of a [[seat]] is thereby extended to a distance; but that may be done by other means than by an '''avenue''' . . . if the entrance only be marked, simple preservation will retain the impression along the whole progress; or it may wind through several scenes distinguished by objects, or by an extraordinary degree of cultivation; and then the length of the way, and the variety of improvements through which it is conducted, may extend the appearance of domaine, and the idea of a [[seat]], beyond the reach of any direct '''avenue'''.</p>

:“An '''avenue''' being confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great, it must be dull; and the object to which it is appropriated, is after all seldom shewn to advantage. Buildings, in general, do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful, when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular station, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective: but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections . . . but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]].”

*<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 116–17)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“[[GROVE]]. . . .</p>

:“In other situations [[grove]]s of larger trees are preferred. Lanes and '''avenues''' leading to mansion houses and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both sides: If only on one, it should be the southermost, on account of the advantage of shade. Such trees are best, the limbs of which are not apt to be low.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:119–20)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Avenues''''' are now seldom planted, but when they are, two good rows of ''elms'', ''limes'', ''chestnuts'', &c., should be set at the width of the house, at full thirty feet distance in the rows; to thicken which, intermediate plants may be set; and also an inner row, to be removed when the principal trees are full grown. '''''Avenues''''' to [[prospect]]s, should be fifty or sixty feet wide.”

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 63),<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“The planting in [[grove]]s and '''avenues''' should consist principally of the tree kind, and such as are of straight and handsome growth, with the most branchy, full, regular heads, and may be both of the deciduous and ever-[[green]] tribes; but generally arranged separately. . . .</p>

:“As to '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, '''avenues''' and grass walks, planted with fine ever-[[green]] trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the '''avenue''', though sometimes grand [[walk]]s of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s, at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

[[File:1186.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 21, [[J. C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a–f.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon]], ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6813. ''With respect to the disposition of the trees within the [[plantation]]'', they may be placed regularly in rows, squares, parallelograms, or quincunx; irregularly in the manner of groups; without undergrowths, as in ''[[grove]]s''. . .with undergrowths, as in ''[[woods]]''. . .all undergrowths, as in ''copse-[[woods]]''. . .Or they may form ''[[avenue]]s'' (''fig''. 630. ''a''); double [[avenue]]s (''b''); [[avenue]]s intersecting in the manner of a Greek cross (''c''); of a martyr’s cross (''d''); of a star (''e'') or of a cross patée, or duck’s foot (''patée d’oye'') (''f'').” [Fig. 21]

*<div id="Webster"></div>[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>[[Noah Webster]], ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Webster_cite|back up to discussion]]
:<p>“'''AV'ENUE''', ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]</p>

:<p>“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.</p>

:<p>“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc.''</p>

:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.”

*Cook, Zebedee, Jr., 1830, ''An Address, Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1830: 22)<ref>Zebedee Cook Jr., ''An Address, Pronounced before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: Isaac R. Butts, 1830), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RJ7KE496 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The gravelling of garden '''avenues''' may be dispensed with. The ordinary soil levelled, and laid smooth with the roller, will present an agreeable surface with less labor and cost than the former.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)
:<p>“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for '''avenues''' or large [[lawn]]s, or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . . .</p>

:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for [[lawn]]s or '''avenues''', &c.”

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)
:“When it is required to intersect the [[lawn]] in front, this had better be done by a sunken '''avenue''' with grass banks, so that the extent of grass presented to the eye offers an unbroken surface.”

*[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1838, ''The [[Boston Common]]'' (1838: 21–22)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and [[park]]s, and '''avenues''', and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

*Franklin Farmer, 1 April 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 138)
:“Where there is but a [[lawn]] in front of the house, the farmer should plant an '''avenue''' of trees.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)
:“For the borders of main '''avenues''', or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 73–74),<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''AVENUE''', is a road bordered by trees on each side, and being, as observed by Whately, confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great it must be dull, and the object to which it is appropriated is after all seldom shown to advantage. Buildings in general do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular situation, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both in perspective; but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections, it may besides be brought up to the house without disturbing any of the views from it, but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]]. A mere line of perspective, be the extent what it may, will seldom compensate for the loss of that space which it divides, and of the parts which it conceals. These kind of walks were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present: where they are to be made, the common elm answers very well for the purpose in most grounds, except such as are very wet and shallow, and preferred to most other trees, because it bears cutting, heading, or lopping in any manner. The rough Dutch elm is approved by some because of its quick growth, and it is a tree that will not only bear removing very well, but that is [[green]] in the spring almost as soon as any plant whatever, and continues so equally long. It makes an incomparable [[hedge]], and is preferable to all other trees for lofty [[espalier]]s. The lime is very useful on account of its regular growth and fine shade, and the horse-chestnut is proper for such places as are not too much exposed to rough winds. The common chestnut does very well in a good soil, or on warm gravels, as it rises to a considerable height, when planted somewhat close; but when it stands singly it is rather inclined to spread than grow tall. The beech naturally grows well with us in its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for '''avenues''' than others, because it does not bear transplanting well. The abele [white poplar] may also be employed for this use, as it is adapted to almost any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom fails in transplanting, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. The oak is but seldom used for '''avenues''', because of its slow growth; it would, however, compensate by its permanence and beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, oriental and native buttonwood are all well adapted to the purpose.”

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 22, Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.]]
*<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 63, 95, 154, 161, 182, 193, 257)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“. . . to level ground naturally uneven, or to make an '''avenue''', by planting rows of trees on each side of a broad [[walk]], requires only the simplest perception of the beauty of mathematical forms, so, to lay out a garden in the [[geometric style]], became little more than a formal routine, and it was only after the superior interest of a more natural manner was enforced by men of genius, that natural beauty of expression was recognised, and [[Landscape Gardening]] was raised to the rank of a fine art. . . . [Fig. 22]</p>
:<p>“And as the '''''Avenue''''', or the straight line, is the leading form in the geometric arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest [[park]]—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles [[square]], is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[woods]]. . . .</p>
:<p>“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public [[square]]s and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine '''avenues''' of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . . .</p>
:<p>“In '''avenues''' it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the [[square]] of the State-house, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . . .</p>
:<p>“When handsome '''avenues''' or straight lines are wanted, the Horse-chestnut is again admirably suited, from its symmetry and regularity. . . .</p>
:<p>“It is unnecessary for us to recommend this tree [the maple] for '''avenues''', or for bordering the streets of cities, as its general prevalence in such places sufficiently indicates its acknowledged claims for beauty, shade, and shelter. . . .</p>
:“Where there is a taste for '''avenues''', the Tulip tree ought by all means to be employed, as it makes a most magnificent overarching canopy of verdure, supported on trunks almost architectural in their symmetry.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ,” 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792.

Image:0410.jpg|Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795.

Image:0181.jpg|Nicholas King, Section of Thomas Jefferson’s Design for “Pennsylvania Avenue,” 1803.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.

Image:1157.jpg|Jacques-Gerard Milbert (artist), Formentin (printer of plates), ''State of New-York. Mc.Comb’s Bridge Avenue'', c. 1819.

Image:0030.jpg|Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute’s [[plot]] for a [[botanical garden]] on the [[Washington Mall|Mall]], 1820.

Image:0039.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822.

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the Washington Canal,” 1831.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, “City of Washington,” c. 1836.

Image:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the [[Washington Mall|Mall]],” 1841.

Image:1085.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Bay-Side Avenue, Fern Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 42.

Image:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

Image:1513.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance Avenue,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 5 (November 1847), p. 233, fig. 33.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.

Image:1074.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “Central Avenue, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” The Naval Monument, in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 22.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], “Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington,” 1851.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], N. Michler (copied by), “Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington.” Manuscript copy of Andrew Jackson Downing’s plan for the [[Washington Mall|Mall]] of 1851, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington (artist), William Fletcher Boogher (publisher),“A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn, together with the streets & lotts bounding them. Drawn this 23d day of the 12th month 1698 by Edward Penington, Surv. Genll” [detail], 1882 [1698].

Image:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:1815.jpg|[[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, Georgia, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.

Image:0905.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794–95.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804.

Image:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''View of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1186.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a–f.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834), p. 9.

Image:1234.jpg|John Vanderlyn, ''George Washington'', 1834.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], “A [[green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'', (1839), p. 85.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', Vol II (1840), pl. 26.

Image:0548.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.

Image:1304.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Entrance to [[Mount Auburn Cemetery"]] in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 361.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1088.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Indian Mound,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 19.

Image:1087.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay-Grove Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 26.

Image:1080.jpg|James Smillie, “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 61.

Image:1089.jpg|James Smillie (artist), W. W. Rice (engraver), “Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''The Rural [[Cemetery|Cemeteries]] of America'' (1855 [1847]), opp. p. 8.

Image:1076.jpg|James Smillie, “Entrance to the [[Cemetery]]” [detail], in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), title page.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “View of the Central [[Square]], [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 61.

Image:1135.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Hollywood [[Cemetery]],” 1848.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): n.p.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''View of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''View of Washington'', 1852.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0147.jpg|Anonymous, Door Panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:1386.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:1387.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

Image:0106.jpg|Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover" [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637-1743'' (1743).

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].

Image:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the Commons'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0146.JPG|Winthrop Chandler, ''Homestead of General Timothy Ruggles, Hardwick, Massachusetts'', c. 1770–75.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0243.jpg|Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken, ''A View of Salem in N. Carolina—1787'', 1787.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792, in ''Folk Art'' 22, no. 3 (Fall 1997), p. 48.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753–1824)'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg[William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder'' (Mary Stoughton Sloss), 1793.

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794–95.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, “A View of New Orleans taken from the plantation of Marigny,” November 1803.

Image:0507.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of the Same'', [[Ashley Hall]], 1803.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Salem Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0232.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden Grove, The Seat of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.

Image:0876.jpg|Anonymous, View of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0094.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Mary Fairbanks'', c. 1815.

Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c. 1814–20.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “View of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1431.jpg[Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), “Washington,” in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'' Vol. II (1834), opp. p. 222.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt, (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:0960.jpg[John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842), p. 22, fig. 8.

Image:1301.jpg|John Warner Barber, “South-west view in Ipswich, (central part.),” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 192.

Image:1437.jpg|C. Bachman, ''New York'', c. 1848.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill, ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Avenue

2018-04-16T13:51:18Z

C-cole: /* History */

See also: [[Alley]], [[Walk]]

==History==

[[File:0232.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden Grove, The Seat of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.]]
As <span id="Webster_cite"></span>[[Noah Webster|Noah Webster’s]] definition states, the word avenue signifies a passage and is rooted in the French word ''venir'' (L. ''vinio''), to come or go ([[#Webster|view text]]). In landscape design an avenue, which was typically planted with trees, varied in scale from a [[walk]] to a wide street. From [[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] 1712 description of Williamsburg, Virginia, to [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Nehemiah Adams’s]] 1842 account of [[Boston Common]], the avenue has figured prominently in the American designed landscape in a wide range of contexts. An avenue provided an approach to a house, as shown in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser’s]] painting of Golden Grove in South Carolina [Fig. 1]. It served as a public roadway suited to the monumental scale of a governor’s palace, a Native American [[mound]], or a domed capitol. Avenues were also common elements of gardens, public [[park]]s, and [[cemetery|cemeteries]], where they became popular settings for [[promenade]]s and elegant carriage drives.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''View of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:0147.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Door panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.]]

Treatises such as [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley’s]] ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728) and [[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) extolled the benefits of avenues and emphasized the importance of designing them in relative proportion to surrounding architecture. Images of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC [Fig. 2], and Thomas S. Sinclair’s plan of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] in Philadelphia [<span id="Fig_20_cite"></span>[[#Fig_20|See Fig. 20]]] illustrate the variety of American avenues from urban roadways to garden walkways, as well as their corresponding shifts in scale. One of the key characteristics distinguishing avenues from other circulation routes (such as the [[alley]], or path, and road, street, and [[walk]]) was their relative size. <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M’Mahon]] noted in his 1806 treatise that avenues in gardens require “some spacious open space” ([[#MMahon|view text]]), and <span id="Ingraham_cite"></span>Joseph Holt Ingraham’s 1835 description of a plantation along the Mississippi River differentiated between the broad main avenue and the branching narrower [[walk]]s ([[#Ingraham|view text]]).

[[File:0106.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 4, Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover” [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637–1743'' (1743).]]
[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]

The construction of avenues varied; descriptions mention surfaces of dirt, cobblestone, gravel, and brick. In 1829 the <span id="New_England_Farmer_cite"></span>''New England Farmer'' described an avenue in Albany, New York, as “McAdamized in the true English style" ([[#New_England_Farmer|view text]]). The planting of avenues also varied depending on their context. As <span id="Chambers_cite"></span>[[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers’s]] 1741–43 definition suggests, tree plantings were an essential element of an avenue, accentuating its scale and reinforcing its role in directing the gaze ([[#Chambers|view text]]). <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon]] similarly commented in 1806 on the relative merits of deciduous and evergreen trees for avenue plantings ([[#MMahon|view text]]). In the warmer climes, trees such as lemon, orange, live oak, and palm were planted along avenues, while in the mid-Atlantic poplar, cherry, lime [or linden], and cedar were popular choices. New England descriptions mention linden, larch, maple, elm, locust, and chestnut trees. <span id="Downing_1849_cite"></span>[[A. J. Downing]] recommended elms, plane trees, horse chestnuts, maples, and tulip trees for avenues ([[#Downing_1849|view text]]). While the spreading branches, such as those described by <span id="Adams_1842_cite"></span> [[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams]] on [[Boston Common]] in 1842 ([[#Adams_1842|view text]]), created “ancient shade” and alluded to Gothic architecture, tall narrow trees such as poplar and palm enhanced the straight vistas that avenues created. As <span id="Warden_cite"></span>David Bailie Warden complained of Washington, DC, in 1816, however, this vegetation offered little relief from the oppressive heat ([[#Warden|view text]]).
[[File:0031.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 6, Andrew Ellicott, “Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia,” 1795.]]

[[File:0025.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 7, Robert P. Smith, ''View of Washington'', c. 1850.]]

Avenues were typically planted with trees on both sides in single or double rows, although, as <span id="Deane_cite"></span>[[Samuel Deane]] (1790) noted, trees might also be planted on only one side ([[#Deane|view text]]). In contrast to straight rows of trees, <span id="Complete_Farmer_cite"></span>[[Philip Miller]] (1759) recommended planting avenues in clumps, or as ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769) identified them, “platoons,” of seven or nine trees grouped at intervals of 300 feet ([[#Complete_Farmer|view text]]). Clumped plantings were extolled further by <span id="Whately_cite"></span>[[Thomas Whately]], who advocated in 1770 that the “modern” winding avenue should be used as an approach to a house because it “commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective” ([[#Whately|view text]]). This style of winding avenues and clumped plantings was rarely employed in America until the 1830s and 1840s, when more naturalistic designs can be seen at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], and later in 1850 at Mrs. Pratt’s residence in Boston. One early exception was the redesign of the garden at [[Mount Vernon]] in the 1780s, in which [[George Washington|Washington]] used serpentine avenues for the approach to the house and planted [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] and [[wilderness|wildernesses]] in the bends of the roadway.<ref>Dennis J. Pogue, “Mount Vernon: Transformation of an Eighteenth-Century Plantation System,” in ''Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake'', ed. Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 101–14. Although Washington and J. P. Brissot de Warville referred to the roadways as “avenues,” other descriptions called them walks, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3EMQF6M/q/Pogue view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0410.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 8, Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795. “Avenue runs N.96E” is inscribed at the center of the drawing.]]

Despite [[Thomas Whately|Whately’s]] criticism that straight avenues have “a tedious sameness" and the buildings to which they are “appropriated . . . [are] seldom shewn to advantage,” most American descriptions praised the effect of tree-lined avenues in directing one’s view to a terminal point. <span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[George William Johnson|George William Johnson’s]] 1847 discussion of “Avenue” explains how this effect is achieved as the avenue “cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the prospect to a narrow [[vista]]” ([[#Johnson|view text]]). <span id="Fithian_cite"></span> Such adjectives as “elegant,” “grand,” “noble,” and “handsome" were used repeatedly in descriptions of avenues framing a house, such as that at [[Nomini Hall]] in Westmoreland County, Virginia, which was described in 1774 by Philip Vickers Fithian ([[#Fithian|view text]]). The painted door panels of the Thaxter-Lincoln house in Hingham, Massachusetts [Fig. 3], illustrate this framing effect, as do <span id="Mason_cite"></span>John Mason’s recollections (c. 1830) of his father’s avenue at [[Gunston Hall]], Virginia, with its double rows of black heart cherry trees on either side ([[#Mason|view text]]). <span id="Quintinie_cite"></span>Jean de La Quintinie (1693) described avenues as “more properly leading to the front of Houses” ([[#Quintinie|view text]]), and some of the earliest landscaping in Virginia was the construction of avenues aligned with houses’ central axes, as in <span id="Byrd_cite"></span>[[William Byrd II|William Byrd II’s]] description of the [[Governor’s Palace]] at Williamsburg (1712) ([[#Byrd|view text]]), or seen on the 1701 plan of his own estate of [[Westover]] [Fig. 4].

[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]

Through the mid-19th century, travelers in the South admired plantation dwelling houses fronted by straight, shaded avenues arched with mature live oaks. It is also interesting to note that despite treatise writers' repeated assertions that avenues were becoming less fashionable, visitors continued to admire plantings of stately trees, and homeowners, such as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, still planted avenues in the 1840s. Their lasting visual appeal and the legacy of mature trees have made avenues an enduring element of American design despite shifts in gardening styles.

Urban avenues—created by designers such as Francis Nicholson in Williamsburg; in Annapolis [Fig. 5], and, possibly, in St. Mary’s City, Maryland; and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]—were direct imports of 18th-century urban design principles.<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965). For a discussion of the design of St. Mary’s City, Maryland, see Henry Miller, “Baroque Cities in the Wilderness: Archaeology and Urban Development in the Colonial Chesapeake,” ''Historical Archaeology'' 22, no. 2 (1988): 57–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/q/Reps view on Zotero]</ref> <span id="Twining_cite"></span>Thomas Twining’s 1796 account of Washington in the early stages of construction detailed how, from the avenues clear cut through the [[woods]], he knew he was in a “metropolitan city” ([[#Twining|view text]]). <span id="Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite"></span>The imagery of avenues cut through America’s abundant woodlands as a sign of advancing civilization was echoed as late as 1844 in a report about Rochester, New York, in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' ([[#Magazine_of_Horticulture|view text]]). The width and unbroken length in American avenues were not only reminiscent of European models, but the feature also carried the same connotations of authority, monumentality, and status. Such a form, which did not deviate for any obstacle, suggested enormous resources and power. The convergence of avenues on a single point, as with the [[U.S. Capitol]] depicted in Robert P. Smith’s 1850 [[view]] of Washington, DC [Fig. 7], reinforced the centrality of the monument and the authority that it represented by controlling both sight lines and movement within the urban fabric. Whether a visiting diplomat, a parading soldier, or protesting citizen, those who experienced the broad swath of Pennsylvania Avenue leading to the domed capitol had no doubt as to the central authority of the city and the nation that it represented. The scale of avenues also made them suited for larger landscape designs of institutional grounds, where they provided shaded walkways and directed views toward significant structures. Examples include the plan for the University of North Carolina of 1795 [Fig. 8] and the plan for the [[University of Michigan]] of 1838 [Fig. 9].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*<div id="Byrd"></div>[[William Byrd II|Byrd, William, II]], February 2, 1712, describing a visit to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation), [[#Byrd_cite|back up to history]]
:“About 11 o’clock I went to see the Governor’s '''avenue''' and his great house which pleased him.”

*Anonymous, 1737, describing in the ''Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial Virginia'' the proposed improvements to the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Ordered that there be paid to Mr. Philip Finch the sum of ten pounds for laying and planting the '''Avenue''' to the Governors House.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], 1743, in a letter to Miss Bartlett, describing Charleston, SC (1972: 62)<ref> Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I . . . cant say one word on the other [[seat]]s I saw in this ramble, except the Count’s large double row of Oaks on each side the '''Avenue''' that leads to the house—which seemed designed by nature for pious meditation and friendly converse.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Callender Sansom, Hannah]], June 30, 1762, describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river. . . . one '''avenue''' gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Contemporary Observer [pseud.], 1767, describing the William Trent House, Trenton, NJ (quoted in Dillon 1987b: 145B)<ref>Clarissa F. Dillon, "‘A Large, an Useful, and a Grateful Field’: Eighteenth-Century Kitchen Gardens in Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Uses of the Plants, and Their Place in Women’s Work” (PhD diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJASV475/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“a genteel brick dwelling house . . . with a large handsome staircase and entry . . . a large handsome '''avenue''' of English cherry trees.”

*Finlay, Hugh, January 2, 1774, describing a journey through South Carolina (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“. . . now and then we see a swamp, consequently a rice [[plantation]] . . . we came sometimes to '''avenues''' leading from the high road terminated by a farm houses at a quarter, half and sometimes three quarters of a mile distant.”

*<div id="Fithian"></div>Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108–9),<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Fithian_cite|back up to history]]
:“Due East of the Great House are two Rows of tall, flourishing, beautiful, Poplars, beginning on a Line drawn from the School to the Wash-House; these Rows are something wider than the House, & are about 300 yards Long, at the Eastermost end of which is the great Road. . . . These Rows of Poplars form an extremely pleasant '''avenue''', & at the Road, through them, the House appears most romantic, at the same time that it does truly elegant.”

*Anonymous, 1778, describing in the ''South Carolina and American General Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 15)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"></ref>
:“Magnolia or Laurels fit for '''Avenues''' . . . any height from three feet to twenty.”

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], March 21, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:106)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ed., ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Staked up the largest of my Trees in the '''avenues''' and [[Wilderness]] and [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]] to day, which from the softness of the ground & impression made on them by the Wind were leaning.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1792: 427–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I hastened to arrive at [[Mount Vernon]]. . . . On this rout traverse a considerable [[wood]], and after having passed over two hills, you discover a country house of an elegant and majestic simplicity. It is preceded by grassplats; on one side of the '''avenue''' are the stables, on the other a [[greenhouse|green-house]], and houses for a number of negro mechanics.”

[[File:1815.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, GA, in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.]]
*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1789, describing Mount Royal near Lake George, GA (1853: 57–58)<ref>William Bartram, “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 1789, with Prefatory and Supplementary Notes by E.G. Squier,” ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', 3, part 1 (1853): 1–81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CWNCZI8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Fig. 6, is a perspective plan of this great [[mound]] and its '''avenues''', the latter leading off to an expansive savanna or natural [[meadow]]. A, the [[mound]], about forty feet in perpendicular height; B, the highway leading from the [[mound]] in a straight line to the [[pond]] C, about a half mile distant. What may have been the motive for making this pond I cannot conjecture, since they are situated close to the banks of the river San Juan. It could not, therefore, be for the conveniency of water. Perhaps they raised the [[mound]] with the earth taken out of the [[pond]]. The sketch of the [[mound]] also illustrates the character of the [[mound]]s in the Cherokee country; but the last have not the highway or '''avenue''', and are always accompanied by vast square [[terrace]]s, placed upon one side or the other. On the other hand, we never see the square [[terrace]]s accompanying the high [[mound]]s of East Florida.” [Fig. 10]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a residence on St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 71–72)<ref name="Bartram_1928">[[William Bartram]], ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Following an old highway, now out of repair, across the Savanna, I ascended the sloping [[green]] bank, and entered a noble forest of lofty pines, and then a venerable [[grove]] of Live Oaks, under whose shady spreading boughs opened a spacious '''avenue''', leading to the former [[seat]] of general Oglethorpe, but now the property of capt. Raimond Demere. . . .</p>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a view of the inlet. A cool area surrounded the low but convenient buildings, from whence, through the [[grove|groves]], was a spacious '''avenue''' into the island, terminated by a large savanna; each side of the '''avenue''' was lined with [[bee-hives]], to the number of fifty or sixty; they seemed to be well peopled, and exhibited a lively image of a colony that has attained to a state of power and affluence, by the practice of virtue and industry.”

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing [[Lake George]], GA (1928: 101, 104)<ref name="Bartram_1928"/>
:<p>“From this place we enjoyed a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the great Lake George, through a grand '''avenue''', if I may so term this narrow reach of the river, which widens gradually for about two miles, towards its entrance into the [[lake]], so as to elude the exact rules of perspective, and appears of an equal width. . . .</p>

:“On the site of this ancient town, stands a very pompous Indian [[mount]], or conical pyramid of earth, from which runs in a straight line a grand '''avenue''' or Indian highway, through a magnificent [[grove]] of magnolias, live oaks, palms, and orange trees, terminating at the verge of a large green level savanna.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, in a report to [[George Washington]] describing L’Enfant’s plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 151)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950">H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[I] made the distribution regular with streets at right angle north-south and east west but afterwards I opened others on various directions as '''avenues''' to and from every principal places, wishing by this not merely to contrast with the general regularity nor to afford a greater variety of pleasant [[seat]]s and [[prospect]] as will be obtained from the advantageous ground over the which the '''avenues''' are mostly directed but principally to connect each part of the city with more efficacy by, if I may so express, making the real distance less from place to place in menaging on them a reisprocity of sight and making them thus seemingly connected promot a rapide stellement over the whole.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ,” 1791.]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, from notes on “Plan of the City” describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 163–65)<ref name="Caemmerer_1950"/>
:<p>“II. Lines or '''Avenues''' of direct communication have been devised, to connect the separate and most distant objects with the principal, and to preserve through the whole a reciprocity of sight at the same time. Attention has been paid to the passing of those leading '''avenues''' over the most favorable ground for [[prospect]] and convenience. . . .</p>

:<p>“Every Grand transverse '''Avenue''', and every principal divergent one, such as the communication from the President’s House to the Congress House etc. are 160 feet in breadth and thus divided:</p>

::10 feet of pavement on each side . . . . . . 20

::30 feet of gravel [[walk]] planted

::with trees on each side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

::80 feet in the middle for carriage way . . . 80

::::<p>160 feet. . . .</p>

:<p>“H. Grand '''Avenue''', 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a [[terrace/slope|slope]] from the houses on each side. This '''Avenue''' leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the</p>

:<p>“I. President’s [[park]] and the</p>

:“K. well-improved field.” [Fig. 11]

*Bailey, Francis, 1796, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1965: 257)<ref>John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG/ view on Zotero]</ref>
:“The truth is, that not much more than one-half the city is ''cleared'':—the rest is ''in [[woods]]''; and most of the streets which are laid out are cut through these [[wood]]s, and have a much more pleasing effect now than I think they will have when they shall be built; for ''now'' they appear like broad '''avenues''' in a [[park]], bounded on each side by thick [[wood]]s; and their being so many of them, and proceeding in so many various directions, they have a certain wild, yet uniform and regular appearance, which they will lose when confined on each side by brick [[wall]]s.”

*<div id="Twining"></div>Twining, Thomas, April 27, 1796, describing Washington, DC (1894: 100–2)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Twining_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“After some time this indistinct way assumed more the appearance of a regular '''avenue''', the trees here having been cut down in a straight line. Although no habitation of any kind was visible, I had no doubt but I was now riding along one of the streets of the metropolitan city. I continued in this spacious '''avenue''' for half a mile, and then came out upon . . . the centre of the city. . . . Looking from where I now stood I saw on every side a thick [[wood]] pierced with '''avenues''' in a more or less perfect state . . . all the '''avenues''' converged to that point.”

*Davis, John, 1798–1802, describing Ocean Plantation, property of Thomas Drayton, Jasper County, SC (quoted in Jones 1957: 79)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To form an idea of Ocean Plantation, let the reader picture to his imagination an '''avenue''' of several miles, leading from the Savannah road, through a continued forest, to a wooden-house, encompassed by rice-grounds, corn and cotton fields.”

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the Capitol in Milledgeville, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292)<ref name="Lounsbury_1994"/>
:“[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House square and '''avenues''' of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[promenade|prominade]] [''sic''].”

*<div id="Warden"></div>Warden, David Bailie] 1816, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 100),<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Warden_cite|back up to history]]
:“It is deeply to be regretted that the government or corporation did not employ some means for the preservation of the trees which grew on places destined for the public [[walk]]s. How agreeable would have been their shade along the Pennsylvania '''Avenue''' where the dust so often annoys, and the summer sun, reflected from the sandy soil, is so oppressive. The Lombardy poplar, which now supplies their place, serves more for ornament than shelter.”

*Anonymous, 1825, describing South Carolina (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 184)<ref name="Schwaab_1973">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many of the country [[seat]]s of the rich planters are elegant; the beautiful '''avenues''' of live-oak, which lead from the road to the doors of the mansions tend to give a grand and beautiful effect to the whole.”

*S., J. W., September 1829, describing [[André Parmentier’s horticultural and botanical garden]], Brooklyn, NY (quoted in ''Gardener’s Magazine'', 8: 2)
:“To the left of the garden, an '''avenue''' leads to a rustic [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss.”

*<div id="New_England_Farmer"></div>Anonymous, September 4, 1829, “Country Seats Near New York,” describing a farm near Albany, NY (''New England Farmer'' 8: 53), [[#New_England_Farmer_cite|back up to history]]
:“An '''avenue''', ''McAdamized'' in the true [[English style]], leads through a rich and extensive [[lawn]] to the mansion, which is finely shaded with aged elms, locust and chestnut.”

*[[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing New York, NY, in ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 2:158)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From hence [the battery] commences the splendid Broadway, as the fine '''avenue''' is called, which runs through the whole city.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Several native lime trees (Tilia Americana and Tilia Europaea) are planted along the '''avenue''', exhibiting a remarkable difference in appearance; the first retaining its foliage in full vigour until the 15th of October, whilst the latter sheds its leaves as early as the 10th of August, and some years even in July.”

*<div id="Mason"></div>Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing [[Gunston Hall]], seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98),<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mason_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive [[lawn]] kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious '''avenue''', girded by long double ranges of that hardy and stately cherry tree, the common black heart, raised from the stone, and so the more fair and uniform in their growth, commencing at about two hundred feet from the house and extending thence for about twelve hundred feet; the carriage way being in the centre and the footways on either side, between the two rows, forming each a double range of trees, and under their shade.</p>
:“But what was remarkable and most imposing in this '''avenue''' was that the four rows of trees being to be so alligned as to counteract that deception in our vision which, in looking down long parallel lines makes them seem to approach as they recede; advantage was taken of the circumstance and another very pleasant delusion was effected. A common centre was established exactly in the middle of the outer doorway of the mansion, on that front, from which were made to diverge at a certain angle the four lines on which these trees were planted, the [[plantation]] not commencing but at a considerable distance therefrom (about two hundred feet as before mentioned) and so carefully and accurately had they been planted, and trained and dressed in accordance with the other, as they progressed in their growth, that from the point described as taken for the common centre, and when they had got to a great size, only the first four trees were visible.”

[[File:0598.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, Alexander Wadsworth, Plan of Mount Auburn Cemetery, November 1831.]]
*Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1831: 29)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds of the [[Cemetery]] have been laid out with intersecting '''avenues''', so as to render every part of the [[wood]] accessible. These '''avenues''' are curved and variously winding in their course, so as to be adapted to the natural inequalities of the surface. By this arrangement, the greatest economy of the land is produced, combining at the same time the [[picturesque]] effect of [[landscape gardening]]. Over the more level portions, the '''avenues''' are made twenty feet wide, and are suitable for carriage roads.” [Fig. 12]

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 47)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As the tract which has been solemnly consecrated, by religious ceremonies, as a burial-place forever, is so abundantly covered with forest trees, many of which are more than sixty years old, it only requires the '''avenues''' to be formed . . . to put the grounds in a sufficiently complete state for the uses designed, and to render them at once beautiful and interesting.”

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 76)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach from the main road leading to Watertown, was by a broad and umbrageous '''avenue''' to the foot of the hill, which closes the dale of consecration on the north. . . . In the rear, under the shade of a stately [[grove]] of walnuts, where the main '''avenue''' divides and gracefully sweeps round the lofty hills to the east and west, the company [attending the consecration] descended from their carriages, and entered the secluded and romantic silvan theatre, by two foot paths, which wound through lonely vales of arching verdure.”

*Legare, John, 1833, describing southern Georgia (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 254)<ref name="Schwaab_1973"/>
:“We were much pleased with the construction and arrangement of the negro houses, they are built on parallel rows, facing each other, and extending some distance, forming a wide '''avenue''' or street, which if we recollect aright, is planted throughout with trees. In the rear of the houses are the small gardens and hen houses of the occupants.”

*<div id="Ingraham"></div>Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1:230–31)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-west'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Ingraham_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column|columns]] and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose [[fence]]s were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence situated at the head of a broad, gravelled '''avenue''', bordered by lemon and orange trees, forming in the heat of summer, by arching naturally overhead, a cool and shady [[promenade]]. We drew up at the massive [[gateway|gate-way]] and alighted. . . .</p>

:“From this point [around the semi-circular flight of steps, ascending to the [[piazza]] of the dwelling] the main '''avenue''' branches to the right and left, into narrower, yet not less beautiful [[walk]]s, which, lined with evergreen and flowering shrubs, completely encircled the cottage.”

*[[Joseph Breck|Breck, Joseph]], February 1, 1836, “Gardens, Hothouses, &c., in the vicinity of Boston,” describing [[Bellmont Place]], residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding '''avenue''' through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first view of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

[[File:1431.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.]]
*MacDonald, James, October 1839, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the view, the extent of the grounds, the various '''avenues''' gracefully winding through so large a [[lawn]]; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of landscape gardening.” [Fig. 13]

*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], c. 1841, describing the proposed Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, in a letter to Robert Dale Owen (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990">Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Three spacious '''avenues''' (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting [[vista]]s.”

[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, [[Robert Mills]], "Plan of the Mall,” 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing a design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990"/>
:“The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed building for the [[Smithsonian Institution|Institution]]; the adjacent streets and '''avenues''' are also shown, with the line of the [[Canal]] which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island.” [Fig. 14]

*<div id="Adams_1842"></div>[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 14–15)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Adams_1842_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The trees on the eastern side of the [[Boston Common|Common]]. . . . The [[walk]] through their ancient shade is not surpassed in interest by any place of public resort, it is not too much to say, in this or any land. When their limbs are bare, a perspective [[view]] of them gives as good a representation of Gothic architecture as man ever copied. . . . It requires no history to show the most unpractised eye that Gothic architecture was borrowed from such places as the '''avenue''' under those arching elms.”

*W., February 1842, “An Account of [[Lowell Cemetery]],” Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)
:<p>“Of the architectural department there is much to admire. One of the '''avenues''', called "Washington '''Avenue''',” embraces a circuit round the ground, and the whole extent of [[drive]] is a mile and a half.</p>

:“Directly opposite the [[gateway]], and winding along the side of a natural ridge, leading to the chapel, is "Fenelon '''Avenue'''.” From the chapel, the '''avenues''' diverge, one extending along the central parts, and intersects with others at right angles: these '''avenues''', for the most part, are bordered by fine forest trees, of a variety of kinds and sizes.”

[[Image:0548.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 15, Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.]]
*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, & c.,” describing the [[U.S. Capitol]], Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)
:<p>“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an [[eminence]] which commands a fine view of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad '''avenues''' of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol. The main entrance to the west front is from Pennsylvania '''Avenue''', where the grounds form a semicircle, of which the '''avenue''' is the centre; a very broad [[walk]] leads from them, up the ascending surface, to the main steps, which descend from a broad semi-circular [[terrace]]. . . .</p>

:“The grounds on the other side, or east front, form nearly a [[square]], laid out with two '''avenues''' through the centre, and a broad [[walk]] running round the whole, with a belt of trees, which forms the boundary line. On each side of the centre '''avenues''' rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass [[lawn]]s which intervene between the centre and outer [[walk]]s, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrubbery|shrubs]], dahlias, and other flowers.” [Fig. 15]

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844. Fanny Longfellow described a “linden avenue . . . [which] runs along the northern boundry.”]]
*Longfellow, Fanny, c. 1844, describing the [[Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', vol. 1 (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“They [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Alexander W. Longfellow] contrived together to plant a linden '''avenue''' in which my poet intends to pace in his old age, and compose under its shade, resigning to me all the serpentine [[walk]]s, where, in the abstraction of inspiration, he might endanger his precious head against a tree. This runs along the northern boundary, and it is to be hoped will be useful, moreover, in screening us from any unsightly buildings Mr. Wyeth may adorn his grounds with.” [Fig. 16]

*<div id="Magazine_of_Horticulture"></div>B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17), [[#Magazine_of_Horticulture_cite|back up to history]]
:“[[Flower garden|Flower gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]] are no longer objects of amazement; '''avenues''' of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

[[File:1077.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[James Smillie]], “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''[[Green]]-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.]]
*[[Nehemiah Cleaveland|Cleaveland, Nehemiah]], 1847, describing [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], Brooklyn, NY (1847: iii, v)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''[[Green]]-Wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“Its numerous '''avenues''' furnish a long and delightful drive, presenting, continually, scenes of varied beauty.</p>

:“'''Avenues''' have been opened through every part of the ground, and converted, at great expense, into broad and durable carriage-roads.” [Fig. 17]

[[File:1063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, James Smillie, “Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.]]
*Walter, Cornelia W., 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1850 [1847]: 14)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“The '''avenues''' are winding in their course and exceedingly beautiful in their gentle circuits, adapted picturesquely to the inequalities of the surface of the ground, and producing charming landscape effects from this natural arrangement, such as could never be had from straightness or regularity. . . .</p>

:“The [[gateway]] of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]] opend from what is known as the north boundary line of the Cemetery. This '''avenue''' forms a wide carriage-road, and is one of the most beautiful openings ever improved for such a purpose. With the exception of the necessary grading, levelling, and cutting done of the brushwood, and the planting of a few trees, it has been left as Nature has made it. On either side it is overshadowed by the foliage of forest-trees, firs, pines, and other evergreens; and here you first begin to see the monuments starting up from the surrounding verdure, like bright remembrances from the heart of earth.” [Fig. 18]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 45)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: [[Andrew Jackson Downing]] and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the east it [the natural boundary of the estate] touches the post road. Here is the entrance [[gate]], and from it leads a long and stately '''avenue''' of trees, like the approach to an old French chateau. Halfway up its length, the lines of planted trees give place to a tall [[wood]], and this again is succeeded by the [[lawn]], which opens in all its stately dignity, with increased effect, after the deeper shadows of this vestibule-like [[wood]].”

[[File:1135.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[John Notman]], ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.]]
*[[John Notman|Notman, John]], 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 143)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have not named on the plan the roads or '''avenues''', as it is common to do, after trees and plants, such as Elm '''Avenue''', Magnolia '''Avenue''' and so on; this has been done at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], and I think in [[Green-wood Cemetery|Green-Wood]] and also Greenmount Cemeteries; but would suggest that they be called after the name of the first person who shall erect a handsome monument or family tomb, or to whom such shall be erected.” [Fig. 19]

<div id="Fig_20"></div>[[File:1097.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 20, Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): n.p. [[#Fig_20_cite|Back up to history]]]]
*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)
:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer park|deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine [[grove]] of large trees, several detached [[clump]]s of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in '''avenues''' along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The [[grove]]s are fitted up with [[seat]]s and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them.” [Fig. 20]

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (Autumn 1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion . . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar—the most admired of all trees in the palmy days of old Virginia—and this row reached to another double row or '''avenue''' which skirted one side of the [[lawn]], dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing the residence of Mrs. Pratt, near Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 53)
:“The house is approached by a very beautiful drive, winding gracefully through the trees, forming a sort of serpentine '''avenue''', after the Reptonian fashion.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 444)
:“The approach from the [[gate]], on reaching this [[conservatory]], diverges east and west at right angles. That on the left entering an '''avenue''' of maples, about thirty feet high, and hung to the very ground with branches, so that their stems are entirely hidden by the umbrageous foliage. This '''avenue''' runs through the [[nursery]], about a quarter mile in length. . . . This extremity of the '''avenue''' opens on another broad street to the city, and forms another entrance to the grounds. Nothing can exceed the beauty of this '''avenue'''; and I am astonished that the landed proprietors of this country do not take the example which is here given them, and adorn their demesnes with '''avenues''' like this. But they like better to cut down '''avenues''' here than to plant them. To tell you the truth, I have never seen anything so grand as this in the middle of a [[nursery]], either here or in England.”

*[[C. M. Hovey|Hovey, C. M.]], October 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing a residence in Cambridge, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 462)
:“The main '''avenue''' has been planted with a row of fine Scotch larch, on each side, and the effect, when they get well established, will be excellent.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Wilton, property of Joseph Turner, near Philadelphia (1857: 2:478)<ref name="Watson_1857">John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Many [[statue]]s of fine marble [sold from a Spanish prize] were distributed through the grounds and '''avenues'''.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia (1857: 2:479)<ref name="Watson_1857"/>
:“In the rear were '''avenues''' of stately cedars—some few still remaining; and in the front was a charmingly graceful descending [[green]] [[lawn]], gradually sloping down to Vine street.”

===Citations===

*<div id="Quintinie"></div>La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.),<ref>La Quintinie, Jean de, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH/ view on Zotero]</ref> [[#Quintinie_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''''Avenues''''', are certain [[alley|Allies]] or [[Walk]]s in Gardens larger than ordinary, but more properly leading to the front of Houses, which are commonly accompanied with two Bye-[[Walk]]s, commonly call’d Counter-[[Walk]]s, which are both Bordered with great Trees, either ''Elms'', ''Linden Trees'', or ''Oaks'', and sometimes Standard Fruit-Trees.”

*[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:<p>“''General'' DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .</p>

:<p>“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of '''Avenues''' to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.</p>

:“The entire Breadth of every '''Avenue''' should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand [[Walk]], must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-[[Walk]]s on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of '''Avenues''' fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand [[Walk]] be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*<div id="Chambers"></div>[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.),<ref>[[Ephraim Chambers]], ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences...'', 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Chambers_cite|back up to hiscussion]]
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', in gardening, is a [[walk]], planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE.</p>

:“All '''''avenues''''', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an '''''avenue''''' to an house, whatever the length of the [[walk]] is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better.”

*[[Philip Miller|Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Avenues''' are [[walk]]s of trees leading to a house, and are generally terminated by some distant object. There were formerly much more in request than at present, there being a few old [[seat]]s in the country that had one or more of these '''avenues'''. . . . Whenever the situation of a house will admit of a large open [[lawn]] in front, the road to the house should be carried round at a proper distance; and if it be carried sometimes through trees, and serpented in an easy natural way, it will be much more beautiful than any stiff formal '''avenue'''.”

*<div id="Complete_Farmer"></div>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.),<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Complete_Farmer_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“'''AVENUE''', a [[walk]] planted on each side with trees, leading to an house, [[wood]], &c. . . .</p>

:“The old method of planting '''avenues''' was with regular rows of trees, and this has been always kept till of late; but we have now a much more magnificent way of planting '''avenues''': this is by setting the trees in [[clump]]s or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the [[clump]]s of trees about three hundred feet distant from one other. In each of these [[clump]]s there should be planted either seven or nine trees; but it is to be observed, that this is only to be practised where the '''avenue''' is to be of some considerable length, for, in short [[walk]]s, this will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The '''avenues''' made by [[clump]]s are fittest of all for [[park]]s. . . . ''Miller’s Gard. Dict.''"

*<div id="Whately"></div>[[Thomas Whately|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 138–40),<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Whately_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“in the ''approach'' . . . the idea of a [[seat]] is thereby extended to a distance; but that may be done by other means than by an '''avenue''' . . . if the entrance only be marked, simple preservation will retain the impression along the whole progress; or it may wind through several scenes distinguished by objects, or by an extraordinary degree of cultivation; and then the length of the way, and the variety of improvements through which it is conducted, may extend the appearance of domaine, and the idea of a [[seat]], beyond the reach of any direct '''avenue'''.</p>

:“An '''avenue''' being confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great, it must be dull; and the object to which it is appropriated, is after all seldom shewn to advantage. Buildings, in general, do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful, when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular station, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both into perspective: but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections . . . but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]].”

*<div id="Deane"></div>[[Samuel Deane|Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 116–17)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Deane_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“[[GROVE]]. . . .</p>

:“In other situations [[grove]]s of larger trees are preferred. Lanes and '''avenues''' leading to mansion houses and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both sides: If only on one, it should be the southermost, on account of the advantage of shade. Such trees are best, the limbs of which are not apt to be low.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:119–20)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Avenues''''' are now seldom planted, but when they are, two good rows of ''elms'', ''limes'', ''chestnuts'', &c., should be set at the width of the house, at full thirty feet distance in the rows; to thicken which, intermediate plants may be set; and also an inner row, to be removed when the principal trees are full grown. '''''Avenues''''' to [[prospect]]s, should be fifty or sixty feet wide.”

*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 63),<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“The planting in [[grove]]s and '''avenues''' should consist principally of the tree kind, and such as are of straight and handsome growth, with the most branchy, full, regular heads, and may be both of the deciduous and ever-[[green]] tribes; but generally arranged separately. . . .</p>

:“As to '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, '''avenues''' and grass walks, planted with fine ever-[[green]] trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the '''avenue''', though sometimes grand [[walk]]s of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in '''avenues''' and [[walk]]s, at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

[[File:1186.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 21, [[J. C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a–f.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon]], ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6813. ''With respect to the disposition of the trees within the [[plantation]]'', they may be placed regularly in rows, squares, parallelograms, or quincunx; irregularly in the manner of groups; without undergrowths, as in ''[[grove]]s''. . .with undergrowths, as in ''[[woods]]''. . .all undergrowths, as in ''copse-[[woods]]''. . .Or they may form ''[[avenue]]s'' (''fig''. 630. ''a''); double [[avenue]]s (''b''); [[avenue]]s intersecting in the manner of a Greek cross (''c''); of a martyr’s cross (''d''); of a star (''e'') or of a cross patée, or duck’s foot (''patée d’oye'') (''f'').” [Fig. 21]

*<div id="Webster"></div>[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>[[Noah Webster]], ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Webster_cite|back up to discussion]]
:<p>“'''AV'ENUE''', ''n''. [Fr. from ''venir'', to come or go; L. ''venio''.]</p>

:<p>“1. A passage; a way or opening for entrance into a place; any opening or passage by which a thing is or may be introduced.</p>

:<p>“2. An [[alley]], or [[walk]] in a garden, planted with trees, and leading to a house, [[gate]], [[wood]], &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. The trees may be in rows on the sides, or, according to the more modern practice, in [[clump]]s at some distance from each other. ''Encyc.''</p>

:“3. A wide street, as in Washington, Columbia.”

*Cook, Zebedee, Jr., 1830, ''An Address, Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1830: 22)<ref>Zebedee Cook Jr., ''An Address, Pronounced before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: Isaac R. Butts, 1830), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RJ7KE496 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The gravelling of garden '''avenues''' may be dispensed with. The ordinary soil levelled, and laid smooth with the roller, will present an agreeable surface with less labor and cost than the former.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)
:<p>“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for '''avenues''' or large [[lawn]]s, or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . . .</p>

:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for [[lawn]]s or '''avenues''', &c.”

*[[James E. Teschemacher|Teschemacher, James E.]], November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)
:“When it is required to intersect the [[lawn]] in front, this had better be done by a sunken '''avenue''' with grass banks, so that the extent of grass presented to the eye offers an unbroken surface.”

*[[Rev. Nehemiah Adams|Adams, Nehemiah]], 1838, ''The [[Boston Common]]'' (1838: 21–22)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and [[park]]s, and '''avenues''', and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

*Franklin Farmer, 1 April 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 138)
:“Where there is but a [[lawn]] in front of the house, the farmer should plant an '''avenue''' of trees.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 52)
:“For the borders of main '''avenues''', or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 73–74),<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]
:“'''AVENUE''', is a road bordered by trees on each side, and being, as observed by Whately, confined to one termination, and excluding every view on the sides, has a tedious sameness throughout; to be great it must be dull, and the object to which it is appropriated is after all seldom shown to advantage. Buildings in general do not appear so large, and are not so beautiful when looked at in front, as when they are seen from an angular situation, which commands two sides at once, and throws them both in perspective; but a winding lateral approach is free from these objections, it may besides be brought up to the house without disturbing any of the views from it, but an '''avenue''' cuts the scenery directly in two, and reduces all the [[prospect]] to a narrow [[vista]]. A mere line of perspective, be the extent what it may, will seldom compensate for the loss of that space which it divides, and of the parts which it conceals. These kind of walks were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present: where they are to be made, the common elm answers very well for the purpose in most grounds, except such as are very wet and shallow, and preferred to most other trees, because it bears cutting, heading, or lopping in any manner. The rough Dutch elm is approved by some because of its quick growth, and it is a tree that will not only bear removing very well, but that is [[green]] in the spring almost as soon as any plant whatever, and continues so equally long. It makes an incomparable [[hedge]], and is preferable to all other trees for lofty [[espalier]]s. The lime is very useful on account of its regular growth and fine shade, and the horse-chestnut is proper for such places as are not too much exposed to rough winds. The common chestnut does very well in a good soil, or on warm gravels, as it rises to a considerable height, when planted somewhat close; but when it stands singly it is rather inclined to spread than grow tall. The beech naturally grows well with us in its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for '''avenues''' than others, because it does not bear transplanting well. The abele [white poplar] may also be employed for this use, as it is adapted to almost any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom fails in transplanting, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. The oak is but seldom used for '''avenues''', because of its slow growth; it would, however, compensate by its permanence and beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, oriental and native buttonwood are all well adapted to the purpose.”

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 22, Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.]]
*<div id="Downing_1849"></div>[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 63, 95, 154, 161, 182, 193, 257)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the Formation of Pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, Etc.: With Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Downing_1849_cite|back up to history]]
:<p>“. . . to level ground naturally uneven, or to make an '''avenue''', by planting rows of trees on each side of a broad [[walk]], requires only the simplest perception of the beauty of mathematical forms, so, to lay out a garden in the [[geometric style]], became little more than a formal routine, and it was only after the superior interest of a more natural manner was enforced by men of genius, that natural beauty of expression was recognised, and [[Landscape Gardening]] was raised to the rank of a fine art. . . . [Fig. 22]</p>
:<p>“And as the '''''Avenue''''', or the straight line, is the leading form in the geometric arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest [[park]]—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles [[square]], is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[woods]]. . . .</p>
:<p>“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public [[square]]s and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, Mass., and very fine '''avenues''' of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . . .</p>
:<p>“In '''avenues''' it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the [[square]] of the State-house, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . . .</p>
:<p>“When handsome '''avenues''' or straight lines are wanted, the Horse-chestnut is again admirably suited, from its symmetry and regularity. . . .</p>
:<p>“It is unnecessary for us to recommend this tree [the maple] for '''avenues''', or for bordering the streets of cities, as its general prevalence in such places sufficiently indicates its acknowledged claims for beauty, shade, and shelter. . . .</p>
:“Where there is a taste for '''avenues''', the Tulip tree ought by all means to be employed, as it makes a most magnificent overarching canopy of verdure, supported on trunks almost architectural in their symmetry.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ,” 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792.

Image:0410.jpg|Charles W. Harris, “A plan of the situation of ye University, ye ornamental ground, ye adjacent village, the lands belonging to ye trustees together with ye springs,” 1795.

Image:0181.jpg|Nicholas King, Section of Thomas Jefferson’s Design for “Pennsylvania Avenue,” 1803.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.

Image:1157.jpg|Jacques-Gerard Milbert (artist), Formentin (printer of plates), ''State of New-York. Mc.Comb’s Bridge Avenue'', c. 1819.

Image:0030.jpg|Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute’s [[plot]] for a [[botanical garden]] on the [[Washington Mall|Mall]], 1820.

Image:0039.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822.

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the Washington Canal,” 1831.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, “City of Washington,” c. 1836.

Image:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the [[Washington Mall|Mall]],” 1841.

Image:1085.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Bay-Side Avenue, Fern Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 42.

Image:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood Cemetery,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

Image:1513.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance Avenue,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''The Horticulturist'' 2, no. 5 (November 1847), p. 233, fig. 33.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), frontispiece.

Image:1074.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “Central Avenue, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” The Naval Monument, in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' ([1847] 1850), opp. p. 22.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], “Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington,” 1851.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], N. Michler (copied by), “Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington.” Manuscript copy of Andrew Jackson Downing’s plan for the [[Washington Mall|Mall]] of 1851, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington (artist), William Fletcher Boogher (publisher),“A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn, together with the streets & lotts bounding them. Drawn this 23d day of the 12th month 1698 by Edward Penington, Surv. Genll” [detail], 1882 [1698].

Image:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

Image:1815.jpg|[[William Bartram]], A great mound and its avenues, at Mount Royal, near Lake George, Georgia, in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 57, fig. 6.

Image:0905.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Plan for Esperanza (Speranza), 1794–95.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804.

Image:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''View of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1186.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Avenues, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 943, fig. 630a–f.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, "Entrance to Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834), p. 9.

Image:1234.jpg|John Vanderlyn, ''George Washington'', 1834.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], “A [[green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. p. 157.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'', (1839), p. 85.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', Vol II (1840), pl. 26.

Image:0548.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Capitol'', c. 1840–50.

Image:1304.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Entrance to [[Mount Auburn Cemetery"]] in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 361.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1088.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “Indian Mound,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 19.

Image:1087.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay-Grove Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 26.

Image:1080.jpg|James Smillie, “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. p. 61.

Image:1089.jpg|James Smillie (artist), W. W. Rice (engraver), “Monument to Miss Charlotte Canda,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''The Rural [[Cemetery|Cemeteries]] of America'' (1855 [1847]), opp. p. 8.

Image:1076.jpg|James Smillie, “Entrance to the [[Cemetery]]” [detail], in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), title page.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (engraver), “View of the Central [[Square]], [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 61.

Image:1135.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Hollywood [[Cemetery]],” 1848.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): n.p.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The Geometric style, from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''View of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''View of Washington'', 1852.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0147.jpg|Anonymous, Door Panels at the Thaxter-Lincoln House, 18th century, in Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting'' (1952), p. 19.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

Image:1386.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:1387.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

Image:0106.jpg|Anonymous, “A Plan of Westover" [detail], 1701, in William Byrd, ''Title Book, 1637-1743'' (1743).

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground [[plat]] of the city and port of Annapolis, copy of James Stoddert’s map of 1718, 1718 [1743].

Image:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the Commons'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0146.JPG|Winthrop Chandler, ''Homestead of General Timothy Ruggles, Hardwick, Massachusetts'', c. 1770–75.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0243.jpg|Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken, ''A View of Salem in N. Carolina—1787'', 1787.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792, in ''Folk Art'' 22, no. 3 (Fall 1997), p. 48.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753–1824)'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg[William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder'' (Mary Stoughton Sloss), 1793.

Image:0908.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Aerial View of Park(?), Esperanza, 1794–95.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, “A View of New Orleans taken from the plantation of Marigny,” November 1803.

Image:0507.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Another View of the Same'', [[Ashley Hall]], 1803.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Salem Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0232.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Golden Grove, The Seat of Mrs. Sommers—Stono'', 1810.

Image:0876.jpg|Anonymous, View of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0094.jpg|Anonymous, ''Memorial to Mary Fairbanks'', c. 1815.

Image:0159.jpg|Anonymous, formerly attributed to [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], U.S. Capitol and Pennsylvania Avenue before 1814, c. 1814–20.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “View of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1431.jpg[Archibald L. Dick (artist), H. Fossette (engraver), “Lunatic Asylum (Manhattanville),” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831), pl. 11.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), “Washington,” in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'' Vol. II (1834), opp. p. 222.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt, (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:0960.jpg[John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (Jan. 1842), p. 22, fig. 8.

Image:1301.jpg|John Warner Barber, “South-west view in Ipswich, (central part.),” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), p. 192.

Image:1437.jpg|C. Bachman, ''New York'', c. 1848.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill, ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

File:0880.jpg

2018-04-16T13:50:00Z

C-cole:

<br>

James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743]. Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

Fence

2018-04-16T13:43:47Z

C-cole: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in [[Lewis Miller]], ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report''(Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Francis Guy]], ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the view of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view citation]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union Square Park.]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view citation]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view citation]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as [[wall]]s. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view citation]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[William Halfpenny]], “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as [[Westover]], on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Casnovia,” c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Francis Guy]], ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by [[William and John Halfpenny]] (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view citation]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[squares]], roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view citation]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view citation]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone . . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted . . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing''' . . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, S.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees . . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting . . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Anburey_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1806: 54–55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” (Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site), http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the [[White House|President’s House]]:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Waln_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 2 (October 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “ Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants . . .'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Watson_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese style|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . . .
:“GARDENING. . . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work . . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]] . . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1837), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.”

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (February 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live [[Hedge]]s” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (April 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll . . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3 (October 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America . . .'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (November 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (January 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a fence of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

File:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0788.jpg|Frances Palmer, Elevations and profiles of wood fences, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787–92.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, “A S. W. View of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens,” c. 1790.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, “Map of Deming [[Orchard]],” after 1798.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), ''[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,'' 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “[[Yale College]]. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. p. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after p. 94.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] Fountain,” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

File:0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725–1757)'', c. 1742–46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0065.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West Prospect of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire'', 1774.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on Fence, 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,'' c. 1785.

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “A View of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States,” 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a Fence, c. 1791.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Fore[[yard]], 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0272.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

File:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800.

File:0450.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], seat of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, ''[[Box Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

Image:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Vauxhall Garden (New York)|Vauxhall Garden]],” 1803.

Image:0211.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Pennington Mills, Jones Falls, Baltimore, Looking Downstream'', c. 1804.

File:0212.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Pennington Mills, Jones Falls, Baltimore, View Upstream'', c. 1804.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Fore[[yard]]s and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.

Image:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0301.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from Belmont Pennsyla. the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811–13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of fRing'' (January 2012): 27.

File:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815, in Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: The Americans and the French in a Revolutionary World, 1780–1820'' (1990), 271.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

File:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0129.jpg|Dorcas Berry, [[White House]], 1818, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 39.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Caznovia,” c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after [[Thomas Birch]], ''View of the Dam and [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the [[White House]],” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|[[Hugh Bridport]], ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

File:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

File:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]], 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

File:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A View of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the [[White House|President’s House]],” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] View of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

File:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

File:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, “Front Elevation on Live Oak Street,” 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.
</gallery>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

Fence

2018-04-16T13:42:25Z

C-cole: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in [[Lewis Miller]], ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report''(Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Francis Guy]], ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the view of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view citation]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union Square Park.]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view citation]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view citation]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as [[wall]]s. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view citation]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[William Halfpenny]], “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as [[Westover]], on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Casnovia,” c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Francis Guy]], ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by [[William and John Halfpenny]] (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view citation]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[squares]], roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view citation]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view citation]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone . . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted . . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing''' . . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, S.C. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees . . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting . . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Anburey_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia (1806: 54–55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” (Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site), http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the [[White House|President’s House]]:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Waln_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 2 (October 1836), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “ Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C., 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants . . .'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Watson_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese style|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . . .
:“GARDENING. . . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work . . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 1 (November 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]] . . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register, and Gardener's Magazine'' 3 (April 1837), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.”

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to discussion]]
:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of [[Hedge]]s in the United States,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (February 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live [[Hedge]]s” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4 (April 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll . . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3 (October 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America . . .'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (November 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4 (January 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a fence of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

File:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0788.jpg|Frances Palmer, Elevations and profiles of wood fences, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787–92.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, “A S. W. View of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens,” c. 1790.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, “Map of Deming [[Orchard]],” after 1798.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), ''[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,'' 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “[[Yale College]]. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. p. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after p. 94.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] Fountain,” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

File:0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725–1757)'', c. 1742–46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0065.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West Prospect of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire'', 1774.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on Fence, 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,'' c. 1785.

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “A View of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States,” 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a Fence, c. 1791.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Fore[[yard]], 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0272.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

File:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800.

File:0450.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], seat of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, ''[[Box Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

Image:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Vauxhall Garden (New York)|Vauxhall Garden]],” 1803.

Image:0211.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Pennington Mills, Jones Falls, Baltimore, Looking Downstream'', c. 1804.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Fore[[yard]]s and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.

Image:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0301.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from Belmont Pennsyla. the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811–13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of fRing'' (January 2012): 27.

File:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815, in Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: The Americans and the French in a Revolutionary World, 1780–1820'' (1990), 271.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

File:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0129.jpg|Dorcas Berry, [[White House]], 1818, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 39.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Caznovia,” c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after [[Thomas Birch]], ''View of the Dam and [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the [[White House]],” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|[[Hugh Bridport]], ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

File:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

File:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]], 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

File:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A View of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the [[White House|President’s House]],” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] View of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

File:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

File:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, “Front Elevation on Live Oak Street,” 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.
</gallery>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

Canal

2018-04-16T13:41:05Z

C-cole: /* Attributed */

See also: [[Basin]]

==History==
[[File:0594.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Section of the northern course of the canal from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp'', 1803.]]

The canal was an artificial waterway built for navigation, irrigation, and ornamentation. In general, it was a channel, usually set into the ground, with parallel [[wall]]s made of earth, stone, or brick. Canals varied widely in size: from broad navigable examples, such as the Erie and the Chesapeake & Ohio, to smaller garden ones such as that depicted in a sketch of the [[seat]] of [[Edmund Quincy]] [<span id="Fig_8_cite"></span>[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]] in Massachusetts. Within the garden, canals could be straight, an idea promoted by treatise author [[Humphry Repton]] (1803), or they could meander, as at the [[Vale]], in Waltham, Massachusetts [<span id="Fig_11_cite"></span>[[#Fig_11|See Fig. 11]]]. In addition to the main channel, garden canals sometimes widened to form a fishpond emptied into a nearby river or pond, or filled a [[basin]] as in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]]’s plan of an aqueduct [Fig. 1] (see [[Basin]]).
[[File:0881.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.]]

Canals were an element of American landscape design as early as the beginning of the 18th century, <span id="Jones_cite"></span>as attested to by [[Hugh Jones]]’s 1722 description of the [[Governor’s Palace]] in Williamsburg, Virginia ([[#Jones|view citation]]) [Fig. 2]. The chronology of American garden canal construction, at least as recorded in garden descriptions, suggests that the popularity of building canals in residential gardens dwindled in the 19th century. They continued to be utilized in public landscape designs, however, as at the [[Columbian Institute]] in Washington, DC Although images of navigable canals, such as the Erie Canal, were popular symbols during this time of America’s burgeoning prosperity and technological achievement [Fig. 3], [[view]]s of private garden canals were rare.
[[File:0289.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, John William Hill, ''View on the Erie Canal'', 1829.]]

In gardens, canals were less common than still-water features (such as fishponds and pools), most likely because canals required both a continuous water source and a relatively large amount of space. The feasibility of such a canal was obviously dependent upon the availability of water, and, not unexpectedly, garden canals were more common in coastal or riverine areas such as Charleston, Williamsburg, Washington, DC, and Philadelphia.
[[File:0042.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, DC with projected improvements'', c. 1852.]]

Like other water features, canals provided a source of fresh food. The canal of [[Edmund Quincy]] supplied eel, [[Alexander Gordon]]’s canal was stocked with fish, and the canal of [[Thomas Brattle]] was noted for its waterfowl. Canals also provided irrigation, ice, and, if large enough, offered opportunities for boating [Fig. 4]. In low-lying areas and in examples such as Garden’s waterway (which was fed by fresh springs), the canal also offered drainage for excess water. Like other water features, they provided a garden with the animation of moving or rippling water, the cooling effect of evaporation, the visual interest of reflective surfaces, and habitats for swans and other ornamental birds. The slow flow and placid surface of a canal might stand in contrast to the burbling course of a stream or the dynamic rush of a [[cascade]]. With a border of flowers, a canal might, <span id="Repton_cite"></span>as Repton (1803) suggested, lend “to the whole an air of neatness and careful attention” ([[#Repton|view citation]]).
[[File:1994.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.]]
[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.]]
Urban canals, indicated on city plans, were built as commercial transportation routes, but these canals were also embraced in efforts to create healthful, recreational areas for city dwellers. Banks along some navigable canals were ornamented with [[walk]]s, benches, and [[fence]]s. In other cases, canals constructed for commercial or navigational purposes were incorporated in public landscape design schemes, as at [[Fairmount Park]] in Philadelphia [Fig. 5] and the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]. At [[Fairmount Park]], which is depicted on a painted [[vase]] [Fig. 7], the canal for the pumping station became a popular [[promenade]]. In Washington, designers such as [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], [[Charles Bulfinch]], and [[Robert Mills]] used the canal as an integral element of their plans for the [[national Mall]], routing it to accentuate the [[view]] of the capitol and ornamenting it with [[bridge]]s and [[walk]]s. Latrobe’s Plan of the Capitol (1815) incorporated a waterway he referred to as a Canal [<span id="Fig_10_cite"></span>[[#Fig_10|See Fig. 10]]]. L'Enfant even proposed an ambitious scheme to have water run under the U.S. Capitol and then [[cascade]] into the canal below, at the level of the [[national Mall|Mall]].

[[File:0537.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.]]
<span id="Johnson_cite"></span>[[Samuel Johnson]]’s 1755 definition of a canal as a “course of water made by art” ([[#Johnson|view citation]]), and <span id="Sheridan_cite"></span>[[Thomas Sheridan]]’s 1789 definition ([[#Sheridan|view citation]]) are particularly telling for the canal’s significance in a landscape-design context. The use of art and water points to the canal’s combination of the artificial and the natural, a juxtaposition that is at the essence of any garden. A canal, in particular, resonates with the theme; it carries water, a basic element in the garden, yet the hand of its human creator is obvious in the contrived regularity of its construction. <span id="Garden_cite"></span>Dr. [[Alexander Garden]] (1754), in reference to [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s garden]], noted that the botanist’s enthusiastic attempt to put the stamp of art on every natural feature, culminated in a design in which “[e]very run of water, [was] a Canal” ([[#Garden|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Jones"></div>[[Hugh Jones|Jones, Hugh]], 1722, describing the [[Governor’s Palace]], Williamsburg, VA (1956: 70), [[#Jones_cite|back up to history]]<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the Palace or [[Governor’s House]], a magnificent structure, built at the publick expence, finished and beautified with [[gate]]s, fine gardens, offices, [[walk]]s, a fine '''canal''', [[orchard]]s, etc. with a great number of the best arms nicely posited, by the ingenious contrivance of the most accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]], July 17, 1744, describing [[Malbone Hall]], country seat of Godfrey Malbone, Newport, RI (1948: 103)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This house makes a grand show att a distance but is not extraordinary for the architecture, being a clumsy Dutch modell. Round it are pritty gardens and terrasses with '''canals''' and basons for water.”

*Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the kitchen garden of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“. . . at the end of which is a '''canal''' supplied with fresh springs of water, about 300 feet long, with fish.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:1176.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Eliza Susan Quincy, “View of the seat of Edmund Quincy Esqr.,” 1822. [[#Fig_8_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Francis Goelet|Goelet, Capt. Francis]], c. 1750, describing the residence and garden of Edmund Quincy, Boston, MA (quoted in Pearson 1980: 6)<ref>Danella Pearson, “Shirley-Eustis House Landscape History,” ''Old-Time New England'' 70 (1980): 1–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E2F8TJTH view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . about Ten Yards from the House is a Beautiful '''Cannal''', which is Supplyd by a Brook which is well Stockt with Fine Silver Eels, we Cought a fine Parcell and carried them Home and had them drest for Supper, the House has a Beautifull [[Pleasure Garden]] Adjoyning it, and on the Back Part the Building is a Beautiful [[Orchard]] with fine fruit trees, etc.” [Fig. 8]

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*<div id="Garden"></div>[[Alexander Garden|Garden, Dr. Alexander]], 1754, in a letter to [[Cadwallader Colden]], describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (Colden 1920: 4: 472),<ref>Cadwaller Colden, ''The Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden'', 9 vols. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1918–37), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UT8C2FTZ view on Zoter.]</ref> [[#Garden_cite|back up to history]]

:“. . . he disdains to have a garden less than Pensylvania & Every den is an Arbour, Every run of water, a '''Canal''', & every small level Spot a [[Parterre]].” [Fig. 9]

*[[Thomas Lee Shippen|Shippen, Thomas Lee]], December 31, 1783, describing [[Westover]], seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, Westover ''Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“These [[meadow]]s well watered with '''canals''', which communicate with each other across the road give occasion every 50 yards for a [[bridge]]; and between every two [[bridge]]s are two [[gate]]s one on each side the road.”

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:0035.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815. [[#Fig_10_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Pierre Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 152–53)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“a '''canal''' being easy to open from the eastern branch and to be lead across the first settlement and carried toward the mouth of the [T]iber where it will again give an issue into the Potowmack and at a distance not to far off for to admit the boats from the grand navigation '''canal''' from getting in, will undoubtedly facilitate a conveyance most advantageous to trading Interest. . . .
:“I propose in this map, of leting the [T]iber return in its proper channel by a [[fall]] which issuing from under the base of the Congress building may there form a [[cascade]] of forty feet heigh [''sic''] or more than one hundred waide [''sic''] which would produce the most happy effect in rolling down to fill up the '''canall''' [''sic''] and discharge itself in the Potowmack of which it would then appear as the main spring when seen through that grand and majestic [[avenue]] intersecting with the [[prospect]] from the palace.” [Fig. 10]

*[[William Bentley|Bentley, William]], October 4, 1792, describing the residence of Thomas Brattle, Cambridge, MA (1962: 1:398)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 2 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“I visited [[Mr Brattle’s Garden]]s, &c. at Cambridge. We first saw the [[fountain]] & '''canal''' opposite to his House, & the [[walk]] on the side of another '''canal''' in the road, flowing under an [[arch]] & in the direction of the outer [[fence]]. There is another '''canal''' which communicates with a beautiful pool in the [[park]] & place for his wild fowl.”

*[[La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de]], 1799, describing [[Middleton Place]], seat of Henry Middleton, near Charleston, SC (1800: 2:438)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A peculiar feature of the situation is this, that the river, which flows in a circuitous course, until it reaches this point, forms here a wide, beautiful '''canal''', pointing straight to the house.”

*[[Joseph Scott|Scott, Joseph]], 1806, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia (1806: 25–26)<ref>Joseph Scott, ''A Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. They consist of a [[basin]], excavated, partly in the [[bed]] of the river [[Schuylkill]], three feet deeper than low-water mark. . . . The [[basin]] extends easterly to high-water mark, where it is secured by another [[wall]] and sluice, admitting the water to a '''canal''' 40 feet wide, and 200 feet long. From the east end of the '''canal''', a subteraneous tunnel, conveys the water underneath the edge of the high bank, or plain, upon which the city is built. The '''canal''' and tunnel are hewn out of the solid granite, and their bottoms are three feet below low-water mark. The east end of the tunnel enters a well, sunk from the top of the bank. The well receives the waters of the Schulkill, from the [[basin]], by means of the '''canal'''.”

<div id="Fig_11"></div>[[File:0716.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25. [[#Fig_11_cite|Back up to history.]]]]
*[[Samuel Ripley|Ripley, Samuel]], 1815, describing the [[Vale]], estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1815: 272)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Through the [[lawn]], in front of the mansion house, which is large and handsome, runs Beaver Brook, which it there formed into a serpentine '''canal''', and over which is erected a [[bridge]] of three [[arch]]es, made of the Chelmsford white stone, which is both an ornament to the place, and a specimen of correct taste and workmanship.”

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC 1791–1852" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The '''canal''' that surrounds it is 15 feet wide and 2 1/2 feet deep.”

*Commissioner of Public Buildings, June 9, 1827, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 133)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“The new section of the Washington '''Canal''' was laid out along a line drawn through the middle of the Capitol and of the [[national Mall|Mall]]. The pathway, '''canal''' and [[plantation]] in the garden do not coincide with this line, but diverge from it at an acute angle.” [Fig. 12]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“5th: Fountain Park

:“This Park would be chiefly remarkable for its water features. The [[Fountain]] would be chiefly supplied from a [[basin]] in the Capitol. The [[Pond]] or [[lake]] might either be formed from the overflow of this [[fountain]], or from a filtering drain from the '''canal'''. The earth that would be excavated to form this [[pond]] is needed to fill up low places now existing in this portion of the grounds.”

===Citations===

[[File:1382.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.]]
[[File:1383.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Batty Langley]], One of two “As for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . , in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.]]
*[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: xii–xiii)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying Out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero]</ref>

:“Plate IX. is an improvement of a ''beautiful Garden at Twickenham'', situated on the ''River Thames'', which passes by the Line E F, and has a free communication with the '''Canals''' X and Z . . . [Fig. 13]
:“Plates X and XI, are Designs for gardens that lye [''sic''] irregularly to the grand House. In Plate X, the House opens to the ''North'' upon the ''[[Park]]'' A, to the ''East'' upon ''Court'' B, to the ''South'' upon the ''[[Parterre]] of Grass and Water'' C; and Lastly to the ''West'' upon the ''circular [[basin|Bason]]'' D, from which leads a ''pleasant [[Avenue]]'' Z X. The ''[[Mount]]'' F, is raised with the Earth that came out of the '''''Canal''''' E E, and its [[Slope]] H is planted with ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'' of ''different Ever-Greens'', that rising behind one another of different Colours have a very good Effect, being view'd form M. I,I are contracts [[Walk]]s leading up to the [[Mount]] . . . [Fig. 14]
:“Plate XII is the Design of a small Garden situated in a ''[[Park]]'', where the House to the ''North'' opens upon ''a noble circular [[Basin]] of Water'' B, in the ''[[Park]]'', and to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'', from which over the '''''Canal''''' you have a boundless [[View]] into the Country.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“GARDEN. . . .
:“The chief furniture of [[pleasure garden]]s are, [[parterre]]s, [[vista]]’s, glades, [[grove]]s, compartiments, quincunces, verdant halls, arbour work, mazes, [[labyrinth]]s, [[fountain]]s, cabinets, [[cascade]]s, '''canals''', [[terrace]]s, ''&c''.”

*<div id="Johnson"></div>[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.),<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3/ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Johnson_cite|back up to history]]

:“'''CANA'L'''. n.s. [canalis, Lat.]
:“1. A [[basin|bason]] of water in a garden. . . .
:“2. Any tract or course of water made by art; as the '''canals''' in Holland.”

*<div id="Sheridan"></div>[[Thomas Sheridan|Sheridan, Thomas]], 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Sheridan_cite|back up to history]]

:“'''CANAL''', ka-nal'. s. . . . any course of water made by art.”

*<div id="Repton"></div>[[Humphry Repton|Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 101, 103)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Repton_cite|back up to history]]

:“This explanation is necessary to justify the plan which I recommended for the '''canal''' in this flower garden: for while I should condemn a long straight line of water in an open [[park]], where every thing else is natural; I should equally object to a meandering '''canal''' or [[walk]], by the side of a long straight [[wall]], where every thing else is artificial. . . .
:“The banks of this '''canal''', or fish [[pond]], may be enriched with borders of curious flowers, and a light [[fence]] of green laths will serve to train such as require support, while it gives to the whole an air of neatness and careful attention.”

[[File:1368.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.]]
*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942–43)<ref>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon]], ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Water] forms a part of every garden in the ancient style, in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong '''canals''', [[pond]]s, [[basin]]s, [[cascade]]s, and ''[[jet|jeux d'eux]]'' (''fig''. 694).” [Fig. 15]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''CANAL'''’, ''n''. [L. ''canalis'', a ''channel'' or ''kennel''; these being the same word differently written; Fr. ''canal''; Arm. ''can'', or ''canol''; Sp. Port. ''canal''; It. ''canale''. See. ''Cane''. It denotes a passage, from shooting, or passing.]
:“1. A passage for water; a water course; properly, a long trench or excavation in the earth for conducting water, and confining it to narrow limits; but the term may be applied to other water courses. It is chiefly applied to artificial cuts or passages for water, used for transportation; whereas ''channel'' is applicable to a natural water course.”

*[[Edward Sayers|Sayers, Edward]], 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 21)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“In many cases '''canals''' have a pleasing effect as on extensive places where they are so managed as to be lost to the eye of the observer; in such cases the utility of '''canals''' is obvious to the intelligent observer.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0603.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la Nouvelle Orleans'', 1720. The “canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III. “The Walks about the two Canals, and the Centers Z Z [adorned] with ''Apollo'' and the ''nine Muses'' . . .”

Image:1378.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of an Avenue with its Wildernesses on each Side,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V. “The ''Avenue'' . . . having its ''Canal'' terminated on both ends with ''Groves of Forest Trees'' . . .”

Image:1382.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX. “Canals X and Z”

Image:1383.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House . . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X. "''Canal'' E E”

Image:1384.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House . . . House opening to the North upon a plain Parterre of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. “D is a ''pleasant Cabinet'', from whence we have five different Views, of which the Middle one . . . over a ''Canal of Water'' . . .”

Image:1385.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a Park,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII. "the House . . . opens . . . to the ''South'', on a ''grand Parterre of Grass'', from which over the ''Canal'' . . .”

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. The “Canal” is south of “GeorgeTown.”

Image:0728.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''Plan of Springland'', c. 1800, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), p. 206, fig. 117. The “canal” is on the middle right side of the plan.

Image:0594.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Section of the northern course of the canal from the tide in the Elk River at Frenchtown to the forked [oak] in Mr. Rudulph’s swamp'', 1803.

Image:1133.jpg|Anonymous, Moore and Jones (engravers), ''District of Columbia and Vicinity'', c. 1804. The “canal” is in the middle of the plan, below the "Capitol.”

Image:0871.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal, No. 1'', February 5, 1804, in John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (1967), fig. 17.

Image:0496.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''A Bason and Storehouse Belonging to the Santee Canal in 1803'', 1805.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815. The “canal” runs through the middle of the plan.

Image:0414.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall, as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university'', 1816. The “canal” is in the upper right of the plan.

Image:0039.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822. "proposed alteration of the Canal"

Image:0433.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Washington Canal'', 1831.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, SC'', September 1844. “Canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:0567.jpg|Sam A. Gilbert, ''A Plan of the City of Charleston'', 1849. “Canal” is on the left side of the plan.

Image:0352.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Suspension bridge across the Canal'' [proposed], 1851.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington'', 1851. “Canal” is north of the Mall.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867. “Canal” is north of the Mall.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg| [[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0731.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''View from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0302.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “Fountain Green Pennsylv.<sup>a</sup> the Seat of M.<sup>r</sup> S. Meeker,” ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

Image:1176.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''View of the seat of Edmund Quincy Esqr.'', 1822.

Image:1994.jpg|[[Thomas Doughty]], ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.

Image:1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the ancient style, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

Image:0289.jpg|John William Hill, ''View on the Erie Canal'', 1829.

Image:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''View of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:0111.jpg|Seth Eastman, ''Washington’s Monument, Under Construction'', November 16, 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, DC with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''“The Duke’s Plan,” a Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:1377.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], Garden with a canal, in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

Image:0881.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the Seat of John Penn, jun'r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia'', c. 1785.

Image:0211.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Pennington Mills, Jones Falls, Baltimore, Looking Downstream'', c. 1804.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:0665.jpg|Anonymous, Bonaparte’s residence and the surrounding park, c. 1830, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931–34), p. 321.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:2144.jpg|William Southgate Porter, ''Panorama of Fairmount'', May 22, 1848.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

File:0037.jpg

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C-cole: C-cole uploaded a new version of File:0037.jpg

Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772. Maryland State Art Collection, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

File:0037.jpg

2018-04-16T13:08:56Z

C-cole: C-cole uploaded a new version of File:0037.jpg

Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772. Maryland State Art Collection, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

File:0037.jpg

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C-cole: C-cole uploaded a new version of File:0037.jpg

Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772. Maryland State Art Collection, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

File:0037.jpg

2018-04-16T13:05:44Z

C-cole: C-cole uploaded a new version of File:0037.jpg

Charles Willson Peale, ''William Paca'', 1772. Maryland State Art Collection, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

Yard

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C-cole: /* Usage */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well [[fence|fenced]] in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* [[William Penn|Penn, William]], August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* [[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg, VA]] (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . . One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing [[Mount Clare]], [[plantation]] of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''[[terrace|Terrace]]'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg, VA]] (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[walk|Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[portico|Portico]] is supported by Stone [[pillar|Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[kitchen garden|Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[shrubbery|Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial [[mount]]s, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high [[mount]]s and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and [[shrub]]s; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell,_Maine|Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “[[Hallowell,_Maine|Hallowell]] is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[plat]]s, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a [[lawn]] & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[park|Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[yard|Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a [[wall]] in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Martha Ogle Forman|Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a [[plantation]] in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Martha Forman Ogle|Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the [[Friend’s Asylum for the Insane]], near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Margaret Bayard Smith|Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire [[flower garden|flower Gardens]] as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and [[shrub]]s. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine [[promenade]] at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[park|Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer park|deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . . .
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower garden|flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785–90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Yard

2018-04-11T15:49:25Z

C-cole: /* Attributed */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, VA (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785–90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Yard

2018-04-11T15:29:27Z

C-cole: /* Associated */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, VA (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785-90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Yard

2018-04-11T13:31:21Z

C-cole: /* Inscribed */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, VA (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in [[J. B. Bordley]], ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830-40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785-90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Yard

2018-04-10T13:31:50Z

C-cole: /* History */

(Yeard) {{break}}
See also: [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], [[Lawn]], [[Orchard]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:0007.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.]]

[[File:0027.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793–95.]]

In American landscape vocabulary the term yard connoted an enclosed space, generally contiguous to a building and associated with specific activities related to that building. Hence, the term was often paired with another describing its adjacent structure or use, as in the case of barnyard, stable yard, churchyard, farmyard, poultry yard, kitchen yard, prison yard, cow yard, shipyard, and chunkyard (see also [[Fence]], [[Hedge]], and [[Wall]]).

[[File:0966.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.]]

[[File:0411.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.]]

A yard’s layout was dependent upon its particular function and upon such factors as lot boundaries. Generally, however, yards were geometrically regular. [[J. B. Bordley]] noted in 1801 that on paper an octagonal farmyard was pleasing to the eye, but that a rectangular shape small enough to attend easily to the animals was, in reality, more practical. While images suggest that yard topography was often relatively level, yards for livestock were sometimes designed with a grade for drainage or runoff, as [[Samuel Deane]] (1790) suggested. The surface treatment of yards varied, as indicated by descriptions of southern paved yards and by [[William Bartram]]’s account (1791) of Native American swept yards in Cuscowilla, Georgia. As early as 1683, dwelling-house yards were described to be turfed or seeded with grass. These [[lawn]]s, such as the “grass [[plot]]” in the yard of [[Pennsbury Manor]], near Philadelphia, continued to be the subject of both horticultural advice and visitors’ admiration through the mid-19th century.

[[File:0160.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.]]

[[File:0681.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy,” in George Whitefield, ''A letter to His Excellency Governor Wright'' (1768).]]

Despite its simple form, the American yard was a complex social space in terms of its function as an activity area and its relation to landscape design. Couplings of the word, such as family yard, door yard, exotic yard, foreyard, and backyard, imply the variety of ways in which these enclosed spaces were used while their ubiquity suggests their significance in the American landscape. In warm climates or warm seasons, the yard adjacent to a dwelling served as an extension of the house for activities as wide ranging as food preparation and socializing. Images of farms and rural residences, such as the naïve view of a Pennsylvania farm with many [[fence]]s [Fig. 1], depict how the space adjacent to a house (described variously as front yard, family yard, and courtyard) was demarcated from other working areas and from the landscape. Other images represent the yard as a buffer in more densely settled towns and cities, providing separation from neighboring houses and streets. This idea is illustrated in Rufus Hathaway’s painting of Joshua Winsor’s residence [Fig. 2] and Charles Bulfinch’s view of the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] [Fig. 3], both in Massachusetts.

[[File:0299.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.]]

[[File:0290.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.]]

Yards were seen as an extension of a house’s architectural façade, and together they often registered in descriptions as an outward and public presentation of the dwelling’s occupants. References in 18th-century travel accounts and 19th-century periodicals include comments about the appearance of a “well-kept” yard as a sign of its owner’s prosperity and responsible management. In 1827, for example, the ''New England Farmer'' noted that a “slovenly door yard is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer.”

[[File:0720.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.]]

[[File:0554.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.]]

Yards were vital elements of institutional landscapes, including the [[State House Yard|State House]] in Philadelphia; [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 4]; [[Princeton College]] [Fig. 5]; and the [[College of William and Mary]]. The term “courtyard” was used for an area enclosed on two sides by buildings and on another by vegetation, as at the Georgia Orphan House Academy [Fig. 6] and a nestling of the space within a building at the [[Governor’s House in New Bern, NC]] [Fig. 7]. These spaces created a visual frame for the buildings and also provided places for public gatherings, as suggested by the 1705 notice for burning grievances in the yard of the Capitol of [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]]. In addition, they served as areas of social interaction, as seen in numerous projects depicting promenaders in the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, or, as in a 1743 engraving, showing students sporting on the grounds at [[Harvard College]] [Fig. 8]. Descriptions and representations of prisons, hospitals, and asylums reveal that the enclosed yard provided a secure area for patients or inmates to take fresh air and exercise. This function is illustrated in Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the [[Friends Asylum for the Insane]], in Charles Bulfinch’s 1818 plan of two wings added to [[Pleasant Hill]] to create McLean Asylum [Fig. 9], and in John Hawks’s 1773 design for a prison in Edenton, North Carolina [Fig. 10].

[[File:0279.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.]]

The relationship of the terms “yard” and “garden” is an ambiguous one in the vocabulary of the American landscape. Treatise authors were inconsistent in their explanations of the distinction between these two terms. William Forsyth, for example, in 1802 distinguished a garden as being situated near the house as opposed to a farmyard, which was located at a further distance from the house, although still close enough for direct supervision of laborers. <ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 139–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> [[J. B. Bordley|Bordley]], on the other hand, writing at almost the same time, noted that a garden within the area near a house was a “Family-yard.” In popular American usage, these terms also appear to have been used inconsistently. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, numerous writers referred to a site’s “garden and yard,” whereas advertisements and deeds often listed the garden and yard separately. This distinction between more intensively cultivated garden space (located generally near the house) and the more utilitarian yard area is exemplified in the <span id="Peale_1810_cite"></span>1810 description that accompanied a sketch of [[Belfield]] ([[#Peale_1810|view citation]]). This drawing clearly separated the fenced “yard” surrounding [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale]]’s house from his paled and elaborately planted “garden,” located to the rear. Several images of domestic settings further suggest a distinction between the two types of spaces. [[View]]s, such as Ralph Earl’s 1792 portrait of the Chief Justice and Mrs. Ellsworth [Fig. 11], depict white painted [[fence]]s immediately adjacent to the house, while red paint decorated the more distant [[fence]]s. Unfortunately no text references exist in which the term “yard” is associated with such images. This explicit visual demarcation of the two spaces may have been representative of a distinction between utilitarian yards (of the sort described in other sources as barn yard, hog yard, etc.) and ornamental yard spaces. Alternatively, the different treatment of the [[fence]]s may represent properties whose owners would not have claimed to have a “garden” at all; in this case, the images might reflect a distinction between yard and the surrounding agricultural landscapes of pastures, [[meadow]]s, and field.

A gradual shift in the distinction between yard and garden took place in the first half of the nineteenth century. [[Martha Ogle Forman]]’s 1824 account of Newark, New Jersey, and articles, such as that in the ''New England Farmer'' (1837) about “Front Yards,” mark an increasingly common pattern for private residential landscaping in which flower [[border]]s, [[shrubbery]], and gardens are included within the space that was designated as a yard. Such designers as [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1849) advocated that the yard should complement a residence, and each produced plans that became models for early suburbias. Their writings, particularly those disseminated through periodicals, were critical in the replication of such designs throughout America.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''
<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Anonymous, 1647, describing a rental agreement in York County, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[Richard Bernard agrees to] maintain the old dwelling house and quartering houses and Tobacco houses in repair, as well as the pales about the '''yard''' and gardens.”

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46) <ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[The [[orchard]] was] well fenced in with Locust [[fence]], which is as durable as most brick walls, a Garden, a hundred feet square, well pailed in, a '''Yeard''' where in is most of the foresaid necessary houses [domestic outbuildings], pallizado’d in with locust Punchens, which is as good as if it were walled in & more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 117) <ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “6. ''English'' Grass-Seed takes well; which will give us fatting Hay in time. Of this I made an Experiment in my own Court-'''Yard''', upon Sand that was digg’d out of my Cellar, with Seed that had lain in a Cask, open to the Weather two Winters and a Summer.”

* Penn, William, c. 1687, describing [[Pennsbury Manor]], country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1) <ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (master’s thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry wch an Artist would quickly take, wth ye land scip of ye hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also wt grounds you have cleered wt improvemts made. an account how the peach & apple orchards grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next ye water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . wt [[fence]] about ye '''yards''' gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

* Anonymous, November 10, 1705, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses'' construction resolutions in [[Williamsburg]], VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered That the Grievances from King William County be Burnt on Wednesday next by the Sheriff on York County in the Capitol '''Yard'''.”

* Anonymous, October 20, 1730, entry in the ''Essex County Order Book'' pertaining to Essex County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “To James Griffin (for which he is to remove ye rubish and level ye '''yard''' about the new courthouse) . . . 700 lbs. tob.”

* Anonymous, February 14, 1736, describing a property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

: “To be Sold by John Laurens a Dwelling House, fronting on the Market-[[Square]] in Charlestown, divided into four commodious Tenements, with convenient Kitchins, '''yards''' and Gardens.”

* Kalm, Pehr, September 19, 1748, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1937: 1:41) <ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the house and sometimes even in the court-'''yards''' of the house.”

* Birket, James, September 11, 1750, describing [[Harvard College]], Cambridge, MA (1916: 18) <ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751)'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Consists of three Separat Brick buildings . . .One of which is called Stoughton hall, And although the 2 wings do not Join to the Middle buildg yet they are So placed As to form a very handsom Area or '''Courtyard''' in the Middle.”

* Anonymous, 1753, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a dwelling in Beaufort County, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 413) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[The dwelling had] a garden at the south front, and '''yard''' lately paved in.”

*Anonymous, September 16, 1765, describing in the ''Queen Anne’s County Deed Book'' Holt Castle Hill, Queen Anne’s County, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Upon the land called Holt Castle Hill . . . a new pateo '''yard'''.”

* Ambler, Mary M., 1770, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (1937: 166) <ref>Mary M. Ambler, “Diary of M. Ambler, 1770,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 45 (April 1937), 152–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9AHUXF8H view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is also a Handsome Court '''Yard''' on the other Side of the House.”

* Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing [[Nomini Hall]], Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 108) <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the front '''yard''' of the Great House, to the Wash-House is a curious ''Terrace'', covered finely with Green turf.”

* Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the [[College of William and Mary]], Williamsburg, VA (Shelley, ed., 1954: 405) <ref>Fred Shelley, ed., “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954), 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “At this Front of the College is a large Court '''Yard''', ornamented with Gravel [[Walk]]s, Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass. The Wings are on the West Front, between them is a covered Parade, which reaches from the one to the other; the [[Portico]] is supported by Stone [[Pillar]]s: opposite to this Parade is a Court '''Yard''' & a large [[Kitchen Garden]].”

[[File:0338.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.]]
* [[Washington, George]], March 10, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (ed. Jackson and Twohig, 1978: 4:100) <ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Sent my Waggon with the Posts for the Oval in my Court '''Yard''' to be turned by a Mr. Ellis at the Snuff Mill on Pohick & to proceed from thence to Occoquan for the Scion of the Hemlock to plant in my [[Shrubberies]].” [Fig. 12]

* [[Cutler, Manasseh]], July 12, 1787, describing [[Princeton University]], Princeton, NJ (1987: 1:245) <ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. D'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9].</ref>

: “The College (Nassau Hall) is spacious, built of stone, and stands on the highest ground in the town. It fronts to the north, and toward the street, and has before it a very large '''yard''', walled in with stone and lime.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331) <ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The state house '''yard''', is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* [[Hamilton, William]], May 2, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4–A5) <ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton's Woodlands,” paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The Exotic '''yard''' if I may so call it & all the space between the [[green]] H & the shop should be made clean & neat as I have no doubt there will be visitors to view them.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing a typical house in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 168–69) <ref name="Bartram">William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The dwelling stands near the middle of a [[square]] '''yard''', encompassed by a low bank, formed with the earth taken out of the '''yard''', which is always carefully swept.”

* [[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing settlements of the Muscogulge and Cherokee Indians (1928: 406) <ref name="Bartram"></ref>

: “The pyramidal hills or artificial mounts, and highways, or [[avenue]]s, leading from them to artificial [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s, vast tetragon [[terrace]]s, chunk '''yards''',* and [[obelisk]]s or [[pillar]]s of [[wood]], are the only monuments of labour, ingenuity and magnificence that I have seen worthy of notice, or remark.
: “* Chunk '''yard''', a term given by white traders, to the oblong four square '''yards''', adjoining the high mounts and rotundas of the modern Indians.—In the centre of these stands the [[obelisk]], and at each corner of the farther end stands a slave post or strong stake, where the captives that are burnt alive are bound.”

* Smith, William Loughton, May 5,1791, describing a settlement near [[Salem, NC]] (1917: 73) <ref>William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790-1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The church '''yard''' is on a hill above the town, surrounded by shady [[grove]]s.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184) <ref name="Dwight">Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A considerable proportion of the houses have court-'''yards''' in front, and gardens in rear. The former are ornamented with trees, and shrubs; the latter are luxuriantly filled with fruit-trees, flowers, and culinary vegetables. The beauty, and healthfulness, of this arrangement need no explanation.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:218) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[pla]]ts, and court '''yards'''; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome.”

* Drinker, Elizabeth, April 10, 1796, describing her garden in Philadelphia, PA (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Diaries of Elizabeth Drinker)

: “Our '''Yard''' and Garden looks most beautifull, the Trees in full Bloom, the red, and white blossoms intermixt’d with the green leaves, which are just putting out flowers of several sorts bown [bloom?] in our little Garden—what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City, and such elegant room,—many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing Province Town, MA (1822: 3:95–96) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “It is said, that there are two or three gardens at some distance from the town; and some of the inhabitants cultivate a few summer vegetables in their court-'''yards'''.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1799, describing a Shaker community in New Lebanon, NY (1822: 3:149) <ref name="Dwight"></ref>

: “Their church, a plain, but neat building, had a court-'''yard''' belonging to it, which was a remarkably ‘smooth-shaven [[green]].’ Two paths led to it from a neighbouring house, both paved with marble slabs.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a girls’ school in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14) <ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Since the applications to receive pupils from abroad, have become so frequent and numerous, a new building has been erected for their use, upon a similar model, with the sisters house. A small court '''yard''', or grass [[plat]], is between these buildings.”

* Codman, John, August 24, 1800, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection: Box 119, Folder 1, 923)

: “I do not know any place in America so much like Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s in this country as Lincoln (dear Lincoln) all it wants is the fore'''yard''' all knocked away & the house to stand in the midst of a lawn & so surrounded with trees that you can see neither road nor buildings from it.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[woods]], [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables: with a '''Yard''' between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]]. . . .
: “The [[Fence|<u>Fences</u>]] separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office '''yard''' on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . .
: “The <u>Stable '''Yard'''</u>, tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the '''yard'''. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer [[wall]]s <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the '''yard''', & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]. . . .
: “The <u>Stables</u>, & sheds, form the 3rd side of this three sided '''yard'''—The stables are seen from the front door of the house, over the [[hedge]] that screens the [[Yard]].”

* Martin, William Dickinson, May 14, 1809, describing Richmond, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Every private '''yard''' is decorated with the handsomest shade trees of which our Country boasts, each apparently contesting the palm of beauty.”
[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]

* <div id="Peale_1810"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., 1991: 3:56) <ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Peale_1810_cite|back up to history]]

: “In this view the stone steps at the End of the house is seen, which lead to the '''yard''' in front of the Garden, the Garden pails are on a stone [[wall]] on which grows Creepers now in full bloom they are a fine crimosen [''sic''] bell flowers in Clusters and an abundance of humming birds are daily sucking the honey. Green Gages, Damsons & quinces are along this [[wall]].” [Fig. 13]

* Gerry, Elbridge Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 173–74) <ref name="Gerry">Elbridge Gerry, Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On one side is an elegant garden, which has a small white house for the gardener, and a row of brick buildings back of it. All these are enclosed by a wall in an oval form, and leaving a large area before the house for the '''yard'''.”

* Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 182) <ref name="Gerry"></ref>

: “The building is of freestone and is approached by a '''yard''', which becomes oval at the door.”

* [[Lambert, John]], 1816, describing Charleston, SC (2:125) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The houses in Meeting-street and the back parts of the town are many of them handsomely built; some of brick, others of [[wood]]. They are in general lofty and extensive, and are separated from each other by small gardens or '''yards''', in which the kitchens and out-offices are built.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], 1818, describing a plantation in Cecil County, Md. (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 414) <ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

: “[On the [[plantation]], time was spent] preparing for company, made cake, and had all the '''yards''' swept clean.”

* Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the home of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 181) <ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “one side of the '''yard''' is enclosed by Altheas 30 feet high forming a Solid mass of foliage. . . . Our lot at the back of the house from a [[gate]] in the '''yard''' is filled with fig trees, Altheas, liburnums, and Myrtles, promising a great crop of figs & flowers.”

* Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Charlestown, NH (1824: 420) <ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “there is an extreme degree of neatness in the fields, gardens, and door '''yards'''.”

* [[Forman, Martha Ogle]], August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185) <ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large [[square]]s of Grass, with its neat white houses and little '''yards''' in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

* Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friend’s Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231) <ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia", ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825), 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In the rear of the wings are situated the '''yards''' or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s.”

* Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1828, describing the [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (quoted in Little 1972: 64) <ref>Nina Fletcher Little, ''American Decorative Wall Painting 1700–1850'' (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JWXIS5MF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are subterraneous passages from the corridors to the large '''yard''' which is surrounded by [[wall]]s, and serve for walking, exercise, and play. In the middle of each '''yard''' is a shelter with benches for bad weather. . . . In the whole establishment great cleanliness is preserved; but still the institution appeared to me less perfect than the Asylum of Boston, or of Glasgow, Scotland.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], March 11, 1829, in a letter to Mrs. Jane Kirkpatrick, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 295) <ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Your father, Mr. Wood, Mr. Ward, Mr. Lyon, with us, we set off to the President’s House, but on a nearer approach found an entrance impossible, the '''yard''' and [[avenue]] was compact with living matter.”

* Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, the seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 424) <ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden has been made at considerable expense, and may contain, including the plant '''yard''' and [[shrubbery]], about two acres.”

* Bell, Caroline, July 10, 1831, describing Plaqumine, Iberville, LA (The Historic New Orleans Collection, Butler Family Papers, folder 545, mss 102)

: “for my part my dear I have neither taste (altho’ I admire flower Gardens as much as any one) or time to devote to those things at least not as much as is necessary—I hope you will be more fortunate than I have been, I have made every exertion to have a great many Monthly Roses, without success, as I do not think that a dozen have taken—owing intirely, I believe, to the '''Yards''' being in White Clover—I have been eaqually unfortunate with the most beautiful, of all flowering shrubs—The flowering Pomgrancete [''sic'']— I’m sure I have set out the Pomigranite, the Rose and many other things half a dozen times—When they have died—Mr Bell thinks we will be obliged to cultivate the '''Yard''' to have things do well in it— I am of the same opinion—however we are in hopes that the Bermuda Grass sods which we have set about thro’ the '''yard'''—in time—will get the better of the Clover. Much, very much, is yet to do here, to render our place either pleasing to the eye or comfortable.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Sangamon County, IL (1975: 356–57) <ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The soil is a deep rich black, fine mould. . . . It is in short the richest garden soil. . . . It wants turf—the grass grows thin in the fields and prairies, and the sides of the road and the door '''yards''' and immediate vicinity of the dwellings are covered with weeds—mostly smartweed and mayweed.”

* Weeks, Mary Clara, June 10, 1834, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 94) <ref name="Turner">Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “Every (one) is advising me to move into the new house—the '''yard''' is levelled off. It looks very neat and pretty. The Dr. and Mr. Smith advise it on account of health as we are much crowded. I cannot bear to leave the old place while you are away.”

* O’Conner, Rachel, July 26, 1836, in a letter to Mary Clara Weeks, describing [[Evergreen Plantation]], estate of Rachel O’Conner, Bayou Sarah, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 483) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “If you could see the old House '''yard''', you would be pleased with the appearance it makes at this time the crape myrtle trees in full bloom, perfectly red, and many other flower trees and shrubs. I don’t think it ever look’d so pretty before.”

* Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1841, describing Kinderhook, NY (1841: 119) <ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New York; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to Its History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (New York: S. Tuttle, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IUJRUUA5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Many of the dwellings have spacious '''yards''' and gardens decorated with [[shrubbery]]; and [[grove]]s of trees interspersed here and there give this place a pleasing aspect.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 18) <ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846–7–8–9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].</ref>

: “On the north and south side of the building are private '''yards''', one hundred and seventeen feet wide, and extending two hundred feet from the return wings which form one of their sides. These '''yards''' are enclosed by a tight board [[fence]] seven and a half feet high, and are surrounded with a brick pavement, which affords a fine promenade at all seasons.”

* B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, NY” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 16)

: “The maple and the buttonwood are stationed along the sidewalks, to protect the dwellings from the summer’s heat—the door-'''yards''', too, have their respective ornaments, proportioned to the means, or rather taste, of the occupant, for it is not always the most wealthy that bestow the most attention to the establishment of their homes.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing [[Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane]], New York, NY (''American Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63–64)

: “''Airing Courts, or'' '''''Yards'''''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large bowers covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts. . . .
: “The Physicians who object to '''yards''', or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open [[verandah]]s guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348, 349) <ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''The American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero]. </ref>

: “The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.
: “At the extreme end of the [[deer-park]], it is joined by the drying-'''yard''' which completes the separation of the sexes in that direction. In this '''yard''', are the wash-house and the pump and pond from which water is raised into the tanks in the dome of the centre building. This pond is supplied from various springs on the premises, and there is ample space in the '''yard''' for drying clothes in fine weather.
: “East of the entrance is the private '''yard''' and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-beds, seed-houses, &c. . ..
: “There is a single private '''yard''' of good size for gentlemen who wish to be less public than in the grounds, or for those whose mental condition renders more seclusion desirable. This '''yard''' is planted with trees and had broad brick [[walk]]s passing round it. . . .
: “In connexion with each lodge, as now enlarged or about to be, are three small '''yards''' paved with brick, and accessible to the patients of the respective divisions with which they are connected.
: “The work-shop and lumber-'''yard''' are just within the main entrance on the west—adjoining which is a fine [[grove]], in which is the gentlemen’s ten-pin [[alley]]. . . .
: “As on the men’s side, there is a private '''yard''' for females, and the [[flower-garden]] in front of the lodge, and the paved '''yards''' connected with it are similarly arranged.
: “The semi-circular '''yard''', on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower [[border]]s, contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

* Anonymous, 1850, describing slave life in America (quoted in Breeden 1980: 121) <ref>James O. Breeden, ed., ''Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3EWGZ7DP/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The negroes should be required to keep their houses and '''yards''' clean, and in case of neglect, should receive such punishments as will be likely to insure more cleanly habits in future.”

* Weeks, Harriet Clara, March 27, c. 1850, describing her home in Louisiana (quoted in Turner 1993: 516) <ref name="Turner"></ref>

: “I have been very busy since my return home found everything about the '''yard''' & garden in pretty good order. Still I find plenty to do in the garden; spend most of my time in there. The trees you sent down are nearly all living. The cotton and china trees are putting out very prettily.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], May 1851, “Culture of Melons at the North” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 228)

: “New-York, for instance, now one of the largest cities in the world, has no public [[park]], whatever—no breathing place, no grounds for the exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens— for to call the little '''''yards''''' of land, covered with turf, and planted with trees, in various parts of the town, [[park]]s, is as much a misnomer as it would be to spread one’s handkerchief down on the floor of the rotunda of the capitol, and call it a carpet.”
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 2:136–37) <ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . . ,'' 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

: “COURT-'''YARDS''' are by the Latins call’d ''Area, quia ibi arescunt fruges'', says ''Varro'', an ancient Writer of Husbandry amongst the ''Romans''; and with us, ''Court-'''Yards'''; Court'', from the ''French'', and '''''Yard''''', a Term of our own, and is, in its proper Signification, an open, airy Drying-Place, ''quia exaruerit'', as the Dictionary expresseth it, and bounded with a [[Wall]], [[Hedge]], or Pale, or some Circumscription, as Courts of Law and Justice are; but when particularly apply’d to the Matter in Hand, signifies those little Divisions that lye contiguous to a Gentlemen’s House, and other his Offices of Convenience.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.) <ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD'''-LAND . .. ''Virgata terrae'', or ''virga terrae'', is a certain quantity of land, various according to the place.—At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in most other countries it contains 20, in some 24, in some 30, and in others 40, to 45 acres. See ACRE.”

* Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.) <ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “CHURCH'''YARD'''. ''n.s''. The ground adjoining to the church, in which the dead are buried; a [[cemetery]].”

* Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (n.p.) <ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “FARM-'''YARD''', the place adjoining to the farm-house, where cattle are foddered, and several other necessary works, belonging to the farm, are performed.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ya’rd. s. Inclosed ground adjoining to a house.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 17) <ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “BARN-'''YARD''', a small piece of inclosed ground contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are usually kept. It should have a high, close, and strong [[fence]], both to shelter the beasts from the force of driving storms, and to keep the most unruly ones from breaking out. . . .
: “The ground of a '''yard''' for this purpose should be of such a shape as to retain all the manure.”

* [[Bordley, J. B.]], 1801, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801: 74–75, 79–80) <ref>J. B. [John Beale] Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1801), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DA5ISGKS view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is an especial object in this design that the whole [farm] '''yard''' and its buildings, should be in view from the mansion; and that they be constructed at a proper distance, neither too near nor too far from the mansion. . . . The '''yard''' ought to be compact; and the doors of the buildings, and the [[gate]]s of the '''yard''', seen from the mansion. Plate
: I. * [footnote] It is not to save ground that compactness is here desired; but that attentions due to the live stock may be performed in the readiest and best way. A '''yard''' containing cattle always housed, is never to be littered with straw. . . .On paper, an octagon form of a farm '''yard''' is pleasing to the eye: but the above is preferred.
: “The ''homestead'' includes this '''yard'''; together with its stack'''yard''', the garden, [[nursery]], [[orchard]], and some acres of grass; enough for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run on, at liberty.
: “The ''Family-'''yard''''', is a barrier against farm'''yard''' intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward of spire grass. Its margin alone may be admitted to grow flowers. It is fenced by a [[sunk fence]]; on the top whereof may be, a low, light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees planted in the ditch, which is to slope gently ''up towards the mansion''. The white rose bush or tree is the hardiest, tallest, and handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distilled water.”

* Anonymous, May 18, 1827, “Door Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 5: 340)

: “Some people pretend that a man’s character may be learned from the shape of his nose, or the shape of his head. Honest people may be permitted to doubt whether this is so; but that a man’s character, in some particulars, may be learned from the appearance of his door '''yard''', no reasonable man can doubt. It is suggested in the new Williamstown paper, that one reason why so many door '''yards''' are neglected, is that it is a spot of doubtful jurisdiction, neither falling exactly within the scope of the word “''farm'',” which it is the province of the man to oversee, nor being properly in the house, where the woman reigns, but if there is any question of this sort it ought to be settled without delay, for a slovenly door '''yard''' is a pretty infallible indication of a slovenly farmer, a slovenly wife, and a slovenly house. Old leaves, sticks, chips, bones and old weeds, a broken, falling [[fence]], in short any thing but a neat door '''yard''' is a suspicious circumstance. The paper aforesaid suggests that ‘without entering on the delicate question of right, that this province be made over to the ladies; and that they have full power to call upon any idle man or boy about the house to aid and abet them in its due regulation.’
: “We think this a good proposition, for where there is neither an idle man or an idle boy, the door '''yard''' is as neat as wax work.—''Springfield pa''.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.) <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''YARD''', ''n''. [Sax. ''geard'', ''gerd'', ''gyrd'', a rod, that is, a shoot.] . ..
: “2. [Sax. ''gyrdan'', to inclose; Dan. ''gierde'', a [[hedge]], an inclosure; ''gierder'', to hedge in, Sw. ''garda''.] An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of or around a house or barn. The yard in front of a house is called a ''court'', and sometimes a ''court-'''yard'''''. In the United States, a small '''yard''' is fenced round a barn for confining cattle, and called ''barn-'''yard''''', or ''cow-'''yard'''.''”

* Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23) <ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (1837), 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and shrubs within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken [[fence]] to enclose it, and the nakedness of the '''yard''' only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass plat extends before it, and a picket [[fence]] encircles it.”

* Anonymous, July 12, 1837, “Front Yards” (''New England Farmer'' 16: 3)

: “It is high time front '''yards''' were attended to— the [[fence]]s repaired, the trees and [[shrubbery]] pruned, and the rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, removed. Nothing is more indubitably indicative of the husbandry of the farm, and the order of the house, than the condition of the front '''yard'''—and whenever and wherever you see one with its [[fence]]s broken down, [[gate]]s unhung, and its interior littered up with old shoes, dead cats, broken jugs, &c., you may call the man a sloven, and his wife a slut, without exposing yourself to be mulet in damages in an action for slander. . . .
: “Many front '''yards''' are neglected on account of the unsettled state of the law regarding the title to the ‘''locus in quo''.’ Some contend that the front '''yard''' is a part of the farm, and under the supervision and control of the husband; while others insist that it is a ‘part and parcel’ of the house, and, being such, is within the jurisdictional limits of the wife; and consequently, subject to her government and entitled to her protection. We confess our attainments in martial law are not sufficient to enable us to adjudicate this ‘''questio vexata'',’ but we are inclined to the opinion, that the husband owns the right of soil, subject, however, to the carement of the wife; and that for certain purposes, such as building and repairing [[fence]]s, planting and pruning [[shrubbery]], dressing flower-[[bed]]s, &c., both have a right of entry and possession. But whatever may be the law, there is no doubt if the time often consumed in mooting it, was spent in improving the '''yard''', it would present a very different appearance. There are, however, certain members of the family to whom the care and management of this matter more especially belongs—we mean the daughters—and a young gentleman of taste and judgement, ‘in search of a wife,’ would be about as likely to ‘fall in love’ with a young lady, who neglected her front '''yard''', as he would if he first saw her at church with a hole in her stocking.”

* Franklin Farmer [pseud.], April 1, 1838, “Front Yards—Shrubbery—Flowers” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 137–39)

: “Let every farmer, therefore, appropriate a liberal allowance of ground for a front-'''yard''' to his house.—It should be expansive enough to permit the execution of a regular design, in laying out the lines for [[walk]]s, [[grove]]s, rows of trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers. It should be handsomely graded, sloping downwards from the house, in front and on each hand. Set it in blue grass, and of course enclose it by a neat, substantial paling or fence, painted white. In the selection of the trees, [[shrubbery]] and flowers, consult the taste of your ‘better half;’ and don’t spare any expense she may require, in order to gratify her taste. . . .
: “Never permit the suggestions of a momentary cupidity, to induce you to graze your front-'''yard'''. The grass may look luxurious and tempting; and it may seem ‘a sin’ to lose it; but better to mow or shear your '''yard''' than to graze it.”

* Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (pp. 317–18) <ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, Ohio: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “PIGEONS. . . . A pretty object in a poultry '''yard''' is a wooden structure or [[dovecote]] raised from the ground on one or more high posts.”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:38, 60, 65) <ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The great number of cottages which have been erected in the suburbs of London in latter years, has afforded the finest opportunity for the application of improved taste and skill in Cottage Architecture, and the result is a vast amount of rural scenery, comprising, in great harmony, the most chaste and tasteful Architecture, and highly improved gardens and '''yards''' with their exquisite flowers, shrubs and vines, constituting [[view]]s which are admired by visitors from all countries. One of the chief sources of the beauty of those rural residences, is the positions of the houses on the lots, which is back sufficient to afford front '''yards''' for the cultivation of plants and vines which are arranged and trained in graceful combinations with the architectural features, thus hightening [''sic''] the general effect by promoting the influence of the various parts. This style is well adapted to a large portion of the surface and scenery of the United States, especially those portions in the higher latitudes. . . .
: “The want of a convenient front '''yard''' is a great detriment to a residence for which there is no compensation. Such a '''yard''' places a house back from the street, and by that means relieves the family of much of the dust and noise by which they would otherwise be annoyed. It adds greatly to the taste and beauty of a dwelling, and thus it renders it decidedly more valuable. It is likewise beneficial to the family by its tendency to foster good taste, especially if it is cultivated with flowers and ornamental shrubs, as a front '''yard''' should be. This affords also innocent and useful amusement and pastime and the effects of such employments are always of a genial character, as they cultivate habits of industry and attention, and improve the taste and other fine feelings of our nature. . . .
: “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488. It is divided into 16 lots, with the cottages placed 30 ft. from the street, and a carriage way through from the front to the rear. A wood-house, wash-room, and two water closets under one roof directly in the rear of each house; and stable and coach-house on the rear of the lot at the lane; and near it the poultry-house and '''yard'''.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], February 1849, “On the Drapery of Cottages and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 354)

: “A [[porch]] of [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[trellis]]-work was built over the front door-way, simple and pretty hoods upon brackets over the windows, the door-'''yard''' was all laid out afresh, the worn out apple trees were dug up, a nice bit of [[lawn]] made around the house, and pleasant groups of [[shrubbery]], (mixed with two or three graceful elms,) planted about it. But, most of all, what fixes the attention, is the lovely profusion of flowering vines that enrich the old house; and transform what was a soulless habitation, into a home that captivates all eyes.”

* [[Downing, A. J.]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 271) <ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York; Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There [in a villa] should be room for a kitchen '''yard''' or court, connected with a passage or a short path to the stable, and all quite turned away from the [[lawn]] or entrance side of the house.”
<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731.

File:0866.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of the Orphan House taken from the Great Garden-Gate & Ground Platt of the Same'', 1739.

File:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

File:0247.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town & Port of Edenton in Chowan County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], "Arrangement of the Chunky-Yard, Public Square, and Rotunda of the modern Creek towns," in "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 54, fig. 3.

File:1748.jpg|[[William Bartram]], Plan of a Cherokee Private “Habitation,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 56, fig. 5.

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'', vol. 3, part 1 (1853), p. 52, fig. 2.

File:2159.jpg|Unknown, ''Bay, Elihu Hall, Plan Showing 1 Town Lot on Meeting Street in Charleston'', August 1789.

File:0972.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, “General Map of the honorable Wm. frederic Baron of Steuben's Mannor” [detail], c. 1793.

File: 2158.jpg|Charles Parker, ''Plat of Lots on Broad Street, Belonging to Ann Savage, Joseph Manigault, John Giles, Loocock, and Martha Cannon, Explaining Layout of Houses'', January 1797.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0736.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], View of the Chapel/Smokehouse at Springland, with Steeple Detail and Plan, c. 1800

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

File:0874.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Farmyard, with details in section'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. I.

File:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.

File:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0720.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Joseph Barrell House remodeled as McLean Hospital,” 1817.

File:0597.jpg|William Strickland, ''Sketch of the Principal Story of the Naval Asylum'', 1826.

File:0591.jpg|George Kendall, after Isaac Newton Youngs, ''Sketches of the Various Situations at Union Village'', in ''Sketches of the various Societies of Belivers in the states of Ohio & Kentucky'', July 1835.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:1093.jpg|Samuel Lancaster Gerry, ''New England Homestead'', 1839.

File:1898.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of farmyard, garden offices and hot-houses at Cheshunt Cottage, in ''The Gardener's Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): p. 642, fig. 159.

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''The Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): p. 22, fig. 8.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

File:0600.jpg|Facsimile of Edward Penington's ''A description of two lotts in the city of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn,'' December 23, 1698, made in 1882.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon's Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A View of Mount Vernon'', c. 1790.

File:0870.jpg|[[J. B. Bordley]], ''Plan of a Cottage'', in J. B. Bordley, ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' (1801), pl. V, fig. 1.

File:0411.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, “Master plan for new buildings at Harvard College,” 1812.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners' Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830-40.

File:0776.jpg|Frances Palmer, “A plot of village property 724 feet by 488,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The Seat of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

File:0171.jpg|Anonymous, "Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill," 1717.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''A Prospect of the Colledges'' [sic] ''in Cambridge in New England'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

File:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk's plan of the Governor's House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

File:0958.jpg|John Rose, attr., ''The Old Plantation'', c. 1785-90.

File:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

File:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

File:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A View of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0966.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, Preliminary study for the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795.

File:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Foreyard, 1796, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 15.

File:0267.jpg|Charles Peale Polk, ''Mrs. Gerrard'', c. 1799.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0511.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Brabants: The Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', April 18, 1800.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800-50.

File:0223.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mount Deposit from the North'', 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 27.

File:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences'', 1817.

File:0561.jpg|Anonymous, ''St. Joseph's near Emmettsburg'', c. 1825.

File:1046.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Elms in Front of the Longfellow House, c. 1846.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys' School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

File:1156.jpg|Mary Steiner Denke (possibly), ''View of Salem from the West'', c. 1852.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

Statue

2018-04-10T12:31:45Z

C-cole: /* Citations */

==History==

[[File:1205.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Simeon Skillin, Jr., ''Pomona (Figure of Plenty)'', 1793.]]
British treatises available in North America frequently mentioned the statue as an ornament and set forth varied typologies. <span id="Langley_cite"></span>[[Batty Langley]] (1728), for example, categorized statues according to their arrangement and use in gardens ([[#Langley|view citation]]), <span id="Ware_cite"></span>whereas Isaac Ware (1756) used size to make distinctions ([[#Ware|view citation]]). Many statues in antebellum America were made of ephemeral materials, most notably wood, and, in some cases, painted plaster. In America, high-quality stone was not readily available for carving, and large metal casting was not popular until mid-century; as a result, before 1852 many statues were imported. <ref>Wayne Craven, ''Sculpture in America'' (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1984), 15. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TE9HRXTM view on Zotero.]</ref> Treatise author [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]] commented in 1712 that "statues are not for every man, but princes and great ministers," suggesting that decorum and propriety regarding class and status governed the use of statues and may have discouraged their use in the colonial period. <ref>A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'', trans. John James (1712; reprint, Farnborough, England: Gregg International, 1969), 75–76. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/ view on Zotero.]</ref> In addition, "statue" was not the only term used to refer to, <span id="Webster_cite"></span>in [[Noah Webster]]’s 1828 words, "a solid substance formed by carving into the likeness of a whole living being" ([[#Webster|view citation]]). Other terms, such as "figure," "sculpture," "bust," and "image," were used with some frequency. [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1771), for example, described "a sleeping figure reclined on a plain marble slab, surrounded with turf" for his garden. <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 26. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:0576.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], "In beauteous Order Terminate the Scene. . . .," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 46.]]
Accounts of statues in the eighteenth century, such as those by Ezra Stiles (1754) and Daniel Fisher (1755) written with respect to the garden of Bush Hill, near Philadelphia, suggest that they ranged widely in quality. <span id="Stiles_cite"></span>Stiles, on the one hand, claimed that the statues were exceptional—"in fine Italian marble curiously wrot" ([[#Stiles|view citation]]); <span id="Fisher_cite"></span>while Fisher, on the other, stated that the statues were merely ordinary ([[#Fisher|view citation]]). Visitors' garden descriptions indicate that statuary was often perceived to be worthy of mention, particularly when it was made of fine materials or when it illustrated significant themes. <span id="Fithian_cite"></span>Philip Vickers Fithian, when extolling in 1774 the virtues of [[Mount Airy]] in Virginia, noted "four large beautiful Marble Statues" ([[#Fithian|view citation]]). <span id="Drayton_cite"></span>[[Charles Drayton]], recounting in 1806 the "beauties of landscape" at [[The Woodlands]], near Philadelphia, noted a "fine statue" that was included in portraits of the house ([[#Drayton|view citation]]). <span id="Callender_cite"></span>[[Hannah Callender]], writing in 1762, called attention to the statues of mythological subjects at Judge [[William Peters]]’s estate, [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], near Philadelphia ([[#Callender|view citation]]). Classical themes for garden statuary frequently were recommended throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by treatise writers such as John James, [[Batty Langley]], William Marshall, and [[George Gregory|G. Gregory]].

[[File:1679.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.]]
<span id="Peale_cite"></span>[[Charles Willson Peale]] cut figures out of wooden board to resemble "statues in sculpture," for his garden at [[Belfield]] (c. 1825) ([[#Peale|view citation]]). Elias Hasket Derby commissioned a group of four wooden “figures” from woodcarvers John Skillin and Simeon Skillin, Jr. On September 25, 1793, the Skillin brothers presented Derby with a bill for “free standing figures of larger dimensions, ranging between 4 and 5 feet in height,” at a cost of approximately £7.10 each and .15 for priming. <ref>Craven, ''Sculpture in America'', 14. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TE9HRXTM view on Zotero.]</ref> These statues were pastoral in theme and included a shepherdess, a gardener, and the figure of Plenty [Fig. 1]. The Skillins’s garden statuary resembled, both in handling and form, little figures on furniture, such as secretaries and chests, which were also carved by the brothers. <ref>Ibid, 15. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TE9HRXTM view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:0218.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.]]
One of the most elaborate and widely known displays of statues in eighteenth century private gardens was that of Lord Timothy Dexter, who made a large fortune in the shoe business and in stock speculation. At his large house in Newburyport, Mass., Dexter improved his garden by erecting a row of [[column]]s along the outer [[border]] of his front [[lawn]]. On the top of these [[column]]s he placed "colossal images carved in wood," including figures of "Indian chiefs, military generals, philosophers, politicians and statesmen, now and then a goddess of Fame, or Liberty . . . [and] four lions" [<span id="Fig_11_cite"></span>[[#Fig_11|See Fig. 11]]]. Dexter’s master carver Joseph Wilson (1779–1857) made approximately forty slightly less-than-life-size figures, which were occasionally repainted if a change in identity was desired. <ref>Samuel L. Knapp, ''Life of Lord Timothy Dexter'' (Newburyport, Mass.: John G. Tilton, 1848), 19–20. According to Craven, "The only known surviving pieces [of Dexter's assemblage] are two arms of a figure, now in the Newburyport Historical Society, and the figure of William Pitt, restored and preserved in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. The figure is rather stiff and clearly belongs to the tradition of the figurehead carver" (see Craven, ''Sculpture in America'', 20). [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CHXTAR49/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:1681.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Exterior view of the Summer House, Royall House, Medford, Mass., n.d.]]
As a sketch (c. 1849) by [[Lewis Miller]] illustrates, statues were frequently incorporated into [[fountain]]s [Fig. 2]. For the public [[fountain]] erected at Centre Square in Philadelphia [<span id="Fig_12_cite"></span>[[#Fig_12|See Fig. 12]]], sculptor William Rush (1756–1833) provided a wooden female figure loosely based on classical statues. This work was reproduced many times in plaster casts and in prints. In an advertisement in the ''Philadelphia Gazette'', and ''Daily Advertiser'' on July 20, 1820, Rush defended his choice of wood on the basis of economy and practicality. <ref>D. Dodge Thompson, "The Public Work of William Rush: A Case Study in the Origins of American Sculpture," in ''William Rush, American Sculptor'', exh. cat. (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 1982), 29–30. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JF8XI3BT view on Zotero.]</ref> The [[fountain]] figure, entitled ''Allegory of the Schuylkill River (or Water Nymph and Bittern)'', was moved to Philadelphia’s [[Fairmount Park]] in about 1829. [[Frances Milton Trollope]] described the striking effect of white painted wood against the dark rock Rush had amassed for the base. In both sites, the statue functioned as a visual focus for the designed landscape.

[[File:1204.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, William Rush, ''Mercury'', 1828–29.]]
Statues were located throughout the garden or landscape. At the Moreau House in Morrisville, Pa., a classically inspired statue dominated the garden [Fig. 3]. At [[Belvedere]] in Baltimore, statues were interspersed with [[urn]]s on the [[lawn]] [Fig. 4]. At [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in Cambridge, Mass., they were placed on top of monuments or memorials [<span id="Fig_14_cite"></span>[[#Fig_14|See Fig. 14]]]. At the [[Elias Hasket Derby House]] in Salem, Mass., the extant sculpture ''Plenty'' was situated in front of a [[summerhouse]], while the ''Gardener'' and the ''Shepherdess'' were positioned on the roof of a [[summerhouse]] designed by Samuel McIntire [Fig. 5]. At [[Fairmount Park]], another William Rush statue, Mercury, was placed on top of a garden structure overlooking the river [Fig. 6]. [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia was known for its collection of garden statues, including, as Benjamin L. C. Wailes noted on December 29, 1829, "a dog of natural size carved out of marble [who] sits just within the entrance [of the [[grotto]],the guardian of the place." <ref>John Hebron Moore, "A View of Philadelphia in 1829: Selections from the Journal of B.L.C. Wailes of Natchez," ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 78 (July 1954): 353–60. Alexander Pope’s garden at Twickenham had a similar statue of a dog guarding the grotto. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z9IBV7A4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

[[File:0557.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852-54.]]
Statues were used by garden designers to bring a focal point to the layout and to divert the eye. At [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], statues were placed in the center of the [[labyrinth]], according to [[Hannah Callender]]. Statues often were placed on the [[lawn]] in front of the main façade of the house, as they were at [[The Woodlands]], creating visual and physical ties between the ornamental style of the house and the garden scenery, as advised by British writer [[Thomas Whately]] (1770). Likewise, at Iranistan, in Bridgeport, Conn., statues on pedestals flanked the flower [[bed]]s located near the grand entrance staircase [Fig. 7]. In other cases, statues were placed along the terrace, where they helped to articulate the divide between house and ornamented landscape. Charles Lyell in 1846 related this use of statues at country houses in Natchez, Miss. At Point Breeze, ancient statues overlooked the terrace and distant landscape [Fig. 8].

[[File:2006.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Joseph Drayton, "View near Bordenton, from the gardens of the Count de Survilliers," c. 1820.]]
In [[public garden]]s, statues played a significant role in thematic spectacles, such as fireworks and transparent paintings, which were intended to lure customers. Statues of political and military heroes, together with those of figures from Greek mythology, as well as copies of renowned statues, such as the Medici Apollo, also decorated commercial gardens.

Statues were especially important in sites of public commemoration, such as public [[square]]s. The fate of the gilded lead statue of George III in the [[Bowling Green]] in New York illustrates the political charge such monuments could carry. In 1776, after a public reading of the Declaration of Independence, the statue purportedly was pulled down by the assembled crowd and melted for bullets. <ref>See Craven, ''Sculpture in America'', 47–50, for a description of this statue, as well as one depicting William Pitt, both made by the British sculptor Joseph Wilton (1722–1803). These were two of four monumental statues in colonial America, the other being a copy of the William Pitt for Charleston, S.C., and Richard Hayward’s marble statue of Lord Botetourt in Williamsburg, Va. The political associations of statues could also be used in private contexts. In Charles Willson Peale’s portrait (1770) of John Beale Bordley, the sitter is shown pointing at a statue of English law around the base of which grows poisonous jimson weed, symbolizing Bordley’s claim that the British Parliament was bent on destroying itsown laws of liberty in the Americas. It is not known if Bordley had such a statue at his Wye River estate. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TE9HRXTM view on Zotero.]</ref> In 1800, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] recorded that the statue of Lord Botetourt was damaged by students at the [[College of William and Mary]], in [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]], as a statement of protest against British aristocracy; it was subsequently moved to a private garden. Statues could instruct as well as incite. When planning the public space in the center of Washington, D.C., [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] included statues representing those who helped the United States achieve liberty and independence and individuals worthy of imitation and adulation. In the nineteenth century, statues became crucial elements in the new public [[park]]s. [[A. J. Downing]], when describing in 1851 the benefits of a [[park]] in New York, pointedly stated that such a place would provide an appropriate setting for statues and other works of art that commemorated the history of the nation.

A choice of style or subject of the statue might have been justified in one garden because it harmonized with the architectural style of the home. On the other hand, it might have been praised for the pleasing contrast it offered from plants in the surrounding landscape. In American gardens, it is important to note that in spite of changing taste and fashion, statues as garden elements were always valued, and a place was found for them whether on the [[terrace]] or hidden in a [[grove]].

-- ''Anne L. Helmreich''.

==Texts==

===Usage===

* <div id="Stiles"></div>Stiles, Ezra, 1754, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (1892: 375) <ref>"Ezra Stiles in Philadelphia, 1754," ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'', 16 (1892): 375–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T7C8P48I view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Stiles_cite|back up to history]]

:"Took a walk in his very elegant garden, in which are 7 '''statues''' in fine Italian marble curiously wrot."

* <div id="Fisher"></div>Fisher, Daniel, May 25, 1755, describing Bush Hill, estate of Lt. Gov. James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, Pa. (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 17: 267), [[#Fisher_cite|back up to history]]

:"it [did not] contain anything that was curious, unless what is by some gazed at and spoke of, a few very ordinary '''statues'''. A shady [[walk]] of high trees leading from the further end of the Garden, looked well enough; but the Grass above knee high, thin and spoiling for the want of the Sythe."

* <div id="Callender"></div>[[Hannah Callender|Callender, Hannah]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Callender 2010: 183) <ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. by Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Callender_cite|back up to history]]

:"...a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]], from these Windows down a [[vista|Wisto]] terminated by an [[obelisk|Obelisk]], on the right you enter a [[labyrinth|Labarynth]] of [[hedge]] and low ceder with spruce, in the middle stands a '''Statue''' of Apollo, note: in the garden are the '''Statues''' of Dianna, Fame & Mercury, with [[urn]]s. we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto's]], in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]]."

* [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Va. (1944: 26) <ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"the ground just about the spring smoothed and turfed; close to the spring a sleeping figure reclined on a plain marble slab, surrounded with turf; on the slab this inscription:
<p></p>
::''Hujus nympha loci, sacri custodia fontis''
::''Dormio, dum blandae sentio murmur aquae''
::''Parce meum, quisquis tangis cava Marmora, summum''
::''Rumpere; si bibas, sive lavere, tace"''

* Robert, Patrick M., August 1771, describing New York, N.Y. (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; hereafter CWF)

: "Near the fort is an equestrian '''statue''' of King George the III. Upon an elegant pedestial in the middle of a fine [[green]] rail’s in with iron. At the crossing of two public streets, stands at full length a marble '''statue''' of Lord Chatham erected by the citizens in gratitude for his strenuous opposition to the stamp act in 1766."

* <div id="Fithian"></div>Fithian, Philip Vickers, April 7, 1774, describing [[Mount Airy]], property of John Tayloe II, Richmond County, Va. (1943: 126), <ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Fithian_cite|back up to history]]

:"He has also a large well formed, beautiful Garden, as fine in every Respect as any I have seen in ''Virginia''. In it stand four large beautiful Marble '''Statues'''."

[[File:0286.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Franz Xaver Habermann, "La destruction de la statue royale a Nouvelle Yorck," 1776.]]
* [[George Washington|Washington, George]], July 19, 1776, describing the toppling of the statue of George III in New York, N.Y. (1931–44: 5:246) <ref>George Washington, ''The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799'', ed. by John C. Fitzpatrick, 39 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AZIFG2R9/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "Tho the General doubts not the persons who pulled down and mutilated the '''statue''', in the Broadway, last night, were actuated by Zeal in the public cause; yet it has so much the appearance of riot, and want of order, in the Army, that he disapproves of the manner, and directs that in future these things shall be avoided by the Soldiery, and left to be executed by proper authority." [Fig. 9]

* [[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant|L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, describing Washington, D.C. (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 165) <ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, D.C.: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>

: "The center of each [[square|Square]] will admit of '''Statues''', [[column|Column]]s, [[obelisk|Obelisk]]s, or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose counsels or Military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation, to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those sages, or heroes whom their country has thought proper to celebrate."

* [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], April 24, 1800, describing a statue in [[Williamsburg, Va.]] (CWF)

: "A very striking proof of the folly of expecting that any '''statue''' will be always respected exists in [[Williamsburg, Va.|Williamsburg]], where Lord Botetourts '''statue''' which had remained untouched during the whole war, was mutilated, and decapitated, by the young collegians, in the first frenzy of the French revolutionary maxiums, because it was the '''statue''' of a Lord. The '''Statue''' now graces Mrs. Hunt’s Garden in a very mutilated state. The pedestal has these inscriptions which remained the libel of the country and age, beneath the decapitated '''statue''' in 1797 . . . I could furnish you with many other proofs of the perishability of '''statues''', and the immortality of pyramids, from Rome Westminster Abbey, the cedevant place Louis XV, the cidevant Church St. Genevieve, Egypt, Greece and Italy, and (if Mr. Reed will permit) from South Carolina. General Washington’s '''statue''' at Richmond has already lost a spur. We know that even his virtues are hated, by fools and rogues, and unfortunately that sort of animals crawl much about in public buildings."

* Anonymous, June 24, 1805, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, N.Y. (''New York Daily Advertiser'')

: "[Joseph Delacroix has] procured from Europe a choice selection of '''Statues''' and Busts. mostly from the finest models of Antiquity, and worthy the attention of Amateurs. . . .
<p></p>
:"The BUSTS and '''STATUES'''....
<p></p>
:{|
|"Gen. Washington,
|Gen. Hamilton,
|Addison
|-
|"Cicero,
|Demosthenes
|Antinous
|-
|"Ajax,
|Apollo B.
|Cleopatra
|-
|"Antinious,
|Plenty
|Niobe
|-
|"Hannibal,
|Hercules
|Pompey
|-
|"Apollo di Belvedere
|Time
|Pope
|-
|"[different sizes]
|Ceres
|-
|"Venus,
|Serenity
|-
|"Hebe,
|Modesty
|-
|"Apollo di Medicis—THALIA, Comic Muse."
|}

* Anonymous, December 7, 1805, describing a [[botanic garden]] in Charleston, S.C. (''Charleston Courier'')

:"[[botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]]. One Hundred Dollars Reward. On Thursday Evening last, after sun-set, some evil minded person, taking advantage of the Gardener’s absence, knocked the [[gate|Gate]], and on being admitted treated the servant insolently for not admitting him sooner; he went directly to the '''Statue''' of Mercury, which was standing in the middle of the Garden, and threw it down, by which means it is entirely destroyed. The man was well dressed."

[[File:0051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, William Strickland, "The Woodlands," 1809, in ''The Casket'' 5 (October 1830): 432.]]
* <div id="Drayton"></div>[[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, Pa. (Drayton Hall, Charles Drayton Diaries, 1784–1820, typescript), [[#Drayton_cite|back up to history]]

: "The ''Garden'' consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt or [[walk]], & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. the outer side of the [[walk]] is adorned here & there, by scattered forest trees, thick & thin. It is bounded, partly as is described—partly by the [[Schuylkill|Schylkill]] [''sic''] & a creek exhibiting a Mill & where it is scarcely noticed, by a common post and rail. The [[walk]] is said to be a mile long—perhaps it is something less. one is led in to the garden from the [[portico]], to the east and lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house. traversing this [[walk]], one sees many beauties of landscape—also a fine '''statue''', symbol of Winter, & age." [Fig. 10]

<div id="Fig_11"></div>[[File:0163.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, John Rubens Smith (engraver), "A View of the Mansion of the late LORD TIMOTHY DEXTER in High Street, Newbury port. 1810," 1810-20. [[#Fig_11_cite|Back up to history]]]]
* Smith, John Rubens, c. 1810, describing the home of Timothy Dexter, Newburyport, Mass.

: "A View of the Mansion of the late LORD TIMOTHY DEXTER in High Street, Newbury port. 1801. The '''Statues''' or rather Images have no pretentions to correctness of Character or even proportion but are faithfully delineated in order to convey a just representation of one of the Whims of this most truly excentric Character whose many singularities of Conduct and Speculations by which he acquired from the smallest beginnings a splendid Fortune are to be found in the Account of his Life . . ." [Fig. 11]

* [[John Lambert|Lambert, John]], 1816, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, N.Y. (2:61) <ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"The [[Vauxhall Garden|Vauxhall garden]] is situated in the Bowery Road about two miles from the City Hall. It is a neat [[plantation]], with gravel [[walk]]s adorned with [[shrub]]s, trees, busts, and '''statues'''. In the centre is a large equestrian '''statue''' of [[George Washington|General Washington]]."

<div id="Fig_12"></div>[[File:0551.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[John Lewis Krimmel]], ''Fourth of July in Centre Square'', 1812. William Rush sculpted the wooden female figure in the center of the painting. [[#Fig_12_cite|Back up to history]]]]
* Rush, William, July 20, 1820, describing his choice of wood for statues (quoted in Thompson 1982: 29–30) <ref>D. Dodge Thompson, "The Public Work of William Rush: A Case Study in the Origins of American Sculpture," in ''William Rush, American Sculptor'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JF8XI3BT/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"We pretend not to say that wooden '''statues''' are as elegant as marble. The contour may be as graceful, but there is a fineness in the lines of a marble figure which give it a great superiority. Wooden '''statues''' are, however, well adapted to the present state of this country, and seem perfectly appropriate in a Sylvan state. They cost only one-twelfth as much as marble '''statues''': and will last quite as long as the buildings they are intended to ornament." [Fig. 12]

* [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing the Brideswell (Workhouse), New York, N.Y. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 2000: 5:167–68) <ref name="Miller et al">Lillian B. Miller and et al, eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735-1791. Vol. 1; Charles Willson Peale, Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810. Vol 2, Pts. 1-2; The Belfield Farm Years, 1810-1820. Vol. 3; The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale. Vol. 5.'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"In the garden they saw the remains of the '''statue''' of Mr. Pitt . . . the head was gone and other parts much mutilated, This was done by the British, pehaps because the americans had broken to pieces the '''statue''' of King George, which was an equistrian '''statue''' of Lead, which they cast into bullets."

* <div id="Peale"></div>[[Charles Willson Peale| Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, Pa. (Miller, Hart, and Ward, eds., 2000: 5:381–82,) <ref name="Miller et al"></ref> [[#Peale_cite|back up to history]]

:"He wanted a place to keep the garden seeds & Tools, and in a part of the Garden where a [[seat]] in the shade was often wanted, he built a shed or small room, and to hide that Salt-like-box, and to try his art of Painting, he made the front like [a] [[gate|Gate]] Way with a step to form a [[seat]], and above, steps painted as representing a passage through an [[arch|Arch]] beyond which was represented a western sky, and to ornament the upper part over the [[arch]], he painted several figures on boards cut to the outlines of said figures as representing '''statues''' in sculpture. And [so that] his design of those figures might be fully understood [by] visitors, he painted two pedestals ornamented with a ball to crown each. and the die of the Pedestals, on one the expla[na]tion of the figures vizt. America with an even ballance—as justifying her acts. The Fassie, emblematical of the several state[s], are bound together, incircled by a Rattle-snake, as inocent if not meddled with, but terrible if molested. This emblem of Congress is placed ''upright'' as that body ought to be, with wisdom its base, designed by the owl; the [[beehive]] and children; industry an increase the effects of good government, supported on one side, Truth and Temperance, on the other Industry, with her distaf, resting on the cornucopia— consequence a wise Policy will do away with wars. hence Mars is fallen. The figure of Mars was made on the end of shed roof to hide it. The making of this is rather of the Political cast, yet he had long given over being active in Politicks, but choose by it to shew his dislike of War."

[[File:0536.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.]]
* [[Frances Milton Trollope|Trollope, Frances Milton]], 1830, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, Pa. (1832: 2:44) <ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd edn, 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"At another point, a portion of the water in its upward way to the reservoir, is permitted to spring forth in a perpetual ''[[jet|jet d’eau]]'', that returns in a silver shower upon the head of a marble naïad of snowy whiteness. The '''statue''' [Rush’s Allegory of the Schuylkill River] is not the work of Phidias, but its dark, rocky back-ground, the flowery catalpas which shadow it, and the bright shower through which it shews itself, altogether makes the scene one of singular beauty." [Fig. 13]

* Lyell, Sir Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, Miss. (1849: 2:153) <ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the [[English style|English]], others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with '''statues''' and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves."

<div id="Fig_14"></div>[[File:1971.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, James Smillie, "The Bowditch Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery" in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 105. [[#Fig_14_cite|Back up to history]]]]
* Walter, Cornelia W., 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, Mass. (pp. 105, 110-11) <ref>Cornelia Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated in a Series of Views from Drawings by James Smillie'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero]</ref>

:<p>"Erected upon a granite foundation, and facing the main entrance to [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], stands the imposing bronze '''statue''' of the venerable Dr. Bowditch....</p>
:<p>"The monument which has been recently placed in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], is the first bronze '''statue''' of any magnitude in our country....</p>
:"The '''statue''' has been erected by subscription, and placed in a conspicuous position amidst the woody foliage of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]." [Fig. 14]

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, Pa. (p. 43) <ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America;...'', 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, [1849]1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:"''[[Lemon Hill]]'', half a mile above the [[Fairmount Waterworks|Fairmount water-works]] of Philadelphia, was, 20 years ago, the most perfect specimen of the [[geometric style|geometric mode]] in America, and since its destruction by the extension of the city, a few years since, there is nothing comparable with it, in that style, among us. All the symmetry, uniformity, and high art of the old school, were displayed here in artificial [[plantation]]s, formal gardens with [[trellis]]es, [[grotto]]es, spring-houses, [[temple]]s, '''statues''', and [[vase]]s, with numerous [[pond]]s of water, [[jet|jets-d’eau]], and other water-works, [[parterre]]s and an extensive range of [[hothouse]]s."

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], August 1851, "The New-York Park" (''Horticulturist'' 6: 347)

:"The many beauties and utilities which would gradually grow out of a great [[park]] like this, in a great city like New-York, suggest themselves immediately and forcibly. Where would be found so fitting a position for noble works of art, the '''statues''', monuments, and buildings commemorative at once of the great men of the nation, of the history of the age and country, and the genius of our highest artists?"
{{break}}

===Citations===

[[File:1055.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Michael van der Gucht, "Four Designs for Cloisters," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9.]]
* [[A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville|[Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J.]]], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' ([1712] 1969): 75–76) <ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, ... Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; ...,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"'''STATUES''' and [[vase|Vases]] contribute very much to the Embellishment and Magnificence of a Garden, and extremely advance the natural Beauties of it. . . .
<p></p>
:"THESE Figures represent all the several Deities, and illustrious Persons of Antiquity, which should be placed properly in Gardens, setting the River-Gods, as the ''Naiades'', ''Rivers'', and ''Tritons'', in the Middle of [[fountain|Fountain]]s and [[basin|Bason]]s; and those of the [[wood|Wood]]s, as ''Sylvanes'', ''Faunes'', and ''Dryads'', in the [[grove|Grove]]s." [Fig. 15]

* <div id="Langley"></div>[[Batty Langley|Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' ([1728] 1982: 195–206), <ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (Originally published London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Langley_cite|back up to history]]

:"General DIRECTIONS, &c. . . .
<p></p>
:"XIX. That in those serpentine Meanders, be placed at proper Distances, large Openings, which you surprizingly come to; and in the first are entertain’d with a pretty Fruit-Garden, or Paradice-Stocks, with a curious [[fountain|Fountain]]; from which you are insensibly led through the pleasant Meanders of a shady delightful [[plantation|Plantation]]; first, into an oven [''sic''] Plain environ’d with lofty Pines, in whose Center is a pleasant [[fountain|Fountain]], adorn’d with ''Neptune'' and his Tritons, ''&c''. secondly, into a [[flower garden|Flower-Garden]], enrich’d with the most fragrant Flowers and beautiful '''Statues'''; and from thence through small Inclosures of Corn, open Plains, of small [[meadow|Meadow]]s, Hop-Gardens, [[orangery|Orangeries]], Melon-Grounds, Vineyards, [[orchard|Orchard]]s, [[nursery|Nurseries]], Physick Gardens, Warrens, Paddocks of Deer, Sheep, Cows, ''&c''. with the rural Enrichments of Hay-Stacks, Wood-Piles, ''&c''. . . .
<p></p>
:"XXXVII. There is nothing adds so much to the Beauty and Grandeur of Gardens, as fine '''Statues'''; and nothing more disagreeable, than when wrongly plac’d; as ''Neptune'' on a [[terrace|Terrace]]-[[walk|Walk]], [[mount|Mount]], ''&c''. or ''Pan'', the God of Sheep, in a large [[basin|Basin]], [[canal|Canal]], or [[fountain|Fountain]]. But to prevent such Absurdities, take the following Directions.
<p></p>
:"''For open [[lawn|Lawn]]s and large Centers'':
<p></p>
:"''Mars'', God of Battle, with the Goddess ''Fame''; ''Jupiter'', God of Thunder, with Venus, the Goddess of Love and Beauty; and the Graces ''Aglaio'', ''Thalia'', and ''Euphrosyne''; ''Apollo'', God of Wisdom, with the nine Muses, ''Cleio'', ''Melpomene'', ''Thalia'', ''Euterpe'', ''Terpsicoce'', ''Erato'', ''Calliope Urania'', and ''Polymina''; ''Minerva'' and ''Pallas'', Goddesses of Wisdom, with the seven Liberal Sciences; the three Destinies, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos; Demegorgon and Tellus, Gods of the Earth; Priapus, the Garden-God; Bellona, Goddess of War; Pytho, Goddess of Eloquence; Vesta, Goddess of Chastity; Voluptia, Goddess of Pleasure; Atlas, King of Mauritania, a famous Astronomer; Tysias, the Inventor of Rhetorick; and Hercules, God of Labour.
<p></p>
:"''For [[wood|Wood]]s and [[grove|Grove]]s'':
<p></p>
:"''Ceres'' and ''Flora''; ''Sylvanus'', God, and ''Ferona'', Goddess of the [[Wood]]s; ''Actaeon'', a Hunter, whom Diana turn’d into a Hart, and was devoured by his own Dogs; ''Eccho'', a Virgin rejected of her Lover, pined away in the [[wood|Wood]]s for Sorrow, where her Voice still remains, answering the Outcries of every Compaint, &c. ''Philomela'', a young Maid ravish’d by ''Tereus'', who afterwards imprison’d her, and cut out her Tongue; which cruel Action ''Progne'', Sister to ''Philomela'' and Wife to ''Tereus'', reveng’d, by killing her own son ''Itis'', whom she had by ''Tereus'', and mincing his Flesh, dress’d up a Dish thereof, which she gave her Husband ''Tereus'' to eat, (unknown to him,) instead of Meat. ''Philomela'' was afterwards transformed into a Nightingale, and ''Itis'' into a Pheasant; and lastly, ''Nuppaeae'' Fairies of the [[wood|Wood]]s.
<p></p>
:"''For [[canal|Canal]]s, [[basin|Bason]]s, and Fish-[[pond|Pond]]s'':
<p></p>
:"''Neptune'', ''Palemon'', ''Paniscus'', and ''Oceanus'', Gods, and ''Dione'', ''Melicerta'', ''Thetis'', and ''Marica'', Goddesses of the Sea; Salacia Goddess of Water; ''Naiades'' Fairies of the Water; and the Syrens ''Parthenope'', ''Lygia'', and ''Leusia''.
[[File:1053.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, [[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208.]]
<p></p>
:"Niches to be adorn’d with ''Dii minores''.
<p></p>
:“''For Fruit-Gardens and [[orchard|Orchard]]s'':
<p></p>
:"''Pomona'' Goddess of Fruit, and the three ''Hesperides'', ''Eagle'', ''Aretusa'', and ''Hisperetusa'', who were three Sisters that had an [[orchard|Orchard]] of golden Apples kept by a Dragon, which ''Hercules'' slew when he took them away.
<p></p>
:"''For [[flower garden|Flower-Gardens]]'':
<p></p>
:"''Flora'' and ''Cloris'', Goddesses of Flowers; and also ''Venus'', ''Diana'', ''Daphne'', and ''Runcina'' the Goddess of Weeding.
<p></p>
:"''For the Vineyard'':
<p></p>
:“''Bacchus'' God of Wine.
<p></p>
:"''For [[mount|Mount]]s, high [[terrace|Terrace]]-[[walk|Walk]]s'', &c.
<p></p>
:"''Aeolus'', God of the Winds and ''Orcedes'' Fairies of the Mountains.
<p></p>
:"''For Valleys'':
<p></p>
:"The Goddess ''Vallonta''.
<p></p>
:"''For private Cabinets in a [[wilderness|Wilderness]] or [[grove|Grove]]'':
<p></p>
:"''Harpocrates'' God, and ''Agernoa'' Goddess of Silence, ''Mercury'' God of Eloquence.
<p></p>
:"''For small Paddocks of Sheep, &c. in a [[wilderness|Wilderness]]'':
<p></p>
:"''Morpheus'' and ''Pan'' Gods of Sheep; ''Pates'' the Shepherds Goddess; ''Bubona'' the Goddess of Oxen; and ''Nillo'' a famous Glutton, who used himself to carry a Calf every Morning, until it became a large Bull, at which Time he slew it with his Fist, and eat him all in one Day.
<p></p>
:"''For small Enclosures of Wheat, Barley, &c. in a [[wilderness|Wilderness]]'':
<p></p>
:"''Robigus'' a God who preserved Corn from being blasted; ''Segesta'' a Goddess of the Corn, and ''Tutelina'' a Goddess, who had the Tuition of Corn in the Fields.
<p></p>
:"''For Ambuscadoes near Rivers, Paddocks, or [[meadow|Meadow]]s'':
<p></p>
:"For those near a [[canal|Canal]] or River, ''Ulysses'', who first invented the Shooting of Birds; and for those near a Paddock, wherein Sheep, ''&c''. are kept, ''Cacus'' slaying by ''Hercules''. For Cacus being a Shepherd, and a notorious Theif [''sic''] of great Strength and Policy, stole several Sheep and Oxen from ''Hercules'', who perceiving his Loss, lay in Ambush, and took Cacus in the Fact, for which, with his Club, he knock’d out his Brains.
<p></p>
:"''Lastly, for Places of Banquetting'':
<p></p>
:"The God ''Comus''.
<p></p>
:"''Where Bees are kept in Hives'':
<p></p>
:"The God ''Aristeus''." [Fig. 16]

* <div id="Ware"></div>Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''Complete Body of Architecture'' (pp. 34–35, 650), <ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero.] </ref> [[#Ware_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''STATUE'''.
<p></p>
:"The representation of some person distinguished by his actions, and placed free from any [[wall]], and as an ornament for buildings. '''''Statues''''' are, according to their bigness, divided into four kinds; those smaller than life, those as big as life, those somewhat bigger, and lastly, those twice, or ever so much more than twice as big. These are called ''colossi'', or ''colossal'' '''''statues'''''....
<p></p>
:"TERMINUS.
<p></p>
:"A kind of [[column]] adorned at the top with the head and sometimes part of the body of a man, woman, or pagan diety; and in the lower part diminishing into a kind of sheath or scabbard, as if the remainder of the figure were received into it. The [[common]] use of the ''termini'' is by way of '''statues''' to adorn gardens, but they are sometimes also placed as consoles or brackets to support entablatures. . . .
<p></p>
:"Thus may the [[grove]]s be constructed ornamentally to the other parts of the garden, elegant and pleasing in themselves, and fit to form recesses in which to place '''statues''', [[temple]]s, and other structures."

* [[Thomas Whatley|Whately, Thomas]], 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' ([1770] 1982: 138) <ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd edn (London: Garland, 1982),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"[[vase|vases]], '''statues''', and termini, are usual appendages to a considerable edifice; as such they may attend the mansion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure."

* Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1:123) <ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Gardens, were formerly loaded with '''''statues''''', and great improprieties were committed in placing them, as ''Neptune'' in a [[grove]], and ''Vulcan'' at a [[fountain]], large figures in small gardens, and small in large, &c. but, perhaps, works of statuary might still be introduced, and the meeting with ''Flora'', ''Ceres'', or ''Pomona'', &c. well executed, and in proper places, could hardly give offence."

[[File:1831a.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, [[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of classical interest, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 810, fig. 564.]]
* [[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (pp. 58, 64) <ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"In various parts of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]], leave recesses and other places surrounded with [[clump]]s of trees and [[shrub]]s, for the erection of garden edifices, such as [[temple]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, '''statues''', &c. . . .
<p></p>
:"In some spacious [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as [[temples]], [[bower]]s, banquetting houses, [[alcove]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, [[obelisk]]s, '''statues''', and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk]]s, &c. . . .
<p></p>
:"[[fountain|Fountain]]s and '''statues''', are generally introduced in the middle of spacious opens; '''statues''' are also often placed at the terminations of particular [[walk]]s, sometimes in [[wood]]s, [[thicket]]s, and recesses, upon [[mount]]s, [[terrace]]s, and other stations, according to what they are intended to represent."

* [[George Gregory|Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.) <ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"Gardens were formerly loaded with '''statues''', and great improprieties were committed in placing them, as Neptune in a [[grove]], and Vulcan at a [[fountain]], large figures in small gardens, and small in large, &c. but perhaps the works of the statuary might still be introduced if well executed, and in proper places. . . ."

[[File:1831b.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of geographical interest, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 810, fig. 565.]]
* [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (pp. 361, 810) <ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th edn (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero.]</ref>

:"1843. ''Sculptures''. Of '''statues''', therms, busts, pedestals, altars, [[urn]]s, and similar sculptures, nearly the same remark may be made. Used sparingly, they excite interest, often produce character, and are always individually beautiful, as in the pleasure-grounds of Blenheim, where a few are judiciously introduced; but profusely scattered about, they distract attention. . . .
<p></p>
:"6158. '''''Statues''''', ''whether of classical or geographical interest'' (''figs''. 564. and 565.), ''[[urn]]s, inscriptions, busts, monuments,'' &c. are materials which should be introduced with caution. None of the others require so much taste and judgement to manage them with propriety. The introduction of '''statues''', except among works of the most artificial kind, such as fine architecture, is seldom or never allowable; for when they obtrude themselves among natural beauties, they always disturb the train of ideas which ought to be excited in the mind, and generally counteract the character of the scenery. In the same way, busts, [[urn]]s, monuments, &c. in [[flower garden|flower-garden]]s, are most generally misplaced. The obvious intention of these appendages is to recall to mind the virtues, qualities, or actions of those for whom they were erected: now this requires time, seclusion, and undisturbed attention, which must either render all the flowers and other decoration of the ornamental garden of no effect; or, if they have effect, it can only be to interrupt the train of ideas excited by the other. As the garden, and the productions of nature, are what are intended to interest the spectator, it is plain that the others should not be introduced.” [Figs. 17 and 18]

* <div id="Webster"></div>[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.), <ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Webster_cite|back up to history]]

:"'''STAT’UE''', ''n''. [L. ''statua''; ''statuo'', to set; that which is set or fixed.]
<p></p>
:"An image; a solid substance formed by carving into the likeness of a whole living being; as a '''''statue''''' of Hercules or of a lion."

[[File:0370.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.]]
* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], August 1836, "Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery" (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 283–85)

:"There can scarcely be a more appropriate, agreeable and beautiful residence for a citizen who retires to the country for the summer, than a modern Italian villa, with its ornamented chimneys, its broad ''[[veranda]]h'', forming a fine shady [[promenade]], and its cool breezy apartments. Placed where a pleasant [[prospect]] could be enjoyed—a few '''statues''' distributed with taste over the well-kept [[lawn]]—a few Italian poplars, with their conical summits rising out of the gracefully-rounded [[clump]]s of foliage which should surround it—the whole would be quite perfect and delightful. . . .
<p></p>
:"It will not be inadvertent to the present hasty remarks to hint at the additional charm which may be produced in highly finished places, especially where the buildings are in the Grecian style, by introducing into the [[lawn]]s and gardens the classic ''[[vase]]'' in its different forms,* and, if thought desirable, '''statues''' also. They serve as it were as a connecting link between so highly artificial an object as a modern villa, and the verdant [[lawn]]s and gay gardens which surround it. Elevated upon pedestals, and placed at suitable points in the [[view]]—on the parapets of [[terrace]]s near the house—before a group of foliage upon the [[lawn]], and at proper intervals in the garden, they give a classic and elegant air to the whole, which adds greatly to its value. Beautiful in their forms, contrasting finely with the deep [[green]] of vegetation, and leading the eye gradually from their own sculptured beauty to the architectural symmetry of the building, of which they form as it were a continuous though detached part, amalgamating it with the grounds in which it is placed—their effect can only be appreciated beforehand by those who have studied the excellent effect produced by their introduction into the scene."

* [[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (pp. 21, 30, 62–63, 92, 531), <ref name="Downing_1849"></ref>

:"The beauties elicited by the [[ancient style]] of gardening were those of regularity, symmetry, and the display of labored art. These were attained in a merely mechanical manner. . . .The geometrical form and lines of the buildings were only extended and carried out in the garden. In the best classical models, the art of the sculptor conferred dignity and elegance on the garden, by the fine forms of marble [[vase]]s and '''statues'''." [Fig. 19]

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0696.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "Statue of Franklin," in [[Lewis Miller]], ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), p. 147.

Image:1055.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, "Four Designs for Cloisters," in [[A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9. "The first Figure is the plainest of all, and is a great square Grass-plot with a Statue in the Middle of it..."

Image:1053.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], "Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner," in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. p. 208. Statues are represented by A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I K, L, M.

Image:0286.jpg|Franz Xaver Habermann, "La destruction de la statue royale a Nouvelle Yorck," 1776.

Image:0163.jpg|John Rubens Smith (engraver), "A View of the Mansion of the late LORD TIMOTHY DEXTER in High Street, Newbury port. 1810," 1810–20. "The Statues or rather Images..."

Image:1831a.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of classical interest, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 810, fig. 564. "''Statues, whether of classical or geographical interest'' (''figs''. 564. and 565.)..."

Image:1831b.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Statue of geographical interest, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 810, fig. 565. "''Statues, whether of classical or geographical interest'' (''figs''. 564. and 565.)..."

Image:1145.jpg|Anonymous, "Ground Plan of Laurel Hill Cemetery," in ''Statues of Old Mortality and His Pony, and of Sir Walter Scott'' (1839). "8, Statues"

image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], "Plan of a Garden," in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March, 31, 1841): 308. "N N N N four Grecian pedestals for urns; statues, and heavy mineral specimens"

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1018.jpg|Thomas Birch, Point Breeze, c. 1820, in Edward J. Nygren, ''Views and Visions: American Landscape before 1830'' (1986), p. 146, pl. 120.

Image:2006.jpg|Joseph Drayton, "View near Bordenton, from the gardens of the Count de Survilliers," c. 1820.

Image:0537.jpg|Tucker Factory, Pair of vases with views of the Fairmount Waterworks, c. 1830.

Image:0536.jpg|George Lehman, ''Fairmount Waterworks. From the Forebay'', 1833.

Image:1971.jpg|James Smillie, "The Bowditch Monument, Mount Auburn Cemetery" in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1850 [1847]), opp. p. 105.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, "The Geometric style, from an old print," in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 62, fig. 14.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0673.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, ''The Battle Ground at Germantown, Cliveden or Chew's House'', n.d.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

Image:0453.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''John Beale Bordley'', 1770.

Image:0190.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Charles Carroll'', c. 1770.

Image:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, "View of the seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa.ts," in ''Massachusetts Magazine'', vol. 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp p. 648.

Image:1205.jpg|Simeon Skillin, Jr., ''Pomona (Figure of Plenty)'', 1793.

Image:0302.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Fountain Green, Pennsylv.a the Seat of Mr. S. Meeker," 1808, in [[William Russell Birch]] and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 57, pl. 8.

Image:0304.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Woodlands, the Seat of Mr. Wm. Hamilton, Pennsylva.," 1808, in [[William Russell Birch]] and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 69, pl. 14.

Image:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

Image:0051.jpg|William Strickland, "The Woodlands," 1809, in ''The Casket'' 5 (October 1830): 432.

Image:0473.jpg|Anonymous, "Columbia Garden, No. 307 Broadway," in ''New York Evening Post'' (July 2, 1812).

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre Square'', 1812.

Image:0901.jpg|George Bridport, Alternative designs for Washington Monument, Washington Square, Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:1204.jpg|William Rush, ''Mercury'', 1828–29.

Image:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

Image:1291.jpg|Thomas Charles Millington, ''View of the Campus of The College of William and Mary'', 1840.

image:0705.jpg|Augustus Köllner, "President's House," 1848.

Image:0576.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], "In beauteous Order Terminate the Scene. . . .," in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 46.

Image:0383.jpg|Anonymous, "Residence of Gov. Morehead, North Carolina," in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 387, fig. 46.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''View of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:1299.jpg|John Egan, ''The Frederick Graff Memorial'', c. 1850.

Image:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852–54.

Image:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]